In Europe and America loess deposits are associated with the margins of the great ice sheets of the glacial period; thus in Europe they stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-west of France, and are not found north of the 57th parallel. In both regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits. For this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the Pleistocene period; but some of the loess deposits of northern Europe have been in process of formation intermittently from the Miocene period onward, and in South America the great loess formations known as the Pampean or Patagonian belong to the Eocene, Oligocene and Pleistocene periods. Most geologists are agreed that the loess is an aeolian or wind-borne rock, formed most probably during periods of tundra or steppe conditions. The capillary tubules are supposed to have been caused by the roots of grass and herbage which kept growing upon the surface even while the deposit was slowly increasing. Others contend that loess is of the nature of alluvial loam; this may be true of certain deposits classed as loess, but it cannot be true of most of the typical loess formations, for they lie upon older rocks quite independently of altitude, from near sea level up to 5000 ft. in Europe and to 11,500 ft. in China; they are often developed on one side of a mountain range and not upon the other, and in a series of approximately parallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying upon one side and that the same in each case, facts pointing to the agency of prevalent winds.The thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than 33 ft., but in China it reaches 1000 ft. or more; it also attains a great thickness in South America. Numerous proboscidian and other mammalian fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common fossils are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms asSuccinea. Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed to rain-wash, this is the so-called “lake-loess” (see-löss); according to Tukowski the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated, plastic and impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in Russia, the Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product of the weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the following order has been recognized: (1) an upper unbedded, non-calcareous loess, (2) thegehanglöss, mixed with subsoil rocks, and (3) the sand orthal-löss, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation on the upper layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such as the black earth (Tschernozom) of southern Russia, the darkBordelössof the Magdeburg district, and the black “cotton soil” (regur) of the Deccan.
In Europe and America loess deposits are associated with the margins of the great ice sheets of the glacial period; thus in Europe they stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-west of France, and are not found north of the 57th parallel. In both regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits. For this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the Pleistocene period; but some of the loess deposits of northern Europe have been in process of formation intermittently from the Miocene period onward, and in South America the great loess formations known as the Pampean or Patagonian belong to the Eocene, Oligocene and Pleistocene periods. Most geologists are agreed that the loess is an aeolian or wind-borne rock, formed most probably during periods of tundra or steppe conditions. The capillary tubules are supposed to have been caused by the roots of grass and herbage which kept growing upon the surface even while the deposit was slowly increasing. Others contend that loess is of the nature of alluvial loam; this may be true of certain deposits classed as loess, but it cannot be true of most of the typical loess formations, for they lie upon older rocks quite independently of altitude, from near sea level up to 5000 ft. in Europe and to 11,500 ft. in China; they are often developed on one side of a mountain range and not upon the other, and in a series of approximately parallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying upon one side and that the same in each case, facts pointing to the agency of prevalent winds.
The thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than 33 ft., but in China it reaches 1000 ft. or more; it also attains a great thickness in South America. Numerous proboscidian and other mammalian fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common fossils are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms asSuccinea. Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed to rain-wash, this is the so-called “lake-loess” (see-löss); according to Tukowski the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated, plastic and impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in Russia, the Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product of the weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the following order has been recognized: (1) an upper unbedded, non-calcareous loess, (2) thegehanglöss, mixed with subsoil rocks, and (3) the sand orthal-löss, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation on the upper layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such as the black earth (Tschernozom) of southern Russia, the darkBordelössof the Magdeburg district, and the black “cotton soil” (regur) of the Deccan.
LOFFT, CAPEL(1751-1824), English miscellaneous writer, was born in London on the 14th of November 1751. He was educated at Eton, and Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left to become a member of Lincoln’s Inn. He was called to the bar in 1775, and left by his father’s and uncle’s deaths with a handsome property and the family estates. He was a prolific writer on a variety of topics, and a vigorous contentious advocate of parliamentary and other reforms, and carried on a voluminous correspondence with all the literary men of his time. He became the patron of Robert Bloomfield, the author ofThe Farmer’s Boy, and secured for him the very successful publication of that work. Byron, in a note to hisEnglish Bards andScotch Reviewers, ridiculed Lofft as “the Maecenas of shoemakers and preface-writer general to distressed versemen; a kind of gratisaccoucheurto those who wish to be delivered of rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth.” He died at Montcalieri, near Turin, on the 26th of May 1824.
His fourth son Capel Lofft, the younger (1806-1873), also a writer on various topics, inherited his father’s liberal ideas and principles, and carried them in youth to greater extremes. In his old age he abandoned these theories, which had brought him into the company of some of the leading political agitators of the day. He died in America, where he had a Virginia estate.
LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN,a large and picturesque group of islands lying N.E. and S.W. off the N.W. coast of Norway, between 67° 30′ and 69° 20′ N., and between 12° and 16° 35′ E. forming part of theamt(county) of Nordland. The extreme length of the group from Andenaes, at the north of Andö, to Röst, is about 150 m.; the aggregate area about 1560 sq. m. It is separated from the mainland by the Vestfjord, Tjaeldsund and Vaagsfjord, and is divided into two sections by the Raftsund between Hindö and Öst-Vaagö. To the W. and S. of the Raftsund lie the Lofoten Islands proper, of which the most important are Öst-Vaagö, Gimsö, Vest-Vaagö, Flakstadö, Moskenaesö, Mosken, Värö and Röst; E. and N. of the Raftsund are the islands of Vesteraalen, the chief being Hindö, Ulvö, Langö, Skogsö and Andö. The islands, which are all of granite or metamorphic gneiss, are precipitous and lofty. The highest points and finest scenery are found on Öst-Vaagö, in the neighbourhood of the narrow, cliff-bound Raftsund and Troldfjord. The principal peaks are Higrafstind (3811 ft.), Gjeitgaljartind (3555), Rulten (3483), the Noldtinder (3467), Svartsundtind (3506). The long line of jagged and fantastic peaks seen from the Vestfjord forms one of the most striking prospects on the Norwegian coast, but still finer is the panorama from the Digermuler (1150 ft.), embracing the islands, the Vestfjord, and the mountains of the mainland. The channels which separate the islands are narrow and tortuous, and generally of great depth; they are remarkable for the strength of their tidal currents, particularly the Raftsund and the famous Maelström or Moskenström between Moskenaes and Mosken. The violent tempests which sweep over the Vestfjord, which is exposed to the S.W., are graphically described in Jonas Lie’sDen Fremsynte(1870) and in H. Schultze’sUdvalgte Skrifter(1883), as the Maelström is imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe. Though situated wholly within the Arctic circle, the climate of the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group is not rigorous when compared with that of the rest of Norway. The isothermal line which marks a mean January temperature of 32° F. runs south from the Lofotens, passing a little to the east of Bergen onward to Gothenburg and Copenhagen. The prevailing winds are from the S. and W., the mean temperature for the year is 38.5° F., and the annual rainfall is 43.34 in. In summer the hills have only patches of snow, the snow limit being about 3000 ft. The natural pasture produced in favourable localities permits the rearing of cattle to some extent; but the growth of cereals (chiefly barley, which here matures in ninety days) is insignificant. The islands yield no wood. The characteristic industry, and an important source of the national wealth, is the cod fishery carried on along the east coast of the Lofotens in the Vestfjord in spring. This employs about 40,000 men during the season from all parts of Norway, the population being then about doubled, and the surplus accommodated in temporary huts. The average yield is valued at about £35,000. The fish are taken in nets let down during the night, or on lines upwards of a mile in length, or on ordinary hand-lines. The fishermen are paid in cash, and large sums of money are sent to the islands by the Norwegian banks each February. Great loss of life is frequent during the sudden local storms. The fish, which is dried during early summer, is exported to Spain (where it is known asbacalao), Holland, Great Britain, Belgium, &c. Industries arising out of the fishery are the manufacture of cod-liver oil and of artificial manure. The summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are also valuable. The herring is taken in large quantities off the west coasts of Vesteraalen, but is a somewhat capricious visitant. The islands contain no towns properly so called, but Kabelvaag on Öst-Vaagö and Svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island are considerable centres of trade and (in the fishing season) of population; Lödingen also, at the head of the Vestfjord on Hindö, is much frequented as a port of call. A church existed at Vaagen (Kabelvaag) in the 12th century, and here Hans Egede, the missionary of Greenland, was pastor. There are factories for fish guano at Henningvaer (Öst-Vaagö), Kabelvaag, Svolvaer, Lödingen, and at Bretesnäs on Store Molla. Regular means of communication are afforded by the steamers which trade between Hamburg or Christiania and Hammerfest, and also by local vessels; less accessible spots can be visited by small boats, in the management of which the natives are adepts. There are some roads on Hindö, Langö, and Andö. The largest island in the group, and indeed in Norway, is Hindö, with an area of 860 sq. m. The south-eastern portion of it belongs to theamtof Tromsö. In the island of Andö there is a bed of coal at the mouth of Ramsaa.
LOFT(connected with “lift,”i.e.raised in the air; O. Eng.lyft; cf. Ger.Luft; the French term isgrenierand Ger.Boden), the term given in architecture to an upper room in the roof, sometimes called “cockloft”; when applied over stabling it is known as a hay-loft; the gallery over a chancel screen, carrying a cross, is called a rood-loft (seeRood). The term is also given to a gallery provided in the choir-aisle of a cathedral or church, and used as a watching-loft at night.
LOFTUS, ADAM(c.1533-1605), archbishop of Armagh and Dublin, and lord chancellor of Ireland, the son of a Yorkshire gentleman, was educated at Cambridge. He accompanied the earl of Sussex to Ireland as his chaplain in 1560, and three years later was consecrated archbishop of Armagh by Hugh Curwen, archbishop of Dublin. In 1565 Queen Elizabeth, to supplement the meagre income derivable from the archiepiscopal see owing to the disturbed state of the country, appointed Loftus temporarily to the deanery of St Patrick’s; and in the same year he became president of the new commission for ecclesiastical causes. In 1567 he was translated to the archbishopric of Dublin, where the queen looked to him to carry out reforms in the Church. On several occasions he temporarily executed the functions of lord keeper, and in August 1581 he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland. Loftus was constantly occupied in attempts to improve his financial position by obtaining additional preferment. He had been obliged to resign the deanery of St Patrick’s in 1567, and twenty years later he quarrelled violently with Sir John Perrot, the lord deputy, over the proposal to appropriate the revenues of the cathedral to the foundation of a university. Loftus, however, favoured the project of founding a university in Dublin, though on lines different from Perrot’s proposal, and it was largely through his influence that the corporation of Dublin granted the lands of the priory of All Hallows as a beginning of the endowment of Trinity College, of which he was named first provost in the charter creating the foundation in 1591. Loftus, who had an important share in the administration of Ireland under successive lords deputy, and whose zeal and efficiency were commended by James I. on his accession, died in Dublin on the 5th of April 1605. By his wife, Jane Purdon, he had twenty children.
His brother Robert was father ofAdam Loftus(c.1568-1643), who became lord chancellor of Ireland in 1619, and in 1622 was created Viscount Loftus of Ely, King’s county, in the peerage of Ireland. Lord Loftus came into violent conflict with the lord deputy, Viscount Falkland, in 1624; and at a later date his quarrel with Strafford was still more fierce. One of the articles in Strafford’s impeachment was based on his dealings with Loftus. The title, which became extinct on the death of his grandson, the 3rd viscount, in 1725 (when the family estate of Monasterevan, re-named Moore Abbey, passed to his daughter’s son Henry, 4th earl of Drogheda), was re-granted in 1756 to his cousin Nicholas Loftus, a lineal descendant of the archbishop. It again became extinct more than once afterwards, but was on each occasion revived in favour of a descendant through thefemale line; and it is now held by the marquis of Ely in conjunction with other family titles.
See Richard Mant,History of the Church of Ireland(2 vols., London, 1840); J. R. O’Flanagan,Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland(2 vols., London, 1870); John D’Alton,Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin(Dublin, 1838); Henry Cotton,Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae(5 vols., Dublin, 1848-1878); William Monck Mason,History and Antiquities of the College and Cathedral Church of St Patrick, near Dublin(Dublin, 1819); G. E. C.,Complete Peeragevol. iii., sub. “Ely” (London, 1890).
See Richard Mant,History of the Church of Ireland(2 vols., London, 1840); J. R. O’Flanagan,Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland(2 vols., London, 1870); John D’Alton,Memoirs of the Archbishops of Dublin(Dublin, 1838); Henry Cotton,Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae(5 vols., Dublin, 1848-1878); William Monck Mason,History and Antiquities of the College and Cathedral Church of St Patrick, near Dublin(Dublin, 1819); G. E. C.,Complete Peeragevol. iii., sub. “Ely” (London, 1890).
LOG(a word of uncertain etymological origin, possibly onomatopoeic; theNew English Dictionaryrejects the derivation from Norwegianlág, a fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn, wood. The word is also used in various figurative senses, and more particularly for the “nautical log,” an apparatus for ascertaining the speed of ships. Its employment in this sense depends on the fact that a piece of wood attached to a line was thrown overboard to lie like a log in a fixed position, motionless, the vessel’s speed being calculated by observing what length of line ran out in a given time (“common log”); and the word has been retained for the modern “patent” or “continuous” log, though it works in an entirely different manner.
The origin of the “common log” is obscure, but the beginnings of the “continuous log” may be traced back to the 16th century. By an invention probably due to Humfray Cole and published in 1578 by William Bourne in hisInventions and Devices, it was proposed to register a ship’s speed by means of a “little small close boat,” with a wheel, or wheels, and an axle-tree to turn clockwork in the little boat, with dials and pointers indicating fathoms, leagues, scores of leagues and hundreds of leagues. About 1668 Dr R. Hooke showed some members of the Royal Society an instrument for the same purpose, depending on a vane or fly which rotated as the vessel progressed (Birch,History of the Royal Society, iv. 231), and Sir Isaac Newton in 1715 reported unfavourably on the “marine surveyor” of Henry de Saumarez, which also depended on a rotator. Conradus Mel in hisAntiquarius Sacer(1719) described a “pantometron nauticum” which he claimed would show without calculation the distance sailed by the ship; and J. Smeaton in 1754 published improvements on the apparatus of Saumarez. William Foxon of Deptford in 1772, James Guerimand of Middlesex in 1776 (by his “marine perambulator”), and R. H. Gower in 1772, practically demonstrated the registration of a vessel’s speed by mechanical means. Viscount de Vaux in 1807 made use of water-pressure, as did the Rev. E. L. Berthon in 1849, and C. E. Kelway invented an electrical log in 1876.
Common Log.—To ascertain the ship’s speed by the common log four articles are necessary—a log-ship or log-chip, log-reel, log-line and log-glass. The log-ship (fig. 1) is a wooden quadrant ½ in. thick, with a radius of 5 or 6 in., the circumference of which is weighted with lead to keep it upright and retard its passage through the water. Two holes are made near its lower angles. One end of a short piece of thin line is passed through one of these holes, and knotted; the other end has spliced to it a hard bone peg which is inserted in the other hole. The holes are so placed that the log-ship will hang square from the span thus formed. The log-line is secured to this span and consists of two parts. The portion nearest the log-ship is known as the “stray line”; its length varies from 10 to 20 fathoms, but should be sufficient to ensure that the log-ship shall be outside the disturbing element of the ship’s wake. The point where it joins the other part is marked by a piece of bunting, and the line from this point towards its other end is marked at known intervals with “knots,” which consist of pieces of cord worked in between its strands. A mean degree of the meridian being assumed to be 69.09 statute miles of 5280 ft., the nautical mile (1⁄60degree) is taken as 6080 ft., which is a sufficiently close approximation for practical purposes, and the distances between the knots are made to bear the same relation to 6080 ft. as 28 seconds to an hour (3600 seconds); that is, they are placed at intervals of 47 ft. 3 in. The end of the first interval of this length (counting from the piece of bunting) is marked by a bit of leather, the second by a cord with two knots, the third by one with three knots, and so on; the middle of each of these lengths (half-knot) is also marked by a cord with one knot. It follows that, if, say, five knots of the line run out in 28 seconds, the ship has gone 5 × 47¼ ft. in that time, or is moving at the rate of 5 × 6080 ft. (= five nautical miles) an hour; hence the common use of knot as equivalent to a nautical mile. In the log-glass the time is measured by running sand, which, however, is apt to be affected by the humidity of the atmosphere. Sometimes a 30-second glass is used instead of a 28-second one, and the intervals between the knots on the log-line are then made 50 ft. 7 in. instead of 47 ft. 3 in. For speeds over six knots a 14-second glass is employed, and the speed indicated by the log-line is doubled.
The log-line, after being well soaked, stretched and marked with knots, is wound uniformly on the log-reel, to which its inner end is securely fastened. To “heave the log,” a man holds the log-reel over his head (at high speeds the man and portable reel are superseded by a fixed reel and a winch fitted with a brake), and the officer places the peg in the log-ship, which he then throws clear and to windward of the ship, allowing the line to run freely out. When the bunting at the end of the stray line passes his hand, he calls to his assistant to turn the glass, and allows the line to pay out freely. When all the sand has run through, the assistant calls “Stop!” when the log-line is quickly nipped, the knots counted, and the intermediate portion estimated. The strain on the log-ship when the log-line is nipped, causes the peg to be withdrawn from it, and the log-ship is readily hauled in. In normal circumstances, the log is hove every hour. In a steam vessel running at high speed on an ocean route, with engines working smoothly and uniformly, a careful officer with correct line and glass can obtain very accurate results with the common log.
The log-line, after being well soaked, stretched and marked with knots, is wound uniformly on the log-reel, to which its inner end is securely fastened. To “heave the log,” a man holds the log-reel over his head (at high speeds the man and portable reel are superseded by a fixed reel and a winch fitted with a brake), and the officer places the peg in the log-ship, which he then throws clear and to windward of the ship, allowing the line to run freely out. When the bunting at the end of the stray line passes his hand, he calls to his assistant to turn the glass, and allows the line to pay out freely. When all the sand has run through, the assistant calls “Stop!” when the log-line is quickly nipped, the knots counted, and the intermediate portion estimated. The strain on the log-ship when the log-line is nipped, causes the peg to be withdrawn from it, and the log-ship is readily hauled in. In normal circumstances, the log is hove every hour. In a steam vessel running at high speed on an ocean route, with engines working smoothly and uniformly, a careful officer with correct line and glass can obtain very accurate results with the common log.
Ground Log.—In the deltas of shoal rivers, with a strong tide or current and no land visible, a 5 ℔ lead is substituted for the log-ship; the lead rests on the bottom, and the speed is obtained in a manner similar to that previously described. Such a “ground-log” indicates the actual speed over the ground, and in addition, when the log-line is being hauled in, it will show the real course the ship is making over the ground.
Patent Log.—The screw or rotatory log of Edward Massey, invented in 1802, came into general use in 1836 and continued until 1861. The registering wheelwork was contained in a shallow rectangular box (fig. 2), with a float plate on its upper side, carrying three indicating dials, recording respectively fractions, units and tens of miles (up to a hundred). The rotator was connected to the log by a rope 6 ft. in length, actuating a universal joint on the first spindle of the register; it consisted of an air-tight thin metal tube with a coned fore-end, carrying flat metal vanes set at an angle. Alexander Bain in 1846 suggested enclosing the wheelwork in the rotator. In Thomas Walker’s harpoon or frictionless log, introduced in 1861, the wheelwork was enclosed in a cylindrical case of the same diameter as the body of the rotator or fan, and the latter was brought close up to the register, forming a compact machine and avoiding the use of the 6-ft. line. Two years later a heart-shaped float plate was attached to the case, and the log called the A1 Harpoon ship log (fig. 3). The log should be washed in fresh water when practicable, to prevent oxidization of the wheels, and be lubricated with suitable oil through a hole in the case.
These logs were towed from the ship, but with quick passages and well surveyed coasts, the need arose for a patent log which could be readily consulted from the deck, and from which the distance run under varying speeds could be quickly ascertained. To meet this requirement, Walker in 1878 introduced the Cherublog (fig. 4), a taffrail one, which, however, is not as a rule used for speeds over 18 knots. Owing to the increased friction produced by a rotator making approximately 900 revolutions per mile, towed at the end of a line varying from 40 fathoms for a 12-knot speed to 60 fathoms for 20 knots, the pull of the line and rotator is borne by coned rollers, having their outlines tapering to a common point in their rotation, thus giving a broad rolling surface. Strong worms and wheels are substituted for the light clockwork. In fig. 4 the shoe H is secured to the taffrail, and the rotator in the water is hooked to the eye of the spindle M by the hook D. The case A contains the registering wheelwork and a sounding bell. The half gimbal B pivoting in the socket of the base C allows the register to receive the strain in the direct line. The bearings and rollers are lubricated with castor oil every twelve hours through holes in the sliding case E, and can be examined by unscrewing the case E and the eye M. When not in use, the register is removed from the shoe by lifting a small screw button near C. The tow line is usually plaited, and to avoid a knot close to the rotator, the latter is secured to the former by a knot inside an egg-shaped shell (fig. 5, Neptune pattern).
Walker’s Neptune log (fig. 6) is used for vessels of high speed. Case A contains the wheelwork, and case E the spindle and steel ball bearings; in each case are openings, closed by sliding tubes, for examination and lubrication. In fig. 6 the cases A and E are shown open. Fig. 7 shows the dial plate. In fig. 8 the ball bearings are shown unscrewed from the body of the log, with eye, cap and spindle. They consist of two rows of balls rolling in two pairs of V races or grooves. The outer pair receive the strain of the rotator, and the inner are for adjustment and to prevent lateral movement. The balls and races are enclosed in a skeleton cage (fig. 9) unscrewing from the cap F (fig. 6) for cleaning or renewal; the adjustment of the bearings is made by screwing up the cage capb, locked by a special washer and the two screwsa,a(figs. 8, 9). If the outer races become worn, the complete cage and bearings are reversed; the strain of the line is then transferred to what had previously been the inner with practically unworn balls and races. It is for this purpose that the skeleton cage is screwed internally at both ends, fitting a screwed ring inside the cap F (fig. 6). To enable the indications of the log register on the taffrail to be recorded in the chart room or any other part of the vessel as desired, a chart room electric register has been introduced. By means of an electric installation between the log register aft and the electric register in the chart room, every tenth of a mile indicated by the former is recorded by the latter.Fig.7.—Dial-plate of Neptune Log.Fig.8.—Ball Bearings of Neptune Log.Walker’s Rocket log (fig. 10) is a taffrail one, with bearings of hardened steel, and is intended to be slung or secured to the taffrail by a line; the gimbal pattern has a fitting for the deck. In taffrail logs, the movement of the line owing to its length becomes spasmodic and jerky, increasing the vibration and friction; to obviate this a governor or fly-wheel is introduced, the hook of the tow line K (fig. 11) and the eye of the register M being attached to the governor. Fig. 11 represents the arrangement fitted to the Neptune log; with the Cherub log, a small piece of line is introduced between the governor and the eye of the register. The two principal American taffrail logs are the Negus and Bliss (Messrs Norie and Wilson). The former bears a general resemblance to the Cherub log, but the dial plate is horizontal and the faces turn upwards. The main shaft bearings are in two sets and composed of steel balls running in steel cones and cups; the governor is an iron rod about 16 in. long, with 1 in. balls at the extremities. The Bliss resembles the Rocket log in shape, and is secured to the taffrail by a rope orsling. A governor is not employed. The blades of the rotator are adjustable, being fitted into its tube or body by slits and holes and then soldered. The outer ends of the blades are slit (fig. 12) to form two tongues, and with the wrench (fig. 12) the angle of the pitch can be altered.
Walker’s Neptune log (fig. 6) is used for vessels of high speed. Case A contains the wheelwork, and case E the spindle and steel ball bearings; in each case are openings, closed by sliding tubes, for examination and lubrication. In fig. 6 the cases A and E are shown open. Fig. 7 shows the dial plate. In fig. 8 the ball bearings are shown unscrewed from the body of the log, with eye, cap and spindle. They consist of two rows of balls rolling in two pairs of V races or grooves. The outer pair receive the strain of the rotator, and the inner are for adjustment and to prevent lateral movement. The balls and races are enclosed in a skeleton cage (fig. 9) unscrewing from the cap F (fig. 6) for cleaning or renewal; the adjustment of the bearings is made by screwing up the cage capb, locked by a special washer and the two screwsa,a(figs. 8, 9). If the outer races become worn, the complete cage and bearings are reversed; the strain of the line is then transferred to what had previously been the inner with practically unworn balls and races. It is for this purpose that the skeleton cage is screwed internally at both ends, fitting a screwed ring inside the cap F (fig. 6). To enable the indications of the log register on the taffrail to be recorded in the chart room or any other part of the vessel as desired, a chart room electric register has been introduced. By means of an electric installation between the log register aft and the electric register in the chart room, every tenth of a mile indicated by the former is recorded by the latter.
Walker’s Rocket log (fig. 10) is a taffrail one, with bearings of hardened steel, and is intended to be slung or secured to the taffrail by a line; the gimbal pattern has a fitting for the deck. In taffrail logs, the movement of the line owing to its length becomes spasmodic and jerky, increasing the vibration and friction; to obviate this a governor or fly-wheel is introduced, the hook of the tow line K (fig. 11) and the eye of the register M being attached to the governor. Fig. 11 represents the arrangement fitted to the Neptune log; with the Cherub log, a small piece of line is introduced between the governor and the eye of the register. The two principal American taffrail logs are the Negus and Bliss (Messrs Norie and Wilson). The former bears a general resemblance to the Cherub log, but the dial plate is horizontal and the faces turn upwards. The main shaft bearings are in two sets and composed of steel balls running in steel cones and cups; the governor is an iron rod about 16 in. long, with 1 in. balls at the extremities. The Bliss resembles the Rocket log in shape, and is secured to the taffrail by a rope orsling. A governor is not employed. The blades of the rotator are adjustable, being fitted into its tube or body by slits and holes and then soldered. The outer ends of the blades are slit (fig. 12) to form two tongues, and with the wrench (fig. 12) the angle of the pitch can be altered.
All patent logs have errors, the amounts of which should be ascertained by shore observations when passing a well surveyed coast in tideless waters on a calm day. Constant use, increased friction (more especially at high speeds), and damage to the rotator will alter an ascertained log error; head or following seas, strong winds, currents and tidal streams also affect the correctness.
ALog Bookis a marine or sea journal, containing, in the British navy, the speed, course, leeway, direction and force of the wind, state of the weather, and barometric and thermometric observations. Under the heading “Remarks” are noted (for vessels with sail power) making, shortening and trimming sails; and (for all ships) employment of crew, times of passing prominent landmarks, altering of course, and any subject of interest and importance. The deck log book, kept by the officers of the watch, is copied into the ship’s log book by the navigatingofficer, and the latter is an official journal. In steam vessels a rough and fair engine room register are kept, giving information with regard to the engines and boilers. In the British mercantile marine all ships (except those employed exclusively in trading between ports on the coasts of Scotland) are compelled to keep an official log book in a form approved by the Board of Trade. A mate’s log book and engine room register are not compulsory, but are usually kept.
(J. W. D.)
LOGAN, JOHN(c.1725-1780), also known asTahgahjuté, American Indian chief, a Cayuga by birth, was the son of Shikellamy, a white man who had been captured when a child by the Indians, had been reared among them, and had become chief of the Indians living on the Shamokin Creek in what is now Northumberland county, Pennsylvania. The name Logan was given to the son in honour of James Logan (1674-1751), secretary of William Penn and a steadfast friend of the Indians. John Logan lived for some time near Reedsville, Penn., and removed to the banks of the Ohio river about 1770. He was not technically a chief, but acquired great influence among the Shawnees, into which tribe he married. He was on good terms with the whites until April 1774, when, friction having arisen between the Indians and the whites, a band of marauders, led by one Greathouse, attacked and murdered several Indians, including, it appears, Logan’s sister and possibly one or more other relatives. Believing that Captain Michael Cresap was responsible for this murder, Logan sent him a declaration of hostilities, the result of which was the bloody conflict known as Lord Dunmore’s war. Logan refused to join the Shawnee chief, Cornstalk, in meeting Governor Dunmore in a peace council after the battle of Point Pleasant, but sent him a message which has become famous as an example of Indian eloquence. The message seems to have been given by Logan to Colonel John Gibson, by whom it was delivered to Lord Dunmore. Thomas Jefferson first called general attention to it in hisNotes on Virginia(1787), where he quoted it and added: “I may challenge the whole orations of Demosthenes and Cicero, and of any more eminent orator, if Europe has furnished more eminent, to produce a single passage superior to it.” Logan became a victim of drink, and in 1780 was killed near Lake Erie by his nephew whom he had attacked. There is a monument to him in Fair Hill Cemetery, near Auburn, New York.
Brantz Mayer’sTahgahjuté, or Logan the Indian and Captain Michael Cresap(Baltimore, 1851, 2nd ed., Albany, 1867) defends Captain Cresap against Jefferson’s charges, and also questions the authenticity of Logan’s message, about which there has been considerable controversy, though its actual wording seems to be that of Gibson rather than of Logan.
Brantz Mayer’sTahgahjuté, or Logan the Indian and Captain Michael Cresap(Baltimore, 1851, 2nd ed., Albany, 1867) defends Captain Cresap against Jefferson’s charges, and also questions the authenticity of Logan’s message, about which there has been considerable controversy, though its actual wording seems to be that of Gibson rather than of Logan.
LOGAN, JOHN(1748-1788), Scottish poet, was born at Soutra, Midlothian, in 1748. His father, George Logan, was a farmer and a member of the Burgher sect of the Secession church. John Logan was sent to Musselburgh grammar school, and in 1762 to the university of Edinburgh. In 1768-1769 he was tutor to John, afterwards Sir John, Sinclair, at Ulbster, Caithness, and in 1770, having left the Secession church, he was licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Haddington. In 1771 he was presented to the charge of South Leith, but was not ordained till two years later. On the death of Michael Bruce (q.v.) he obtained that poet’s MSS. with a view to publication. In 1770 he publishedPoems on Several Occasions, by Michael Brucewith a preface, in which, after eulogizing Bruce, who had been a fellow student of his, he remarked that “to make up a miscellany some poems wrote by different authors are inserted, all of them originals, and none of them destitute of merit. The reader of taste will easily distinguish them from those of Mr Bruce, without their being particularized by any mark.” Logan was an active member of the committee of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland which worked from 1775 to 1781 at revising the “Translations and Paraphrases” for public worship, in which many of his hymns are printed. In 1779-1781 he delivered a course of lectures on the philosophy of history at St Mary’s Chapel, