Chapter 21

See Ulysse Chevalier,Lettres inédites de Hugues de Lionne ... précédées d’une notice historique sur la famille de Lionne(Valence, 1879); J. Valfrey,La diplomatie française au XVIIIesiècle: Hugues de Lionne, ses ambassadeurs(2 vols., Paris, 1877-1881). For further works see Rochas,Biogr. du Dauphiné(Paris, 1860), tome ii. p. 87.

LIOTARD, JEAN ETIENNE(1702-1789), French painter, was born at Geneva. He began his studies under Professor Gardelle and Petitot, whose enamels and miniatures he copied with considerable skill. He went to Paris in 1725, studying under J. B. Massé and F. le Moyne, on whose recommendation he was taken to Naples by the Marquis Puysieux. In 1735 he was in Rome, painting the portraits of Pope Clement XII. and several cardinals. Three years later he accompanied Lord Duncannon to Constantinople, whence he went to Vienna in 1742 to paint the portraits of the imperial family. His eccentric adoption of oriental costume secured him the nickname of “the Turkish painter.” Still under distinguished patronage he returned to Paris in 1744, visited England, where he painted the princess of Wales in 1753, and went to Holland in 1756, where, in the following year, he married Marie Fargues. Another visit to England followed in 1772, and in the next two years his name figures among the Royal Academy exhibitors. He returned to his native town in 1776 and died at Geneva in 1789.

Liotard was an artist of great versatility, and though his fame depends largely on his graceful and delicate pastel drawings, of which “La Liseuse,” the “Chocolate Girl,” and “La Belle Lyonnaise” at the Dresden Gallery are delightful examples, he achieved distinction by his enamels, copper-plate engravings and glass painting. He also wrote aTreatise on the Art of Painting, and was an expert collector of paintings by the old masters. Many of the masterpieces he had acquired were sold by him at high prices on his second visit to England. The museums of Amsterdam, Berne, and Geneva are particularly rich in examples of his paintings and pastel drawings. A picture of a Turk seated is at the Victoria and Albert Museum, while the British Museum owns two of his drawings. The Louvre has, besides twenty-two drawings, a portrait of General Hérault and a portrait of the artist is to be found at the Sala dei pittori, in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence.

SeeLa Vie et les œuvres de Jean Etienne Liotard (1702-1789), étude biographique et iconographique, by E. Humbert, A. Revilliod, and J. W. R. Tilanus (Amsterdam, 1897).

LIP(a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger.Lippe, Dan.laebe; Lat.labiumis cognate), one of the two fleshy protuberant edges of the mouth in man and other animals, hence transferred to such objects as resemble a lip, the edge of a circular or other opening, as of a shell, or of a wound, or of any fissure in anatomy and zoology; in this last usage the Latinlabiumis more usually employed. It is also used of any projecting edge, as in coal-mining, &c. Many figurative uses are derived from the connexion with the mouth as the organ of speech. In architecture “lip moulding” is a term given to a moulding employed in the Perpendicular period, from its resemblance to an overhanging lip. It is often found in base mouldings, and is not confined to England, there being similar examples in France and Italy.

LIPA,a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 90 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 37,934. Lipa is on high ground at the intersection of old military roads, is noted for its cool and healthy climate, and is one of the largest and wealthiest inland towns of the archipelago. Many of its houses have two storeys above the ground-floor, and its church and convent together form a very large building. The surrounding country is very fertile, producing sugar-cane, Indian corn, cacao, tobacco and indigo. The cultivation of coffee was begun here on a large scale about the middle of the 19th century and was increased gradually until 1889-1890 when an insect pest destroyed the trees. The language of Lipa is Tagalog.

LIPAN,a tribe of North American Indians of Athabascan stock. Their former range was central Texas. Later they were driven into Mexico. They were pure nomads, lived entirely by hunting, and were perhaps the most daring of the Texas Indians. A few survivors were brought back from Mexico in 1905 and placed on a reservation in New Mexico.

LIPARI ISLANDS(anc.Αἰόλου νῆσοι, orAeoliae Insulae), a group of volcanic islands N. of the eastern portion of Sicily. They are seven in number—Lipari (Lipara, pop. in 1901, 15,290), Stromboli (Strongyle), Salina (Didyme, pop. in 1901, 4934), Filicuri (Phoenicusa), Alicuri (Ericusa), Vulcano (Hiera,TherasiaorThermissa), the mythical abode of Hephaestus, and Panaria (Euonymus). The island of Aiolie, the home of Aiolos, lord of the winds, which Ulysses twice visited in his wanderings, has generally been identified with one of this group. A colony of Cnidians and Rhodians was established on Lipara in 580-577B.C.1The inhabitants were allied with the Syracusans, and were attacked by the Athenian fleet in 427B.C., and by the Carthaginians in 397B.C., while Agathocles plundered a temple on Lipara in 301B.C.During the Punic wars the islands were a Carthaginian naval station of some importance until the Romans took possession of them in 252B.C.Sextus Pompeius also used them as a naval base. Under the Empire the islands served as a place of banishment for political prisoners. In the middle ages they frequently changed hands. The island of Lipari contains the chief town (population in 1901, 5855), which bears the same name and had municipal rights in Roman times. It is the seat of a bishop. It is fertile and contains sulphur springs and vapour baths, which were known and used in ancient times. Pumicestone is exported.

