LILIENCRON, DETLEV VON(1844-1909), German poet and novelist, was born at Kiel on the 3rd of June 1844. He entered the army and took part in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870-71, in both of which he was wounded. He retired with the rank of captain and spent some time in America, afterwards settling at Kellinghusen in Holstein, where he remained till 1887. After some time at Munich, he settled in Altona and then at Altrahistedt, near Hamburg. He died in July 1909. He first attracted attention by the volume of poems,Adjutantenritte und andere Gedichte(1883), which was followed by several unsuccessful dramas, a volume of short stories,Eine Sommerschlacht(1886), and a novelBreide Hummelsbüttel(1887). Other collections of short stories appeared under the titlesUnter flatternden Fahnen(1888).Der Mäcen(1889),Krieg und Frieden(1891); of lyricpoetry in 1889, 1890 (Der Heidegänger und andere Gedichte), 1893, and 1903 (Bunte Beute). Interesting, too, is the humorous epicPoggfred(1896; 2nd ed. 1904). Liliencron is one of the most eminent of recent German lyric poets; hisAdjutantenritte, with its fresh original note, broke with the well-worn literary conventions which had been handed down from the middle of the century. Liliencron’s work is, however, somewhat unequal, and he lacks the sustained power which makes the successful prose writer.
Liliencron’sSämtliche Werkehave been published in 14 vols. (1904-1905); hisGedichtehaving been previously collected in four volumes under the titlesKampf und Spiele, Kämpfe und Ziele, Nebel und SonneandBunte Beute(1897-1903). See O. J. Bierbaum,D. von Liliencron(1892); H. Greinz,Liliencron, eine literarhistorische Würdigung(1896); F. Oppenheimer,D. von Liliencron(1898).
Liliencron’sSämtliche Werkehave been published in 14 vols. (1904-1905); hisGedichtehaving been previously collected in four volumes under the titlesKampf und Spiele, Kämpfe und Ziele, Nebel und SonneandBunte Beute(1897-1903). See O. J. Bierbaum,D. von Liliencron(1892); H. Greinz,Liliencron, eine literarhistorische Würdigung(1896); F. Oppenheimer,D. von Liliencron(1898).
LILITH(Heb.lilâtu, “night”; hence “night-monster”), a female demon of Jewish folk-lore, equivalent to the English vampire. The personality and name are derived from a Babylonian-Assyrian demon Lilit or Lilu. Lilith was believed to have a special power for evil over children. The superstition was extended to a cult surviving among some Jews even as late as the 7th centuryA.D.In the Rabbinical literature Lilith becomes the first wife of Adam, but flies away from him and becomes a demon.
LILLE, a city of northern France, capital of the department of Nord, 154 m. N. by E. of Paris on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 196,624. Lille is situated in a low fertile plain on the right bank of the Deûle in a rich agricultural and industrial region of which it is the centre. It is a first-class fortress and headquarters of the I. army corps, and has an enceinte and a pentagonal citadel, one of Vauban’s finest works, situated to the west of the town, from which it is divided by the Deûle. The modern fortifications comprise over twenty detached forts and batteries, the perimeter of the defences being about 20 m. Before 1858 the town, fortified by Vauban about 1668, occupied an elliptical area of about 2500 yds. by 1300, with the church of Notre-Dame de la Treille in the centre, but the ramparts on the south side have been demolished and the ditches filled up, their place being now occupied by the great Boulevard de la Liberté, which extends in a straight line from the goods station of the railway to the citadel. At the S.E. end of this boulevard are grouped the majority of the numerous educational establishments of the city. The new enceinte encloses the old communes of Esquermes, Wazemmes and Moulins-Lille, the area of the town being thus more than doubled. In the new quarters fine boulevards and handsome squares, such as the Place de la République, have been laid out in pleasant contrast with the sombre aspect of the old town. The district of St André to the north, the only elegant part of the old town, is the residence of the aristocracy. Outside the enceinte populous suburbs surround the city on every side. The demolition of the fortifications on the north and east of the city, which is continued in those directions by the great suburbs of La Madeleine, St Maurice and Fives, must accelerate its expansion towards Roubaix and Tourcoing. At the demolition of the southern fortifications, the Paris gate, a triumphal arch erected in 1682 in honour of Louis XIV., after the conquest of Flanders, was preserved. On the east the Ghent and Roubaix gates, built in the Renaissance style, with bricks of different colours, date from 1617 and 1622, the time of the Spanish domination. On the same side the Noble-Tour is a relic of the medieval ramparts. The present enceinte is pierced by numerous gates, including water gates for the canal of the Deûle and for the Arbonnoise, which extends into a marsh in the south-west corner of the town. The citadel, which contains the barracks and arsenal, is surrounded by public gardens. The more interesting buildings are in the old town, where, in the Grande Place and Rue Faidherbe, its animation is concentrated. St Maurice, a church in the late Gothic style, dates in its oldest portions from the 15th century, and was restored in 1872; Ste Cathérine belongs to the 15th, 16th and 18th centuries, St André to the first years of the 18th century, and Ste Madeleine to the last half of the 17th century; all possess valuable pictures, but St Maurice alone, with nave and double aisles, and elegant modern spire, is architecturally notable. Notre-Dame de la Treille, begun in 1855, in the style of the 15th century, possesses an ancient statue of the Virgin which is the object of a well-known pilgrimage. Of the civil buildings the Bourse (17th century) built round a courtyard in which stands a bronze statue of Napoleon I., the Hôtel d’Aigremont, the Hôtel Gentil and other houses are in the Flemish style; the Hôtel de Ville, dating in the main from the middle of the 19th century, preserves a portion of a palace built by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in the 15th century. The prefecture, the Palais des Beaux-Arts, the law-courts, the school of arts and crafts, and the Lycée Faidherbe are imposing modern buildings. In the middle of the Grande Place stands a column, erected in 1848, commemorating the defence of the town in 1792 (see below), and there are also statues to Generals L. L. C. Faidherbe and F. O. de Négrier, and busts of Louis Pasteur and the popular poet and singer A. Desrousseaux. The Palais des Beaux-Arts contains a museum and picture galleries, among the richest in France, as well as a unique collection of original designs of the great masters bequeathed to Lille by J. B. Wicar, and including a celebrated wax model of a girl’s head usually attributed to some Italian artist of the 16th century. The city also possesses a commercial and colonial museum, an industrial museum, a fine collection of departmental and municipal archives, the museum of the Institute of Natural Sciences and a library containing many valuable manuscripts, housed at the Hôtel de Ville. The large military hospital, once a Jesuit college, is one of several similar institutions.
Lille is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. It is the centre of an académie (educational division) and has a university with faculties of laws, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy, together with a Catholic institute comprising faculties of theology, law, medicine and pharmacy, letters, science, a technical school, and a department of social and political science. Secondary education is given at the Lycée Faidherbe, and the Lycée Fénelon (for girls), a higher school of commerce, a national technical school and other establishments; to these must be added schools of music and fine arts, and the Industrial and Pasteur Institutes.
The industries, which are carried on in the new quarters of the town and in the suburbs, are of great variety and importance. In the first rank comes the spinning of flax and the weaving of cloth, table-linen, damask, ticking and flax velvet. The spinning of flax thread for sewing and lace-making is specially connected with Lille. The manufacture of woollen fabrics and cotton-spinning and the making of cotton-twist of fine quality are also carried on. There are important printing establishments, state factories for the manufacture of tobacco and the refining of saltpetre and very numerous breweries, while chemical, oil, white lead and sugar-works, distilleries, bleaching-grounds, dye-works, machinery and boiler works and cabinet-making occupy many thousands of workmen. Plant for sugar-works and distilleries, military stores, steam-engines, locomotives, and bridges of all kinds are produced by the company of Fives-Lille. Lille is one of the most important junctions of the Northern railway, and the Deûle canal affords communication with neighbouring ports and with Belgium. Trade is chiefly in the raw material and machinery for its industries, in the products thereof, and in the wheat and other agricultural products of the surrounding district.
Lille (l’Île) is said to date its origin from the time of Count Baldwin IV. of Flanders, who in 1030 surrounded with walls a little town which had arisen around the castle of Buc. In the first half of the 13th century, the town, which had developed rapidly, obtained communal privileges. Destroyed by Philip Augustus in 1213, it was rebuilt by Joanna of Constantinople, countess of Flanders, but besieged and retaken by Philip the Fair in 1297. After having taken part with the Flemings against the king of France, it was ceded to the latter in 1312. In 1369 Charles V., king of France, gave it to Louis de Male, whotransmitted his rights to his daughter Margaret, wife of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Under the Burgundian rule Lille enjoyed great prosperity; its merchants were at the head of the London Hansa. Philip the Good made it his residence, and within its walls held the first chapters of the order of the Golden Fleece. With the rest of Flanders it passed from the dukes of Burgundy to Austria and then to Spain. After the death of Philip IV. of Spain, Louis XIV. reclaimed the territory and besieged Lille in 1667. He forced it to capitulate, but preserved all its laws, customs, privileges and liberties. In 1708, after an heroic resistance, it surrendered to Prince Eugène and the duke of Marlborough. The treaty of Utrecht restored it to France. In 1792 the Austrians bombarded it for nine days and nights without intermission, but had ultimately to raise the siege.
See É. Vanhende,Lille et ses institutions communales de 620 à 1804(Lille, 1888).
See É. Vanhende,Lille et ses institutions communales de 620 à 1804(Lille, 1888).
LILLEBONNE,a town of France in the department of Seine-Inférieure, 3½ m. N. of the Seine and 24 m. E. of Havre by the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 5370. It lies in the valley of the Bolbec at the foot of wooded hills. The church of Notre-Dame, partly modern, preserves a Gothic portal of the 16th century and a graceful tower of the same period. The park contains a fine cylindrical donjon and other remains of a castle founded by William the Conqueror and rebuilt in the 13th century. The principal industries are cotton-spinning and the manufacture of calico and candles.
Lillebonne under the Romans,Juliobona, was the capital of the Caletes, or inhabitants of the Pays de Caux, in the time of Caesar, by whom it was destroyed. It was afterwards rebuilt by Augustus, and before it was again ruined by the barbarian invasions it had become an important centre whence Roman roads branched out in all directions. The remains of ancient baths and of a theatre capable of holding 3000 persons have been brought to light. Many Roman and Gallic relics, notably a bronze statue of a woman and two fine mosaics, have been found and transported to the museum at Rouen. In the middle ages the fortifications of the town were constructed out of materials supplied by the theatre. The town recovered some of its old importance under William the Conqueror.
LILLIBULLERO,orLilliburlero, the name of a song popular at the end of the 17th century, especially among the army and supporters of William III. in the war in Ireland during the revolution of 1688. The tune appears to have been much older, and was sung to an Irish nursery song at the beginning of the 17th century, and the attribution of Henry Purcell is based on the very slight ground that it was published inMusic’s Handmaid, 1689, as “A new Irish Tune” by Henry Purcell. It was also a marching tune familiar to soldiers. The doggerel verses have generally been assigned to Thomas Wharton, and deal with the administration of Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel, appointed by James as his lieutenant in Ireland in 1687. The refrain of the songlilliburllero bullen a lagave the title of the song. Macaulay says of the song “The verses and the tune caught the fancy of the nation. From one end of England to the other all classes were singing this idle rhyme.” Though Wharton claimed he had “sung a king out of three kingdoms” and Burnet says “perhaps never had so slight a thing so great an effect” the success of the song was “the effect, and not the cause of that excited state of public feeling which produced the revolution” (Macaulay,Hist. of Eng.chap. ix.).
LILLO, GEORGE(1693-1739), English dramatist, son of a Dutch jeweller, was born in London on the 4th of February 1693. He was brought up to his father’s trade and was for many years a partner in the business. His first piece,Silvia, or the Country Burial, was a ballad opera produced at Lincoln’s Inn Fields in November 1730. On the 22nd of June 1731 his domestic tragedy,The Merchant, renamed laterThe London Merchant, or the History of George Barnwell, was produced by Theophilus Cibber and his company at Drury Lane. The piece is written in prose, which is not free from passages which are really blank verse, and is founded on “An excellent ballad of George Barnwell, an apprentice of London who ... thrice robbed his master, and murdered his uncle in Ludlow.” In breaking through the tradition that the characters of every tragedy must necessarily be drawn from people of high rank and fortune he went back to the Elizabethan domestic drama of passion of which theYorkshire Tragedyis a type. The obtrusively moral purpose of this play places it in the same literary category as the novels of Richardson. Scoffing critics called it, with reason, a “Newgate tragedy,” but it proved extremely popular on the stage. It was regularly acted for many years at holiday seasons for the moral benefit of the apprentices. The last act contained a scene, generally omitted on the London stage, in which the gallows actually figured. In 1734 Lillo celebrated the marriage of the Princess Anne with William IV. of Orange inBritannia and Batavia, a masque. A second tragedy,The Christian Hero, was produced at Drury Lane on the 13th of January 1735. It is based on the story of Scanderbeg, the Albanian chieftain, a life of whom is printed with the play. Thomas Whincop (d. 1730) wrote a piece on the same subject, printed posthumously in 1747. Both Lillo and William Havard, who also wrote a dramatic version of the story, were accused of plagiarizing Whincop’sScanderbeg. Another murder-drama,Fatal Curiosity, in which an old couple murder an unknown guest, who proves to be their own son, was based on a tragedy at Bohelland Farm near Penryn in 1618. It was produced by Henry Fielding at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket in 1736, but with small success. In the next year Fielding tacked it on to his ownHistorical Register for 1736, and it was received more kindly. It was revised by George Colman the elder in 1782, by Henry Mackenzie in 1784, &c. Lillo also wrote an adaptation of the Shakespearean play ofPericles, Prince of Tyre, with the titleMarina(Covent Garden, August 1st, 1738); and a tragedy,Elmerick, or Justice Triumphant(produced posthumously, Drury Lane, February 23rd, 1740). The statement made in the prologue to this play that Lillo died in poverty seems unfounded. His death took place on the 3rd of September 1739. He left an unfinished version ofArden of Feversham, which was completed by Dr John Hoadly and produced in 1759. Lillo’s reputation proved short-lived. He has nevertheless a certain cosmopolitan importance, for the influence ofGeorge Barnwellcan be traced in the sentimental drama of both France and Germany.
SeeLillo’s Dramatic Works with Memoirs of the Author by Thomas Davies(reprint by Lowndes, 1810); Cibber’sLives of the Poets, v.; Genest,Some Account of the English Stage; Alois Brandl, “Zu Lillo’s Kaufmann in London,” inVierteljahrschrift für Literaturgeschichte(Weimar, 1890, vol. iii.); Leopold Hoffmann,George Lillo(Marburg, 1888); Paul von Hofmann-Wellenhof,Shakspere’s Pericles und George Lillo’s Marina(Vienna, 1885). There is a novel founded on Lillo’s play,Barnwell(1807), by T. S. Surr, and in “George de Barnwell” (Novels by Eminent Hands) Thackeray parodies Bulwer-Lytton’sEugene Aram.
SeeLillo’s Dramatic Works with Memoirs of the Author by Thomas Davies(reprint by Lowndes, 1810); Cibber’sLives of the Poets, v.; Genest,Some Account of the English Stage; Alois Brandl, “Zu Lillo’s Kaufmann in London,” inVierteljahrschrift für Literaturgeschichte(Weimar, 1890, vol. iii.); Leopold Hoffmann,George Lillo(Marburg, 1888); Paul von Hofmann-Wellenhof,Shakspere’s Pericles und George Lillo’s Marina(Vienna, 1885). There is a novel founded on Lillo’s play,Barnwell(1807), by T. S. Surr, and in “George de Barnwell” (Novels by Eminent Hands) Thackeray parodies Bulwer-Lytton’sEugene Aram.
LILLY, WILLIAM(1602-1681), English astrologer, was born in 1602 at Diseworth in Leicestershire, his family having been settled as yeomen in the place for “many ages.” He received a tolerably good classical education at the school of Ashby-de-la-Zouche, but he naïvely tells us what may perhaps have some significance in reference to his after career, that his master “never taught logic.” In his eighteenth year, his father having fallen into great poverty, he went to London and was employed in attendance on an old citizen and his wife. His master, at his death in 1627, left him an annuity of £20; and, Lilly having soon afterwards married the widow, she, dying in 1633, left him property to the value of about £1000. He now began to dabble in astrology, reading all the books on the subject he could fall in with, and occasionally trying his hand at unravelling mysteries by means of his art. The years 1642 and 1643 were devoted to a careful revision of all his previous reading, and in particular having lighted on Valentine Naibod’sCommentary on Alchabitius, he “seriously studied him and found him to be the profoundest author he ever met with.” About the same time he tells us that he “did carefully take notice of every grand action betwixt king and parliament, and did first then incline to believe that as all sublunary affairs depend on superior causes, so there was apossibility of discovering them by the configurations of the superior bodies.” And, having thereupon “made some essays,” he “found encouragement to proceed further, and ultimately framed to himself that method which he ever afterwards followed.” He then began to issue his prophetical almanacs and other works, which met with serious attention from some of the most prominent members of the Long Parliament. If we may believe himself, Lilly lived on friendly and almost intimate terms with Bulstrode Whitlock, Lenthall the speaker, Sir Philip Stapleton, Elias Ashmole and others. Even Selden seems to have given him some countenance, and probably the chief difference between him and the mass of the community at the time was that, while others believed in the general truth of astrology, he ventured to specify the future events to which its calculations pointed. Even from his own account of himself, however, it is evident that he did not trust implicitly to the indications given by the aspects of the heavens, but like more vulgar fortune-tellers kept his eyes and ears open for any information which might make his predictions safe. It appears that he had correspondents both at home and in foreign parts to keep him conversant with the probable current of affairs. Not a few of his exploits indicate rather the quality of a clever police detective than of a profound astrologer. After the Restoration he very quickly fell into disrepute. His sympathy with the parliament, which his predictions had generally shown, was not calculated to bring him into royal favour. He came under the lash of Butler, who, making allowance for some satiric exaggeration, has given in the character of Sidrophel a probably not very incorrect picture of the man; and, having by this time amassed a tolerable fortune, he bought a small estate at Hersham in Surrey, to which he retired, and where he diverted the exercise of his peculiar talents to the practice of medicine. He died in 1681.
Lilly’s life of himself, published after his death, is still worth looking into as a remarkable record of credulity. So lately as 1852 a prominent London publisher put forth a new edition of Lilly’sIntroduction to Astrology, “with numerous emendations adapted to the improved state of the science.”
Lilly’s life of himself, published after his death, is still worth looking into as a remarkable record of credulity. So lately as 1852 a prominent London publisher put forth a new edition of Lilly’sIntroduction to Astrology, “with numerous emendations adapted to the improved state of the science.”
LILOAN,a town of the province of Cebú, Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, 10 m. N.E. of Cebú, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903), after the annexation of Compostela, 15,626. There are seventeen villages orbarriosin the town, and eight of them had in 1903 a population exceeding 1000. The language is Visayan. Fishing is the principal industry. Liloan has one of the principal coal beds on the island; and rice, Indian corn, sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated. Coconuts and other tropical fruits are important products.
LILY,Lilium, the typical genus of the botanical order Liliaceae, embracing nearly eighty species, all confined to the northern hemisphere, and widely distributed throughout the north temperate zone. The earliest in cultivation were described in 1597 by Gerard (Herball, p. 146), who figures eight kinds of true lilies, which includeL. album(L. candidum) and a variety,bizantinum, two umbellate forms of the typeL. bulbiferum, namedL. aureumandL. cruentum latifolium, and three with pendulous flowers, apparently forms of the martagon lily. Parkinson, in hisParadisus(1629), described five varieties of martagon, six of umbellate kinds—two white ones, andL. pomponium,L. chalcedonicum,L. carniolicumandL. pyrenaicum—together with one American,L. canadense, which had been introduced in 1629. For the ancient and medieval history of the lily, see M. de Cannart d’Hamale’sMonographie historique et littéraire des lis(Malines, 1870). Since that period many new species have been added. The latest authorities for description and classification of the genus are J. G. Baker (“Revision of the Genera and Species of Tulipeae,”Journ. of Linn. Soc.xiv. p. 211, 1874), and J. H. Elwes (Monograph of the GenusLilium, 1880), who first tested all the species under cultivation, and has published every one beautifully figured by W. H. Fitch, and some hybrids. With respect to the production of hybrids, the genus is remarkable for its power of resisting the influence of foreign pollen, for the seedlings of any species, when crossed, generally resemble that which bears them. A good account of the new species and principal varieties discovered since 1880, with much information on the cultivation of lilies and the diseases to which they are subject, will be found in the report of the Conference on Lilies, in theJournal of the Royal Horticultural Society, 1901. The new species include a number discovered in central and western China by Dr Augustine Henry and other collectors; also several from Japan and California.
The structure of the flower represents the simple type of monocotyledons, consisting of two whorls of petals, of three free parts each, six free stamens, and a consolidated pistil of three carpels, ripening into a three-valved capsule containing many winged seeds. In form, the flower assumes three types: trumpet-shaped, with a more or less elongated tube,e.g.L. longiflorumandL. candidum; an open form with spreading perianth leaves,e.g.L. auratum; or assuming a pendulous habit, with the tips strongly reflexed,e.g.the martagon type. All have scaly bulbs, which in three west American species, asL. Humboldti, are remarkable for being somewhat intermediate between a bulb and a creeping rhizome.L. bulbiferumand its allies produce aerial reproductive bulbils in the axils of the leaves. The bulbs of several species are eaten, such as ofL. avenaceumin Kamchatka, ofL. Martagonby the Cossacks, and ofL. tigrinum, the “tiger lily,” in China and Japan. Medicinal uses were ascribed to the species, but none appear to have any marked properties in this respect.
The white lily,L. candidum, theλείριονof the Greeks, was one of the commonest garden flowers of antiquity, appearing in the poets from Homer downwards side by side with the rose and the violet. According to Hehn, roses and lilies entered Greece from the east by way of Phrygia, Thrace and Macedonia (Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere, 3rd ed., p. 217). The wordλείριονitself, from whichliliumis derived by assimilation of consonants, appears to be Eranian (Ibid.p. 527), and according to ancient etymologists (Lagarde,Ges. Abh.p. 227) the town of Susa was connected with the Persian name of the lilysûsan(Gr.σοῦσον, Heb.shôshan). Mythologically the white lily,Rosa Junonis, was fabled to have sprung from the milk of Hera. As the plant of purity it was contrasted with the rose of Aphrodite. The wordκρίνον, on the other hand, included red and purple lilies, Plin.H.N.xxi. 5 (11, 12), the red lily being best known in Syria and Judaea (Phaselis). This perhaps is the “red lily of Constantinople” of Gerard,L. chalcedonicum. The lily of the Old Testament (shôshan) may be conjectured to be a red lily from the simile in Cant. v. 13, unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather than the colour of the lips, in which case the white lily must be thought of. The “lilies of the field,” Matt. vi. 28, areκρίνα, and the comparison of their beauty with royal robes suggests their identification with the red Syrian lily of Pliny. Lilies, however, are not a conspicuous feature in the flora of Palestine, and the red anemone (Anemone coronaria), with which all the hill-sides of Galilee are dotted in the spring, is perhaps more likely to have suggested the figure. For the lily in the pharmacopoeia of the ancients see Adams’sPaul. Aegineta, iii. 196. It was used in unguents and against the bites of snakes, &c. In the middle ages the flower continued to be common and was taken as the symbol of heavenly purity. The three golden lilies of France are said to have been originally three lance-heads.Lily of the valley,Convallaria majalis, belongs to a different tribe (Asparagoideae) of the same order. It grows wild in woods in some parts of England, and in Europe, northern Asia and the Alleghany Mountains of North America. The leaves and flower-scapes spring from an underground creeping stem. The small pendulous bell-shaped flowers contain no honey but are visited by bees for the pollen.The word “lily” is loosely used in connexion with many plants which are not really liliums at all, but belong to genera which arequite distinct botanically. Thus, the Lent lily isNarcissus Pseudo-narcissus; the African lily isAgapanthus umbellatus; the Belladonna lily isAmaryllis Belladonna(q.v.); the Jacobaea lily isSprekelia formosissima; the Mariposa lily isCalochortus; the lily of the Incas isAlstroemeria pelegrina; St Bernard’s lily isAnthericum Liliago; St Bruno’s lily isAnthericum(orParadisia)Liliastrum; the water lily isNymphaea alba; the Arum lily isRichardia africana; and there are many others.Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis). About ¼ nat. size.The true lilies are so numerous and varied that no general cultural instructions will be alike suitable to all. Some species, asL. Martagon,candidum,chalcedonicum,Szovitzianum(orcolchicum),bulbiferum,croceum,Henryi,pomponium—the “Turk’s cap lily,” and others, will grow in almost any good garden soil, and succeed admirably in loam of a rather heavy character, and dislike too much peat. But a compost of peat, loam and leaf-soil suitsL. auratum,Brownii,concolor,elegans,giganteum,japonicum,longiflorum,monadelphum,pardalinum,speciosum, and the tiger lily (L. tigrinum) well, and a larger proportion of peat is indispensable for the beautiful AmericanL. superbumandcanadense. The margin of rhododendron beds, where there are sheltered recesses amongst the plants, suits many of the more delicate species well, partial shade and shelter of some kind being essential. The bulbs should be planted from 6 to 10 in. (according to size) below the surface, which should at once be mulched over with half-decayed leaves or coconut fibre to keep out frost.The nobleL. auratum, with its large white flowers, having a yellow band and numerous red or purple spots, is a magnificent plant when grown to perfection; and so are the varieties calledrubro-vittatumandcruentum, which have the central band crimson instead of yellow; and the broad-petalledplatyphyllum, and its almost pure white sub-variety calledvirginale. OfL. speciosum(well known to most gardeners aslancifolium), the true typical form and the red-spotted and white varieties are grand plants for late summer blooming in the conservatory. The tiger lily,L. tigrinum, and its varietiesFortunei,splendidumandflore-pleno, are amongst the best species for the flower garden;L. Thunbergianumand its many varieties being also good border flowers. The prettyL. LeichtliniiandL. colchicum(orSzovitsianum) with drooping yellow flowers and the scarlet drooping-floweredL. tenuifoliummake up, with those already mentioned, a series of the finest hardy flowers of the summer garden. The IndianL. giganteumis perfectly distinct in character, having broad heart-shaped leaves, and a noble stem 10 to 14 ft. high, bearing a dozen or more large deflexed, funnel-shaped, white, purple-stained flowers;L. cordifolium(China and Japan) is similar in character, but dwarfer in habit.For pot culture, the soil should consist of three parts turfy loam to one of leaf-mould and thoroughly rotted manure, adding enough pure grit to keep the compost porous. If leaf-mould is not at hand, turfy peat may be substituted for it. The plants should be potted in October. The pots should be plunged in a cold frame and protected from frost, and about May may be removed to a sheltered and moderately shady place out-doors to remain till they flower, when they may be removed to the greenhouse. This treatment suits the gorgeousL. auratum, the splendid varieties ofL. speciosum(lancifolium) and also the chaste-flowering trumpet-tubedL. longiflorumand its varieties. Thousands of bulbs of such lilies aslongiflorumandspeciosumare now retarded in refrigerators and taken out in batches for greenhouse work as required.Diseases.—Lilies are, under certain conditions favourable to the development of the disease, liable to the attacks of three parasitic fungi. The most destructive isBotrytis cinereawhich forms orange-brown or buff specks on the stems, pedicels, leaves and flower-buds, which increase in size and become covered with a delicate grey mould, completely destroying or disfiguring the parts attacked. The spores formed on the delicate grey mould are carried during the summer from one plant to another, thus spreading the disease, and also germinate in the soil where the fungus may remain passive during the winter producing a new crop of spores next spring, or sometimes attacking the scales of the bulbs forming small black hard bodies embedded in the flesh. For prevention, the surface soil covering bulbs should be removed every autumn and replaced by soil mixed with kainit; manure for mulching should also be mixed with kainit, which acts as a steriliser. If the fungus appears on the foliage spray with potassium sulphide solution (2 oz. in 3 gallons of water).Uromyces Erythronii, a rust, sometimes causes considerable injury to the foliage of species ofLiliumand other bulbous plants, forming large discoloured blotches on the leaves. The diseased stems should be removed and burned before the leaves fall; as the bulb is not attacked the plant will start growth next season free from disease.Rhizopus necansis sometimes the cause of extensive destruction of bulbs. The fungus attacks injured roots and afterwards passes into the bulb which becomes brown and finally rots. The fungus hibernates in the soil and enters through broken or injured roots, hence care should be taken when removing the bulbs that the roots are injured as little as possible. An excellent packing material for dormant buds is coarsely crushed wood-charcoal to which has been added a sprinkling of flowers of sulphur. This prevents infection from outside and also destroys any spores or fungus mycelium that may have been packed away along with the bulbs.When cultivated in greenhouses liliums are subject to attack from aphides (green fly) in the early stages of growth. These pests can be kept in check by syringing with nicotine, soft-soap and quassia solutions, or by “vaporising” two or three evenings in succession, afterwards syringing the plants with clear tepid water.
The white lily,L. candidum, theλείριονof the Greeks, was one of the commonest garden flowers of antiquity, appearing in the poets from Homer downwards side by side with the rose and the violet. According to Hehn, roses and lilies entered Greece from the east by way of Phrygia, Thrace and Macedonia (Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere, 3rd ed., p. 217). The wordλείριονitself, from whichliliumis derived by assimilation of consonants, appears to be Eranian (Ibid.p. 527), and according to ancient etymologists (Lagarde,Ges. Abh.p. 227) the town of Susa was connected with the Persian name of the lilysûsan(Gr.σοῦσον, Heb.shôshan). Mythologically the white lily,Rosa Junonis, was fabled to have sprung from the milk of Hera. As the plant of purity it was contrasted with the rose of Aphrodite. The wordκρίνον, on the other hand, included red and purple lilies, Plin.H.N.xxi. 5 (11, 12), the red lily being best known in Syria and Judaea (Phaselis). This perhaps is the “red lily of Constantinople” of Gerard,L. chalcedonicum. The lily of the Old Testament (shôshan) may be conjectured to be a red lily from the simile in Cant. v. 13, unless the allusion is to the fragrance rather than the colour of the lips, in which case the white lily must be thought of. The “lilies of the field,” Matt. vi. 28, areκρίνα, and the comparison of their beauty with royal robes suggests their identification with the red Syrian lily of Pliny. Lilies, however, are not a conspicuous feature in the flora of Palestine, and the red anemone (Anemone coronaria), with which all the hill-sides of Galilee are dotted in the spring, is perhaps more likely to have suggested the figure. For the lily in the pharmacopoeia of the ancients see Adams’sPaul. Aegineta, iii. 196. It was used in unguents and against the bites of snakes, &c. In the middle ages the flower continued to be common and was taken as the symbol of heavenly purity. The three golden lilies of France are said to have been originally three lance-heads.
Lily of the valley,Convallaria majalis, belongs to a different tribe (Asparagoideae) of the same order. It grows wild in woods in some parts of England, and in Europe, northern Asia and the Alleghany Mountains of North America. The leaves and flower-scapes spring from an underground creeping stem. The small pendulous bell-shaped flowers contain no honey but are visited by bees for the pollen.
The word “lily” is loosely used in connexion with many plants which are not really liliums at all, but belong to genera which arequite distinct botanically. Thus, the Lent lily isNarcissus Pseudo-narcissus; the African lily isAgapanthus umbellatus; the Belladonna lily isAmaryllis Belladonna(q.v.); the Jacobaea lily isSprekelia formosissima; the Mariposa lily isCalochortus; the lily of the Incas isAlstroemeria pelegrina; St Bernard’s lily isAnthericum Liliago; St Bruno’s lily isAnthericum(orParadisia)Liliastrum; the water lily isNymphaea alba; the Arum lily isRichardia africana; and there are many others.
The true lilies are so numerous and varied that no general cultural instructions will be alike suitable to all. Some species, asL. Martagon,candidum,chalcedonicum,Szovitzianum(orcolchicum),bulbiferum,croceum,Henryi,pomponium—the “Turk’s cap lily,” and others, will grow in almost any good garden soil, and succeed admirably in loam of a rather heavy character, and dislike too much peat. But a compost of peat, loam and leaf-soil suitsL. auratum,Brownii,concolor,elegans,giganteum,japonicum,longiflorum,monadelphum,pardalinum,speciosum, and the tiger lily (L. tigrinum) well, and a larger proportion of peat is indispensable for the beautiful AmericanL. superbumandcanadense. The margin of rhododendron beds, where there are sheltered recesses amongst the plants, suits many of the more delicate species well, partial shade and shelter of some kind being essential. The bulbs should be planted from 6 to 10 in. (according to size) below the surface, which should at once be mulched over with half-decayed leaves or coconut fibre to keep out frost.
The nobleL. auratum, with its large white flowers, having a yellow band and numerous red or purple spots, is a magnificent plant when grown to perfection; and so are the varieties calledrubro-vittatumandcruentum, which have the central band crimson instead of yellow; and the broad-petalledplatyphyllum, and its almost pure white sub-variety calledvirginale. OfL. speciosum(well known to most gardeners aslancifolium), the true typical form and the red-spotted and white varieties are grand plants for late summer blooming in the conservatory. The tiger lily,L. tigrinum, and its varietiesFortunei,splendidumandflore-pleno, are amongst the best species for the flower garden;L. Thunbergianumand its many varieties being also good border flowers. The prettyL. LeichtliniiandL. colchicum(orSzovitsianum) with drooping yellow flowers and the scarlet drooping-floweredL. tenuifoliummake up, with those already mentioned, a series of the finest hardy flowers of the summer garden. The IndianL. giganteumis perfectly distinct in character, having broad heart-shaped leaves, and a noble stem 10 to 14 ft. high, bearing a dozen or more large deflexed, funnel-shaped, white, purple-stained flowers;L. cordifolium(China and Japan) is similar in character, but dwarfer in habit.
For pot culture, the soil should consist of three parts turfy loam to one of leaf-mould and thoroughly rotted manure, adding enough pure grit to keep the compost porous. If leaf-mould is not at hand, turfy peat may be substituted for it. The plants should be potted in October. The pots should be plunged in a cold frame and protected from frost, and about May may be removed to a sheltered and moderately shady place out-doors to remain till they flower, when they may be removed to the greenhouse. This treatment suits the gorgeousL. auratum, the splendid varieties ofL. speciosum(lancifolium) and also the chaste-flowering trumpet-tubedL. longiflorumand its varieties. Thousands of bulbs of such lilies aslongiflorumandspeciosumare now retarded in refrigerators and taken out in batches for greenhouse work as required.
Diseases.—Lilies are, under certain conditions favourable to the development of the disease, liable to the attacks of three parasitic fungi. The most destructive isBotrytis cinereawhich forms orange-brown or buff specks on the stems, pedicels, leaves and flower-buds, which increase in size and become covered with a delicate grey mould, completely destroying or disfiguring the parts attacked. The spores formed on the delicate grey mould are carried during the summer from one plant to another, thus spreading the disease, and also germinate in the soil where the fungus may remain passive during the winter producing a new crop of spores next spring, or sometimes attacking the scales of the bulbs forming small black hard bodies embedded in the flesh. For prevention, the surface soil covering bulbs should be removed every autumn and replaced by soil mixed with kainit; manure for mulching should also be mixed with kainit, which acts as a steriliser. If the fungus appears on the foliage spray with potassium sulphide solution (2 oz. in 3 gallons of water).Uromyces Erythronii, a rust, sometimes causes considerable injury to the foliage of species ofLiliumand other bulbous plants, forming large discoloured blotches on the leaves. The diseased stems should be removed and burned before the leaves fall; as the bulb is not attacked the plant will start growth next season free from disease.Rhizopus necansis sometimes the cause of extensive destruction of bulbs. The fungus attacks injured roots and afterwards passes into the bulb which becomes brown and finally rots. The fungus hibernates in the soil and enters through broken or injured roots, hence care should be taken when removing the bulbs that the roots are injured as little as possible. An excellent packing material for dormant buds is coarsely crushed wood-charcoal to which has been added a sprinkling of flowers of sulphur. This prevents infection from outside and also destroys any spores or fungus mycelium that may have been packed away along with the bulbs.
When cultivated in greenhouses liliums are subject to attack from aphides (green fly) in the early stages of growth. These pests can be kept in check by syringing with nicotine, soft-soap and quassia solutions, or by “vaporising” two or three evenings in succession, afterwards syringing the plants with clear tepid water.
LILYE,orLily,WILLIAM(c.1468-1522), English scholar, was born at Odiham in Hampshire. He entered the university of Oxford in 1486, and after graduating in arts went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On his return he put in at Rhodes, which was still occupied by the knights of St John, under whose protection many Greeks had taken refuge after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks. He then went on to Italy, where he attended the lectures of Sulpitius Verulanus and Pomponius Laetus at Rome, and of Egnatius at Venice. After his return he settled in London (where he became intimate with Thomas More) as a private teacher of grammar, and is believed to have been the first who taught Greek in that city. In 1510 Colet, dean of St Paul’s, who was then founding the school which afterwards became famous, appointed Lilye the first high master. He died of the plague on the 25th of February 1522.
Lilye is famous not only as one of the pioneers of Greek learning, but as one of the joint-authors of a book, familiar to many generations of students during the 19th century, the old Eton Latin grammar. TheBrevissima Institutio, a sketch by Colet, corrected by Erasmus and worked upon by Lilye, contains two portions, the author of which is indisputably Lilye. These are the lines on the genders of nouns, beginningPropria quae maribus, and those on the conjugation of verbs beginningAs in praesenti. TheCarmen de Moribusbears Lilye’s name in the early editions; but Hearne asserts that it was written by Leland, who was one of his scholars, and that Lilye only adapted it. Besides theBrevissima Institutio, Lilye wrote a variety of Latin pieces both in prose and Verse. Some of the latter are printed along with the Latin verses of Sir Thomas More inProgymnasmata Thomae Mori et Gulielmi Lylii Sodalium(1518). Another volume of Latin verse (Antibossicon ad Gulielmum Hormannum, 1521) is directed against a rival schoolmaster and grammarian, Robert Whittington, who had “under the feigned name of Bossus, much provoked Lilye with scoffs and biting verses.”See the sketch of Lilye’s life by his son George, canon of St Paul’s, written for Paulus Jovius, who was collecting for his history the lives of the learned men of Great Britain; and the article by J. H. Lupton, formerly sur-master of St Paul’s School, in theDictionary of National Biography.
Lilye is famous not only as one of the pioneers of Greek learning, but as one of the joint-authors of a book, familiar to many generations of students during the 19th century, the old Eton Latin grammar. TheBrevissima Institutio, a sketch by Colet, corrected by Erasmus and worked upon by Lilye, contains two portions, the author of which is indisputably Lilye. These are the lines on the genders of nouns, beginningPropria quae maribus, and those on the conjugation of verbs beginningAs in praesenti. TheCarmen de Moribusbears Lilye’s name in the early editions; but Hearne asserts that it was written by Leland, who was one of his scholars, and that Lilye only adapted it. Besides theBrevissima Institutio, Lilye wrote a variety of Latin pieces both in prose and Verse. Some of the latter are printed along with the Latin verses of Sir Thomas More inProgymnasmata Thomae Mori et Gulielmi Lylii Sodalium(1518). Another volume of Latin verse (Antibossicon ad Gulielmum Hormannum, 1521) is directed against a rival schoolmaster and grammarian, Robert Whittington, who had “under the feigned name of Bossus, much provoked Lilye with scoffs and biting verses.”
See the sketch of Lilye’s life by his son George, canon of St Paul’s, written for Paulus Jovius, who was collecting for his history the lives of the learned men of Great Britain; and the article by J. H. Lupton, formerly sur-master of St Paul’s School, in theDictionary of National Biography.
LIMA,a city and the county-seat of Allen county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ottawa river, about 70 m. S.S.W. of Toledo, Pop. (1890) 15,981; (1900) 21,723, of whom 1457 wereforeign-born and 731 were negroes; (1910 census) 30,508. It is served by the Pennsylvania (Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne & Chicago division), the Erie, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Lake Erie & Western, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton railways, and by six interurban electric lines. Immediately N. of the city is a state asylum for the insane. Lima has a Carnegie library, a city hospital and a public park of 100 acres. Among the principal buildings are the county court house, a masonic temple, an Elks’ home and a soldiers’ and sailors’ memorial building. Lima College was conducted here from 1893 to 1908. Lima is situated in the centre of the great north-western oil-field (Trenton limestone of the Ordovician system) of Ohio, which was first developed in 1885; the product of the Lima district was 20,575,138 barrels in 1896, 15,877,730 barrels in 1902 and 6,748,676 barrels in 1908. The city is a headquarters of the Standard Oil Company, and the refining of petroleum is one of the principal industries. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,155,586, an increase of 31.1% over that in 1900. Lima contains railway shops of the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Lake Erie & Western railways. The city has a large wholesale and jobbing trade. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Lima was laid out in 1831, and was first organized as a city under a general state law in 1842.
LIMA,a coast department of central Peru, bounded N. by Ancachs, E. by Junin and Huancavelica, S. by Ica and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Pop. (1906 estimate) 250,000; area 13,314 sq. m. The eastern boundary follows the crests of the Western Cordillera, which gives to the department the western slopes of this chain with the drainage basins of the rivers Huaura, Chancay, Chillon, Rimac, Lurin, Mala and Cañete. Although the department forms part of the rainless region, these rivers, fed from the snows of the high Andes, provide water for the irrigation of large areas devoted to the raising of cotton, sugar, sorghum, Indian corn, alfalfa, potatoes, grapes and olives. The sugar estates of the Cañete are among the best in Peru and are served by a narrow gauge railway terminating at the small port of Cerro Azul. Indian corn is grown in Chancay and other northern valleys, and is chiefly used, together with alfalfa and barley, in fattening swine for lard. The mineral resources are not important, though gold washings in the Cañete valley have been worked since early colonial times. One of the most important industrial establishments in the republic is the smelting works at Casapalca, on the Oroya railway, in the Rimac valley, which receives ores from neighbouring mines of the district of Huarochiri. The department is crossed from S.W. to N.E. by the Oroya railway, and several short lines run from the city of Lima to neighbouring towns. Besides Lima (q.v.) the principal towns are Huacho, Cañete (port), Canta, Yauyos, Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco—the last three being summer resorts for the people of the capital, with variable populations of 15,000, 6000 and 5000 respectively. About 15 m. S. of Lima, near the mouth of the Lurin, are the celebrated ruins of Pachacamac, which are believed to antedate the occupation of this region by the Incas.
LIMA,the principal city and the capital of Peru and of the department and province of Lima, on the left bank of the river Rimac, 7½ m. above its mouth and the same distance E. by N. of its seaport Callao, in 12° 2′ 34″ S., 77° 7′ 36″ W. Pop. (1906 estimate) 140,000, of whom a large proportion is of negro descent, and a considerable number of foreign birth. The city is about 480 ft. above sea-level, and stands on an arid plain, which rises gently toward the S., and occupies an angle between the Cerros de San Jeronimo (2493 ft.) and San Cristobal (1411 ft.) on the N. and a short range of low hills, called the Cerros de San Bartolomé, on the E. The surrounding region is arid, like all this part of the Pacific coast, but through irrigation large areas have been brought under cultivation, especially along the watercourses. The Rimac has its source about 105 m. N.E. of Lima and is fed by the melting snows of the higher Andes. It is an insignificant stream in winter and a raging torrent in summer. Its tributaries are all of the same character, except the Rio Surco, which rises near Chorrillos and flowing northward joins the Rimac a few miles above the city. These, with the Rio Lurin, which enters the Pacific a short distance S. of Chorrillos, provide water for irrigating the districts near Lima. The climate varies somewhat from that of the arid coast in general, in having a winter of four months characterized by cloudy skies, dense fogs and sometimes a drizzling rain. The air in this season is raw and chilly. For the rest of the year the sky is clear and the air dry. The mean temperature for the year is 66° F., the winter minimum being 59° and the summer maximum 78°.
The older part of Lima was laid out and built with mathematical regularity, the streets crossing each other at right angles and enclosing square areas, calledmanzanas, of nearly uniform size. Later extensions, however, did not follow this plan strictly, and there is some variation from the straight line in the streets and also in the size and shape of the manzanas. The streets are roughly paved with cobble stones and lighted with gas or electricity. A broad boulevard of modern construction partly encircles the city, occupying the site of the old brick walls (18 to 20 ft. high, 10 to 12 ft. thick at the base and 9 ft. at the top) which were constructed in 1585 by a Fleming named Pedro Ramon, and were razed by Henry Meiggs during the administration of President Balta. The water-supply is derived from the Rimac and filtered, and the drainage, once carried on the surface, now passes into a system of subterranean sewers. The streets and suburbs of Lima are served by tramways, mostly worked by electric traction. The suburban lines include two to Callao, one to Magdalena, and one to Miraflores and Chorrillos. On the north side of the river is the suburb or district of San Lazaro, shut in by the encircling hills and occupied in great part by the poorer classes. The principal squares are the Plaza Mayor, Plaza Bolívar (formerly P. de la Inquisicion and P. de la Independencia), Plaza de la Exposicion, and Plaza del Acho, on the north side of the river, the site of the bull-ring. The public gardens, connected with the Exposition palace on the S. side of the city, and the Paseo Colon are popular among the Limeños as pleasure resorts. The long Paseo Colon, with its parallel drives and paths, is ornamented with trees, shrubbery and statues, notably the Columbus statue, a group in marble designed by the sculptor Salvatore Revelli. It is the favourite fashionable resort. A part of the old wagon road from Lima to Callao, which was paved and improved with walks and trees by viceroy O’Higgins, is also much frequented. The avenue (3 m. long) leading from the city to Magdalena was beautified by the planting of four rows of palms during the Pierola administration. Among other public resorts are the Botanical garden, the Grau and Bolognesi avenues (parts of the Boulevard), the Acho avenue on the right bank of the Rimac, and the celebrated avenue of the Descalzos, on the N. side of the river, bordered with statuary. The noteworthy monuments of the city are the bronze equestrian statue of Bolívar in the plaza of that name, the Columbus statue already mentioned, the Bolognesi statue in the small square of that name, and the San Martin statue in the Plaza de la Exposicion. The 22nd of May monument, a marble shaft crowned by a golden bronze figure of Victory, stands where the Callao road crosses the Boulevard. Most conspicuous among the public buildings of Lima is the cathedral, whose twin towers and broad façade look down upon the Plaza Mayor. Its foundation stone was laid in 1535 but the cathedral was not consecrated until 1625. The great earthquake of 1746 reduced it to a mass of ruins, but it was reconstructed by 1758, practically, as it now stands. It has double aisles and ten richly-decorated chapels, in one of which rest the remains of Francisco Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru. Also facing the same square are the archiepiscopal and government palaces; the latter formerly the palace of the viceroys. The interestingcasaof the Inquisition, whose tribunals rivalled those of Madrid in cruelty, faces upon Plaza Bolívar, as also the old University of San Marcos, which dates from 1551 and has faculties of theology, law, medicine, philosophy and literature, mathematics, and administrative and political economy. The churches and convents of Lima are richly endowed as a rule, and some of the churches represent a very large expenditure of money. Theconvent of San Francisco, near the Plaza Mayor, is the largest monastic establishment in Lima and contains some very fine carvings. Its church is the finest in the city after the cathedral. Other noteworthy churches are those of the convents of Santo Domingo, La Merced and San Augustine. There are a number of conventual establishments (for both sexes), which, with their chapels, and with the smaller churches, retreats, sanctuaries, &c., make up a total of 66 institutions devoted to religious observances. An attractive, and perhaps the most popular public building in Lima is the Exposition palace on the plaza and in the public gardens of the same name, on the south side of the city. It dates from 1872; its halls are used for important public assemblies, and its upper floor is occupied by the National Historical Institute, its museum and the gallery of historical paintings. Other noteworthy edifices and institutions are the National Library, the Lima Geographical Society, founded in 1888; the Mint, which dates from 1565 and is considered to be one of the best in South America; the great bull-ring of the Plaza del Acho, which dates from 1768 and can seat 8000 spectators; the Concepcion market; a modern penitentiary; and various charitable institutions. In addition to the old university on the Plaza Bolívar, which has been modernized and greatly improved, Lima has a school of engineers and mines (founded 1876), the old college of San Carlos, a normal school (founded 1905), a school of agriculture (situated outside the city limits and founded in 1902), two schools for girls under the direction of religious sisters, an episcopal seminary called the Seminario Conciliar de Santo Toribio, and a school of arts and trades in which elementary technical instruction is given. Under the old régime, primary instruction was almost wholly neglected, but the 20th century brought about important changes in this respect. In addition to the primary schools, the government maintains free night schools for workmen.
The residences of the city are for the most part of one storey and have mud walls supported by a wooden framework which enclose open spaces, calledpatios, around which the living rooms are ranged. The better class of dwellings have two floors and are sometimes built of brick. A projecting, lattice-enclosed window for the use of women is a prominent feature of the larger houses and gives a picturesque effect to the streets.
Manufacturing has had some considerable development since the closing years of the 19th century; the most important manufactories are established outside the city limits; they produce cotton and woollen textiles, the products of the sugar estates, chocolate, cocaine, cigars and cigarettes, beer, artificial liquors, cotton-seed oil, hats, macaroni, matches, paper, soap and candles. The commercial interests of the city are important, a large part of the interior being supplied from this point. With its port Callao the city is connected by two steam railways, one of which was built as early as 1848; one railway runs northward to Ancon, and another, the famous Oroya line, runs inland 130 m., crossing the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft. above sea-level, with branches to Cerro de Pasco and Huari. The export trade properly belongs to Callao, though often credited to Lima. The Limeños are an intelligent, hospitable, pleasure-loving people, and the many attractive features of their city make it a favourite place of residence for foreigners.
Lima was founded on the 18th of January 1535 by Francisco Pizarro, who named it Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings) in honour of the emperor Charles V. and Doña Juana his mother, or, according to some authorities, in commemoration of the Feast of the Epiphany (6th January) when its site is said to have been selected. The name soon after gave place to that of Lima, a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word Rimac. In 1541 Lima was made an episcopal see, which in 1545 was raised to a metropolitan see. Under Spanish rule, Lima was the principal city of South America, and for a time was the entrepôt for all the Pacific coast colonies south of Panama. It became very prosperous during this period, though often visited by destructive earthquakes, the most disastrous of which was that of the 28th of October 1746, when the cathedral and the greater part of the city were reduced to ruins, many lives were lost, and the port of Callao was destroyed. Lima was not materially affected by the military operations of the war of independence until 1821, when a small army of Argentines and Chileans under General San Martin invested the city, and took possession of it on the 12th of July upon the withdrawal of the Spanish forces. San Martin was proclaimed the protector of Peru as a free state on the 28th of July, but resigned that office on the 20th of September 1822 to avoid a fratricidal struggle with Bolívar. In March 1828 Lima was again visited by a destructive earthquake, and in 1854-1855 an epidemic of yellow fever carried off a great number of its inhabitants. In November 1864, when a hostile Spanish fleet was on the coast, a congress of South American plenipotentiaries was held here to concert measures of mutual defence. Lima has been the principal sufferer in the many revolutions and disorders which have convulsed Peru under the republic, and many of them originated in the city itself. During the earlier part of this period the capital twice fell into the hands of foreigners, once in 1836 when the Bolivian general Santa Cruz made himself the chief of a Bolivian-Peruvian confederation, and again in 1837 when an invading force of Chileans and Peruvian refugees landed at Ancon and defeated the Peruvian forces under President Orbegoso. The city prospered greatly under the two administrations of President Ramon Castilla, who gave Peru its first taste of peace and good government, and under those of Presidents Balta and Pardo, during which many important public improvements were made. The greatest calamity in the history of Lima was its occupation by a Chilean army under the command of General Baquedano after the bloody defeat of the Peruvians at Miraflores on the 15th of January 1881. Chorrillos and Miraflores with their handsome country residences had already been sacked and burned and their helpless residents murdered. Lima escaped this fate, thanks to the intervention of foreign powers, but during the two years and nine months of this occupation the Chileans systematically pillaged the public edifices, turned the old university of San Marcos into barracks, destroyed the public library, and carried away the valuable contents of the Exposition palace, the models and apparatus of the medical school and other educational institutions, and many of the monuments and art treasures with which the city had been enriched. A forced contribution of $1,000,000 a month was imposed upon the population in addition to the revenues of the custom house. When the Chilean garrison under Captain Lynch was withdrawn on the 22nd of October 1883, it took 3000 wagons to carry away the plunder which had not already been shipped. Of the government palace and other public buildings nothing remained but the bare walls. The buoyant character of the people, and the sympathy and assistance generously offered by many civilized nations, contributed to a remarkably speedy recovery from so great a misfortune. Under the direction of its keeper, Don Ricardo Palma, 8315 volumes of the public library were recovered, to which were added valuable contributions from other countries. The portraits of the Spanish viceroys were also recovered, except five, and are now in the portrait gallery of the Exposition palace. The poverty of the country after the war made recovery difficult, but years of peace have assisted it.