Stromboli, 22 m. N.E. of Lipari, is a constantly active volcano, ejecting gas and lava at brief intervals, and always visible at night. Salina, 3 m. N.W. of Lipari, consisting of the cones of two extinct volcanoes, that on the S.E., Monte Salvatore (3155 ft.), being the highest point in the islands, is the most fertile of the whole group and produces good Malmsey wine: it takes its name from the salt-works on the south coast. Vulcano, ½ m.S. of Lipari, contains a still smoking crater. Sulphur works were started in 1874, have since been abandoned.

See Archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria,Die Liparischen Inseln, 8 vols. (for private circulation) (Prague, 1893 seqq.).

1Greek coins of the Lipari Islands are preserved in the museum at Cefalù.

LIPETSK,a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 108 m. by rail W. of the city of Tambov, on the right bank of the river Voronezh. Pop. (1897) 16,353. The town is built of wood and the streets are unpaved. There are sugar, tallow, and leather works, and distilleries, and an active trade in horses, cattle, tallow, skins, honey and timber. The Lipetsk mineral springs (chalybeate) came into repute in the time of Peter the Great and attract a good many visitors.

LIPPE,a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. It rises near Lippspringe under the western declivity of the Teutoburger Wald, and, after being joined by the Alme, the Pader and the Ahse on the left, and by the Stever on the right, flows into the Rhine near Wesel, after a course of 154 m. It is navigable downwards from Lippstadt, for boats and barges, by the aid of twelve locks, drawing less than 4 ft. of water. The river is important for the transport facilities it affords to the rich agricultural districts of Westphalia.

LIPPE,a principality of Germany and constituent state of the German empire, bounded N.W., W. and S. by the Prussian province of Westphalia and N.E. and E. by the Prussian provinces of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau and the principality of Waldeck-Pyrmont. It also possesses three small enclaves—Kappel and Lipperode in Westphalia and Grevenhagen near Höxter. The area is 469 sq. m., and the population (1905) 145,610, showing a density of 125 to the sq. m. The greater part of the surface is hilly, and in the S. and W., where the Teutoburger Wald practically forms its physical boundary, mountainous. The chief rivers are the Weser, which crosses the north extremity of the principality, and its affluents, the Werre, Exter, Kalle and Emmer. The Lippe, which gives its name to the country, is a purely Westphalian river and does not touch the principality at any point. The forests of Lippe, among the finest in Germany, produce abundance of excellent timber. They occupy 28% of the whole area, and consist mostly of deciduous trees, beech preponderating. The valleys contain a considerable amount of good arable land, the tillage of which employs the greater part of the inhabitants. Small farms, the larger proportion of which are under 2½ acres, are numerous, and their yield shows a high degree of prosperity among the peasant farmers. The principal crops are potatoes, beetroot (for sugar), hay, rye, oats, wheat and barley. Cattle, sheep and swine are also reared, and the “Senner” breed of horses, in the stud farm at Lopshorn, is celebrated. The industries are small and consist mainly in the manufacture of starch, paper, sugar, tobacco, and in weaving and brewing. Lemgo is famous for its meerschaum pipes and Salzuflen for its brine-springs, producing annually about 1500 tons of salt, which is mostly exported. Each year, in spring, about 15,000 brickmakers leave the principality and journey to other countries, Hungary, Sweden and Russia, to return home in the late autumn.

The roads are well laid and kept in good repair. A railway intersects the country from Herford (on the Cologne-Hanover main line) to Altenbeken; and another from Bielefeld to Hameln traverses it from W. to E. More than 95% of the population in 1905 were Protestants. Education is provided for by two gymnasia and numerous other efficient schools. The principality contains seven small towns, the chief of which are Detmold, the seat of government, Lemgo, Horn and Blomberg. The present constitution was granted in 1836, but it was altered in 1867 and again in 1876. It provides for a representative chamber of twenty-one members, whose functions are mainly consultative. For electoral purposes the population is divided into three classes, rated according to taxation, each of which returns seven members. The courts of law are centred at Detmold, whence an appeal lies to the court of appeal at Celle in the Prussian province of Hanover. The estimated revenue in 1909 was £113,000 and the expenditure £116,000. The public debt in 1908 was £64,000. Lippe has one vote in the German Reichstag, and also one vote in the Bundesrat, or federal council. Its military forces form a battalion of the 6th Westphalian infantry.

History.—The present principality of Lippe was inhabited in early times by the Cherusii, whose leader Arminius (Hermann) annihilated inA.D.9 the legions of Varus in the Teutoburger Wald. It was afterwards occupied by the Saxons and was subdued by Charlemagne. The founder of the present reigning family, one of the most ancient in Germany, was Bernard I. (1113-1144), who received a grant of the territory from the emperor Lothair, and assumed the title of lord of Lippe (edler Herr von Lippe). He was descended from a certain Hoold who flourished about 950. Bernard’s successors inherited or obtained several counties, and one of them, Simon III. (d. 1410), introduced the principles of primogeniture. Under Simon V. (d. 1536), who was the first to style himself count, the Reformation was introduced into the country. His grandson, Simon VI. (1555-1613), is the ancestor of both lines of the princes of Lippe. In 1613 the country, as it then existed, was divided among his three sons, the lines founded by two of whom still exist, while the third (Brake) became extinct in 1709. Lippe proper was the patrimony of the eldest son, Simon VII. (1587-1627), upon whose descendant Frederick William Leopold (d. 1802) the title of prince of the empire was bestowed in 1789, a dignity already conferred, though not confirmed, in 1720. Philip, the youngest son of Simon VI., received but a scanty part of his father’s possessions, but in 1640 he inherited a large part of the countship of Schaumburg, including Bückeburg, and adopted the title of count of Schaumburg-Lippe. The ruler of this territory became a sovereign prince in 1807. Simon VII. had a younger son, Jobst Hermann (d. 1678), who founded the line of counts of Lippe-Biesterfeld, and a cadet branch of this family were the counts of Lippe-Weissenfeld. In 1762 these two counties—Biesterfeld and Weissenfeld—passed by arrangement into the possession of the senior and ruling branch of the family. Under the prudent government of the princess Pauline (from 1802 to 1820), widow of Frederick William Leopold, the little state enjoyed great prosperity. In 1807 it joined the Confederation of the Rhine and in 1813 the German Confederation. Pauline’s son, Paul Alexander Leopold, who reigned from 1820 to 1851, also ruled in a wise and liberal spirit, and in 1836 granted the charter of rights upon which the constitution is based. In 1842 Lippe entered the German Customs Union (Zollverein), and in 1866 threw in its lot with Prussia and joined the North German Confederation.

The line of rulers in Lippe dates back, as already mentioned, to Simon VI. But besides this, the senior line, the two collateral lines of counts, Lippe-Biesterfeld and Lippe-Weissenfeld and the princely line of Schaumburg-Lippe,The Lippe succession dispute.also trace their descent to the same ancestor, and these three lines stand in the above order as regards their rights to the Lippe succession, the counts being descended from Simon’s eldest son and the princes from his youngest son. These facts were not in dispute when in March 1895 the death of Prince Woldemar, who had reigned since 1875, raised a dispute as to the succession. Woldemar’s brother Alexander, the last of the senior line, was hopelessly insane and had been declared incapable of ruling. On the death of Woldemar, Prince Adolph of Schaumburg-Lippe, fourth son of Prince Adolph George of that country and brother-in-law of the German emperor, took over the regency by virtue of a decree issued by Prince Woldemar, but which had until the latter’s death been kept secret. The Lippe house of representatives consequently passed a special law confirming the regency in the person of Prince Adolph, but with the proviso that the regency should be at an end as soon as the disputes touching the succession were adjusted; and with a further proviso that, should this dispute not have been settled before the death of Prince Alexander, then, if a competent court of law had been secured before that event happened, the regency of Prince Adolph should continue until such court had given its decision. The dispute in question had arisen because the heads of the two collateral countly lines hadentered acaveat. In order to adjust matters the Lippe government moved theBundesrat, on the 5th of July 1895, to pass an imperial law declaring theReichsgericht(the supreme tribunal of the empire) a competent court to adjudicate upon the claims of the rival lines to the succession. In consequence the Bundesrat passed a resolution on the 1st of February 1896, requesting the chancellor of the empire to bring about a compromise for the appointment of a court of arbitration between the parties. Owing to the mediation of the chancellor a compact was on the 3rd of July 1896 concluded between the heads of the three collateral lines of the whole house of Lippe, binding “both on themselves and on the lines of which they were the heads.” By clause 2 of this compact, a court of arbitration was to be appointed, consisting of the king of Saxony and six members selected by him from among the members of the supreme court of law of the empire. This court was duly constituted, and on the 22nd of June 1897 delivered judgment to the effect that Count Ernest of Lippe-Biesterfeld, head of the line of Lippe-Biesterfeld, was entitled to succeed to the throne of Lippe on the death of Prince Alexander. In consequence of this judgment Prince Adolph resigned the regency and Count Ernest became regent in his stead. On the 26th of September 1904 Count Ernest died and his eldest son, Count Leopold, succeeded to the regency; but the question of the succession was again raised by the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who urged that the marriage of Count William Ernest, father of Count Ernest, with Modeste von Unruh, and that of the count regent Ernest himself with Countess Carline von Wartensleben were notebenbürtig(equal birth), and that the issue of these marriages were therefore excluded from the succession. Prince George of Schaumburg-Lippe and the count regent, Leopold, thereupon entered into a compact, again referring the matter to the Bundesrat, which requested the chancellor of the empire to agree to the appointment of a court of arbitration consisting of two civil senates of the supreme court, sitting at Leipzig, to decide finally the matter in dispute. It was further provided in the compact that Leopold should remain as regent, even after the death of Alexander, until the decision of the court had been given. Prince Alexander died on the 13th of January 1905; Count Leopold remained as regent, and on the 25th of October the court of arbitration issued its award, declaring the marriages in question (which were, as proved by document, contracted with the consent of the head of the house in each case)ebenbürtig, and that in pursuance of the award of the king of Saxony the family of Lippe-Biesterfeld, together with the collateral lines sprung from Count William Ernest (father of the regent, Count Ernest) were in the order of nearest agnates called to the succession. Leopold (b. 1871) thus became prince of Lippe.

See A. Falkmann,Beiträge zur Geschichte des Fürstenthums Lippe(Detmold, 1857-1892; 6 vols.); Schwanold,Das Fürstentum Lippe, das Land und seine Bewohner(Detmold, 1899); Piderit,Die lippischen Edelherrn im Mittelalter(Detmold, 1876); A. Falkmann and O. Preuss,Lippische Regenten(Detmold, 1860-1868); H. Triepel,Der Streit um die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe(Leipzig, 1903); and P. Laband,Die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe(Freiburg, 1891); andSchiedsspruch in dem Rechtstreit über die Thronfolge im Fürstentum Lippe vom 25 Okt. 1905(Leipzig, 1906).

LIPPI,the name of three celebrated Italian painters.

I.Fra Filippo Lippi(1406-1469), commonly called Lippo Lippi, one of the most renowned painters of the Italian quattrocento, was born in Florence—his father, Tommaso, being a butcher. His mother died in his childhood, and his father survived his wife only two years. His aunt, a poor woman named Monna Lapaccia, then took charge of the boy; and in 1420, when fourteen years of age, he was registered in the community of the Carmelite friars of the Carmine in Florence. Here he remained till 1432, and his early faculty for fine arts was probably developed by studying the works of Masaccio in the neighbouring chapel of the Brancacci. Between 1430 and 1432 he executed some works in the monastery, which were destroyed by a fire in 1771; they are specified by Vasari, and one of them was particularly marked by its resemblance to Masaccio’s style. Eventually Fra Filippo quitted his convent, but it appears that he was not relieved from some sort of religious vow; in a letter dated in 1439 he speaks of himself as the poorest friar of Florence, and says he is charged with the maintenance of six marriageable nieces. In 1452 he was appointed chaplain to the convent of S. Giovannino in Florence, and in 1457 rector (Rettore Commendatario) of S. Quirico at Legania, and his gains were considerable and uncommonly large from time to time; but his poverty seems to have been chronic, the money being spent, according to one account, in frequently recurring amours.

Vasari relates some curious and romantic adventures of Fra Filippo, which modern biographers are not inclined to believe. Except through Vasari, nothing is known of his visits to Ancona and Naples, and his intermediate capture by Barbary pirates and enslavement in Barbary, whence his skill in portrait-sketching availed to release him. This relates to a period, 1431-1437, when his career is not otherwise clearly accounted for. The doubts thrown upon his semi-marital relations with a Florentine lady appear, however, to be somewhat arbitrary; Vasari’s account is circumstantial, and in itself not greatly improbable. Towards June 1456 Fra Filippo was settled in Prato (near Florence) for the purpose of fulfilling a commission to paint frescoes in the choir of the cathedral. Before actually undertaking this work he set about painting, in 1458, a picture for the convent chapel of S. Margherita of Prato, and there saw Lucrezia Buti, the beautiful daughter of a Florentine, Francesco Buti; she was either a novice or a young lady placed under the nuns’ guardianship. Lippi asked that she might be permitted to sit to him for the figure of the Madonna (or it might rather appear of S. Margherita); he made passionate love to her, abducted her to his own house, and kept her there spite of the utmost efforts the nuns could make to reclaim her. The fruit of their loves was a boy, who became the painter, not less celebrated than his father, Filippino Lippi (noticed below). Such is substantially Vasari’s narrative, published less than a century after the alleged events; it is not refuted by saying, more than three centuries later, that perhaps Lippo had nothing to do with any such Lucrezia, and perhaps Lippino was his adopted son, or only an ordinary relative and scholar. The argument that two reputed portraits of Lucrezia in paintings by Lippo are not alike, one as a Madonna in a very fine picture in the Pitti gallery, and the other in the same character in a Nativity in the Louvre, comes to very little; and it is reduced to nothing when the disputant adds that the Louvre painting is probably not done by Lippi at all. Besides, it appears more likely that not the Madonna in the Louvre but a S. Margaret in a picture now in the Gallery of Prato is the original portrait (according to the tradition) of Lucrezia Buti.

The frescoes in the choir of Prato cathedral, being the stories of the Baptist and of St Stephen, represented on the two opposite wall spaces, are the most important and monumental works which Fra Filippo has left, more especially the figure of Salome dancing, and the last of the series, showing the ceremonial mourning over Stephen’s corpse. This contains a portrait of the painter, but which is the proper figure is a question that has raised some diversity of opinion. At the end wall of the choir are S. Giovanni Gualberto and S. Alberto, and on the ceiling the four evangelists.

The close of Lippi’s life was spent at Spoleto, where he had been commissioned to paint, for the apse of the cathedral, some scenes from the life of the Virgin. In the semidome of the apse is Christ crowning the Madonna, with angels, sibyls and prophets. This series, which is not wholly equal to the one at Prato, was completed by Fra Diamante after Lippi’s death. That Lippi died in Spoleto, on or about the 8th of October 1469, is an undoubted fact; the mode of his death is again a matter of dispute. It has been said that the pope granted Lippi a dispensation for marrying Lucrezia, but that, before the permission arrived, he had been poisoned by the indignant relatives either of Lucrezia herself, or of some lady who had replaced her in the inconstant painter’s affections. This is now generally regarded as a fable; and indeed a vendetta upon a man aged sixty-three for aseduction committed at the already mature age of fifty-two seems hardly plausible. Fra Filippo lies buried in Spoleto, with a monument erected to him by Lorenzo the Magnificent; he had always been zealously patronized by the Medici family, beginning with Cosimo, Pater Patriae. Francesco di Pesello (called Pesellino) and Sandro Botticelli were among his most distinguished pupils.

In 1441 Lippi painted an altarpiece for the nuns of S. Ambrogio which is now a prominent attraction in the Academy of Florence, and has been celebrated in Browning’s well-known poem. It represents the coronation of the Virgin among angels and saints, of whom many are Bernardine monks. One of these, placed to the right, is a half-length portrait of Lippo, pointed out by an inscription upon an angel’s scroll “Is perfecit opus.” The price paid for this work in 1447 was 1200 Florentine lire, which seems surprisingly large. For Germiniano Inghirami of Prato he painted the “Death of St Bernard,” a fine specimen still extant. His principal altarpiece in this city is a Nativity in the refectory of S. Domenico—the Infant on the ground adored by the Virgin and Joseph, between Sts George and Dominic, in a rocky landscape, with the shepherds playing and six angels in the sky. In the Uffizi is a fine Virgin adoring the infant Christ, who is held by two angels; in the National Gallery, London, a “Vision of St Bernard.” The picture of the “Virgin and Infant with an Angel,” in this same gallery, also ascribed to Lippi, is disputable.Few pictures are so thoroughly enjoyable as those of Lippo Lippi; they show the naiveté of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and somewhat whimsical observation. He approaches religious art from its human side, and is not pietistic though true to a phase of Catholic devotion. He was perhaps the greatest colourist and technical adept of his time, with good draughtsmanship—a naturalist, with less vulgar realism than some of his contemporaries, and with much genuine episodical animation, including semi-humorous incidents and low characters. He made little effort after perspective and none for foreshortenings, was fond of ornamenting pilasters and other architectural features. Vasari says that Lippi was wont to hide the extremities in drapery to evade difficulties. His career was one of continual development, without fundamental variation in style or in colouring. In his great works the proportions are larger than life.Along with Vasari’s interesting and amusing, and possibly not very unauthentic, account of Lippo Lippi, the work of Crowe and Cavalcaselle should be consulted. Also: E. C. Strutt,Fra Lippo Lippi(1901); C. M. Phillimore,Early Florentine Painters(1881); B. Supino,Fra Filippo Lippi(illustrated) (1902). It should be observed that Crowe and Cavalcaselle give 1412 as the date of the painter’s birth, and this would make a considerable difference in estimating details of his after career. We have preferred to follow the more usual account. The self-portrait dated 1441 looks like a man much older than twenty-nine.

Few pictures are so thoroughly enjoyable as those of Lippo Lippi; they show the naiveté of a strong, rich nature, redundant in lively and somewhat whimsical observation. He approaches religious art from its human side, and is not pietistic though true to a phase of Catholic devotion. He was perhaps the greatest colourist and technical adept of his time, with good draughtsmanship—a naturalist, with less vulgar realism than some of his contemporaries, and with much genuine episodical animation, including semi-humorous incidents and low characters. He made little effort after perspective and none for foreshortenings, was fond of ornamenting pilasters and other architectural features. Vasari says that Lippi was wont to hide the extremities in drapery to evade difficulties. His career was one of continual development, without fundamental variation in style or in colouring. In his great works the proportions are larger than life.

Along with Vasari’s interesting and amusing, and possibly not very unauthentic, account of Lippo Lippi, the work of Crowe and Cavalcaselle should be consulted. Also: E. C. Strutt,Fra Lippo Lippi(1901); C. M. Phillimore,Early Florentine Painters(1881); B. Supino,Fra Filippo Lippi(illustrated) (1902). It should be observed that Crowe and Cavalcaselle give 1412 as the date of the painter’s birth, and this would make a considerable difference in estimating details of his after career. We have preferred to follow the more usual account. The self-portrait dated 1441 looks like a man much older than twenty-nine.

II.Filippino, orLippino Lippi(1460-1505), was the natural son of Fra Lippo Lippi and Lucrezia Buti, born in Florence and educated at Prato. Losing his father before he had completed his tenth year, the boy took up his avocation as a painter, studying under Sandro Botticelli and probably under Fra Diamante. The style which he formed was to a great extent original, but it bears clear traces of the manner both of Lippo and of Botticelli—more ornamental than the first, more realistic and less poetical than the second. His powers developed early; for we find him an accomplished artist by 1480, when he painted an altarpiece, the “Vision of St Bernard,” now in the Badia of Florence; it is in tempera, with almost the same force as oil painting. Soon afterwards, probably from 1482 to 1490, he began to work upon the frescoes which completed the decoration of the Brancacci chapel in the Carmine, commenced by Masolino and Masaccio many years before. He finished Masaccio’s “Resurrection of the King’s Son,” and was the sole author of “Paul’s Interview with Peter in Prison,” the “Liberation of Peter,” the “Two Saints before the Proconsul” and the “Crucifixion of Peter.” These works are sufficient to prove that Lippino stood in the front rank of the artists of his time. The dignified and expressive figure of St Paul in the second-named subject has always been particularly admired, and appears to have furnished a suggestion to Raphael for his “Paul at Athens.” Portraits of Luigi Pulci, Antonio Pollajuolo, Lippino himself and various others are in this series. In 1485 he executed the great altarpiece of the “Virgin and Saints,” with several other figures, now in the Uffizi Gallery. Another of his leading works is the altarpiece for the Nerli chapel in S. Spirito—the “Virgin Enthroned,” with splendidly living portraits of Nerli and his wife, and a thronged distance. In 1489 Lippino was in Rome, painting in the church of the Minerva, having first passed through Spoleto to design the monument for his father in the cathedral of that city. Some of his principal frescoes in the Minerva are still extant, the subjects being in celebration of St Thomas Aquinas. In one picture the saint is miraculously commended by a crucifix; in another, triumphing over heretics. In 1496 Lippino painted the “Adoration of the Magi” now in the Uffizi, a very striking picture, with numerous figures. This was succeeded by his last important undertaking, the frescoes in the Strozzi chapel, in the church of S. Maria Novella in Florence—“Drusiana Restored to Life by St John, the Evangelist,” “St John in the Cauldron of Boiling Oil” and two subjects from the legend of St Philip. These are conspicuous and attractive works, yet somewhat grotesque and exaggerated—full of ornate architecture, showy colour and the distinctive peculiarities of the master. Filippino, who had married in 1497, died in 1505. The best reputed of his scholars was Raffaellino del Garbo.

Like his father, Filippino had a most marked original genius for painting, and he was hardly less a chief among the artists of his time than Fra Filippo had been in his; it may be said that in all the annals of the art a rival instance is not to be found of a father and son each of whom had such pre-eminent natural gifts and leadership. The father displayed more of sentiment and candid sweetness of motive; the son more of richness, variety and lively pictorial combination. He was admirable in all matters of decorative adjunct and presentment, such as draperies, landscape backgrounds and accessories; and he was the first Florentine to introduce a taste for antique details of costume, &c. He formed a large collection of objects of this kind, and left his designs of them to his son. In his later works there is a tendency to a mannered development of the extremities, and generally to facile overdoing. The National Gallery, London, possesses a good and characteristic though not exactly a first-rate specimen of Lippino, the “Virgin and Child between Sts Jerome and Dominic”; also an “Adoration of the Magi,” of which recent criticism contests the authenticity. Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supplemented by the writings of Berenson, should be consulted as to this painter. An album of his works is in Newnes’ Art-library.

III.Lorenzo Lippi(1606-1664), painter and poet, was born in Florence. He studied painting under Matteo Rosselli, the influence of whose style, and more especially of that of Santi di Tito, is to be traced in Lippi’s works, which are marked by taste, delicacy and a strong turn for portrait-like naturalism. His maxim was “to poetize as he spoke, and to paint as he saw.” After exercising his art for some time in Florence, and having married at the age of forty the daughter of a rich sculptor named Susini, Lippi went as court painter to Innsbruck, where he has left many excellent portraits. There he wrote his humorous poem namedMalmantile Racquistato, which was published under the anagrammatic pseudonym of “Perlone Zipoli.” Lippi was somewhat self-sufficient, and, when visiting Parma, would not look at the famous Correggios there, saying that they could teach him nothing. He died of pleurisy in 1664, in Florence.

The most esteemed works of Lippi as a painter are a “Crucifixion” in the Uffizi gallery at Florence, and a “Triumph of David” which he executed for the saloon of Angiolo Galli, introducing into it portraits of the seventeen children of the owner. TheMalmantile Racquistatois a burlesque romance, mostly compounded out of a variety of popular tales; its principal subject-matter is an expedition for the recovery of a fortress and territory whose queen had been expelled by a female usurper. It is full of graceful or racy Florentine idioms, and is counted by Italians as a “testo di lingua.” Lippi is more generally or more advantageously remembered by this poem than by anything which he has left in the art of painting. It was not published until 1688, several years after his death. Lanzi as to Lorenzo Lippi’s pictorial work, and Tiraboschi and other literary historians as to his writings, are among the best authorities.

(W. M. R.)

LIPPSPRINGE,a town and watering-place in the Prussian province of Westphalia, lying under the western slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 5 m. N. of Paderborn. Pop. (1905) 3100. The springs, the Arminius Quelle and the Liborius Quelle, for which it is famous, are saline waters of a temperature of 70° F., and are utilized both for bathing and drinking in cases of pulmonary consumption and chronic diseases of the respiratory organs. The annual number of visitors amounts to about 6000. Lippspringe is mentioned in chronicles as early as the 9th century,and here in the 13th century the order of the Templars established a stronghold. It received civic rights about 1400.

See Dammann,Der Kurort Lippspringe(Paderborn, 1900); Königer,Lippspringe(Berlin, 1893); and Frey,Lippspringe, Kurort für Lungenkranke(Paderborn, 1899).

LIPPSTADT,a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river Lippe, 20 m. by rail W. by S. of Paderborn, on the main line to Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905) 15,436. The Marien Kirche is a large edifice in the Transitional style, dating from the 13th century. It has several schools, among them being one which was originally founded as a nunnery in 1185. The manufactures include cigar-making, distilling, carriage-building and metal-working.

Lippstadt was founded in 1168 by the lords of Lippe, the rights over one half of the town passing subsequently by purchase to the counts of the Mark, which in 1614 was incorporated with Brandenburg. In 1850 the prince of Lippe-Detmold sold his share to Prussia when this joint lordship ceased. In 1620 Lippstadt was occupied by the Spaniards and in 1757 by the French.

See Chalybäus,Lippstadt, ein Beitrag zur deutschen Städtegeschichte(Lippstadt, 1876).

LIPSIUS, JUSTUS(1547-1606), the Latinized name of Joest (Juste or Josse) Lips, Belgian scholar, born on the 18th of October (15th of November, according to Amiel) 1547 at Overyssche, a small village in Brabant, near Brussels. Sent early to the Jesuit college in Cologne, he was removed at the age of sixteen to the university of Louvain by his parents, who feared that he might be induced to become a member of the Society of Jesus. The publication of hisVariarum Lectionum Libri Tres(1567), dedicated to Cardinal Granvella, procured him an appointment as Latin secretary and a visit to Rome in the retinue of the cardinal. Here Lipsius remained two years, devoting his spare time to the study of the Latin classics, collecting inscriptions and examining MSS. in the Vatican. A second volume of miscellaneous criticism (Antiquarum Lectionum Libri Quinque, 1575), published after his return from Rome, compared with theVariae Lectionesof eight years earlier, shows that he had advanced from the notion of purely conjectural emendation to that of emending by collation. In 1570 he wandered over Burgundy, Germany, Austria, Bohemia, and was engaged for more than a year as teacher in the university of Jena, a position which implied an outward conformity to the Lutheran Church. On his way back to Louvain, he stopped some time at Cologne, where he must have comported himself as a Catholic. He then returned toLouvain, but was soon driven by the Civil War to take refuge in Antwerp, where he received, in 1579, a call to the newly founded university of Leiden, as professor of history. At Leiden, where he must have passed as a Calvinist, Lipsius remained eleven years, the period of his greatest productivity. It was now that he prepared hisSeneca, perfected, in successive editions, hisTacitusand brought out a series of works, some of pure scholarship, others collections from classical authors, others again of general interest. Of this latter class was a treatise on politics (Politicorum Libri Sex, 1589), in which he showed that, though a public teacher in a country which professed toleration, he had not departed from the state maxims of Alva and Philip II. He lays it down that a government should recognize only one religion, and that dissent should be extirpated by fire and sword. From the attacks to which this avowal exposed him, he was saved by the prudence of the authorities of Leiden, who prevailed upon him to publish a declaration that his expression,Ure, seca, was a metaphor for a vigorous treatment. In the spring of 1590, leaving Leiden under pretext of taking the waters at Spa, he went to Mainz, where he was reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church. The event deeply interested the Catholic world, and invitations poured in on Lipsius from the courts and universities of Italy, Austria and Spain. But he preferred to remain in his own country, and finally settled at Louvain, as professor of Latin in the Collegium Buslidianum. He was not expected to teach, and his trifling stipend was eked out by the appointments of privy councillor and historiographer to the king of Spain. He continued to publish dissertations as before, the chief being hisDe militia romana(Antwerp, 1595) andLovanium(Antwerp, 1605; 4th ed., Wesel, 1671), intended as an introduction to a general history of Brabant. He died atLouvainon the 23rd of March (some give 24th of April) 1606.

Lipsius’s knowledge of classical antiquity was extremely limited. He had but slight acquaintance with Greek, and in Latin literature the poets and Cicero lay outside his range. His greatest work was his edition of Tacitus. This author he had so completely made his own that he could repeat the whole, and offered to be tested in any part of the text, with a poniard held to his breast, to be used against him if he should fail. HisTacitusfirst appeared in 1575, and was five times revised and corrected—the last time in 1606, shortly before his death. HisOpera Omniaappeared in 8 vols. at Antwerp (1585, 2nd ed., 1637).

A full list of his publications will be found in van der Aa,Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden(1865), and inBibliographie Lipsienne(Ghent, 1886-1888). In addition to the biography by A. le Mire (Aubertus Miraeus) (1609), the only original account of his life, see M. E. C. Nisard,Le Triumvirat littéraire au XVIesiècle(1852); A. Räss,Die Convertiten seit der Reformation(1867); P. Bergman’sAutobiographie de J. Lipse(1889); L. Galesloot,Particularités sur la vie de J. Lipse(1877); E. Amiel,Un Publiciste du XVIesiècle. Juste Lipse(1884); and L. Müller,Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden. The articles by J. J. Thonissen of Louvain in theNouvelle Biographie générale, and L. Roersch inBiographie nationale de Belgique, may also be consulted.

LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT(1830-1892), German Protestant theologian, son of K. H. A. Lipsius (d. 1861), who was rector of the school of St Thomas at Leipzig, was born at Gera on the 14th of February 1830. He studied at Leipzig, and eventually (1871) settled at Jena as professor ordinarius. He helped to found the “Evangelical Protestant Missionary Union” and the “Evangelical Alliance,” and from 1874 took an active part in their management. He died at Jena on the 19th of August 1892. Lipsius wrote principally on dogmatics and the history of early Christianity from a liberal and critical standpoint. A Neo-Kantian, he was to some extent an opponent of Albrecht Ritschl, demanding “a connected and consistent theory of the universe, which shall comprehend the entire realm of our experience as a whole. He rejects the doctrine of dualism in a truth, one division of which would be confined to ‘judgments of value,’ and be unconnected with our theoretical knowledge of the external world. The possibility of combining the results of our scientific knowledge with the declarations of our ethico-religious experience, so as to form a consistent philosophy, is based, according to Lipsius, upon the unity of the personal ego, which on the one hand knows the world scientifically, and on the other regards it as the means of realizing the ethico-religious object of its life” (Otto Pfleiderer). This, in part, is his attitude inPhilosophie und Religion(1885). In hisLehrbuch der evang.-prot. Dogmatik(1876; 3rd ed., 1893) he deals in detail with the doctrines of “God,” “Christ,” “Justification” and the “Church.” From 1875 he assisted K. Hase, O. Pfleiderer and E. Schrader in editing theJahrbücher für prot. Theologie, and from 1885 till 1891 he edited theTheol. Jahresbericht.

His other works includeDie Pilatusakten(1871, new ed., 1886),Dogmatische Beiträge(1878),Die Quellen der ältesten Ketzergeschichte(1875),Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten(1883-1890),Hauptpunkte der christl. Glaubenslehre im Umriss dargestellt(1889), and commentaries on the Epistles to the Galatians, Romans and Philippians in H. J. Holtzmann’sHandkommentar zum Neuen Testament(1891-1892).

LIPTON, SIR THOMAS JOHNSTONE,Bart.(1850- ), British merchant, was born at Glasgow in 1850, of Irish parents. At a very early age he was employed as errand boy to a Glasgow stationer; at fifteen he emigrated to America, where at first he worked in a grocery store, and afterwards as a tram-car driver in New Orleans, as a traveller for a portrait firm, and on a plantation in South Carolina. Eventually, having saved some money, he returned to Glasgow and opened a small provision shop. Business gradually increased, and by degrees Lipton had provision shops first all over Scotland and then all over the United Kingdom. To supply his retail shops on the most favourable terms, hepurchased extensive tea, coffee and cocoa plantations in Ceylon, and provided his own packing-house for hogs in Chicago, and fruit farms, jam factories, bakeries and bacon-curing establishments in England. In 1898 his business was converted into a limited liability company. At Queen Victoria’s diamond jubilee in 1897 he gave £20,000 for providing dinners for a large number of the London poor. In 1898 he was knighted, and in 1902 was made a baronet. In the world of yacht-racing he became well known from his repeated attempts to win the America Cup.

LIQUEURS,the general term applied to perfumed or flavoured potable spirits, sweetened by the addition of sugar. The term “liqueur” is also used for certain wines and unsweetened spirits of very superior quality, or remarkable for their bouquet, such as tokay or fine old brandy or whisky. The basis of all the “liqueurs” proper consists of (a) relatively strong alcohol or spirit, which must be as pure and neutral as possible; (b) sugar or syrup; and (c) flavouring matters. There are three distinct main methods of manufacturing liqueurs. The first, by which liqueurs of the highest class are prepared, is the “distillation” or “alcoholate” process. This consists in macerating various aromatic substances such as seeds, leaves, roots and barks of plants, &c., with strong spirit and subsequently distilling the infusion so obtained generally in the presence of a whole or a part of the solid matter. The mixture of spirit, water and flavouring matters which distils over is termed the “alcoholate.” To this is added a solution of sugar or syrup, and frequently colouring matter in the shape of harmless vegetable extracts or burnt sugar, and a further quantity of flavouring matter in the shape of essential oils or clear spirituous vegetable extracts. The second method of making liqueurs is that known as the “essence” process. It is employed, as a rule, for cheap and inferior articles; the process resolving itself into the addition of various essential oils, either natural or artificially prepared, and of spirituous extracts to strong spirit, filtering and adding the saccharine matter to the clear filtrate. The third method of manufacturing liqueurs is the “infusion” process, in which alcohol and sugar are added to various fresh fruit juices. Liqueurs prepared by this method are frequently called “cordials.” It has been suggested that “cordials” are articles of home manufacture, and that liqueurs are necessarily of foreign origin, but it is at least doubtful whether this is entirely correct. The French, who excel in the preparation of liqueurs, grade their products, according to their sweetness and alcoholic strength, intocrêmes,huilesorbaumes, which have a thick, oily consistency; andeaux,extraitsorélixirs, which, being less sweetened, are relatively limpid. Liqueurs are also classed, according to their commercial quality and composition, asordinaires,demi-fines,finesandsur-fines. Certain liqueurs, containing only a single flavouring ingredient, or having a prevailing flavour of a particular substance, are named after that body, for instance,crême de vanille,anisette,kümmel,crême de menthe, &c. On the other hand, many well-known liqueurs are compounded of very numerous aromatic principles. The nature and quantities of the flavouring agents employed in the preparation of liqueurs of this kind are kept strictly secret, but numerous “recipes” are given in works dealing with this subject. Among the substances frequently used as flavouring agents are aniseed, coriander, fennel, wormwood, gentian, sassafras, amber, hyssop, mint, thyme, angelica, citron, lemon and orange peel, peppermint, cinnamon, cloves, iris, caraway, tea, coffee and so on. The alcoholic strength of liqueurs ranges from close on 80% of alcohol by volume in some kinds of absinthe, to 27% in anisette. The liqueur industry is a very considerable one, there being in France some 25,000 factories. Most of these are small, but some 600,000 gallons are annually exported from France alone. For absinthe, benedictine, chartreuse, curaçoa, kirsch and vermouth see under separate headings. Among other well-known trade liqueurs may be mentioned maraschino, which takes its name from a variety of cherry—the marasca—grown in Dalmatia, the centre of the trade being at Zara; kümmel, the flavour of which is largely due to caraway seeds; allasch, which is a rich variety of kümmel; and cherry and other “fruit” brandies and whiskies, the latter being perhaps more properly termed cordials.

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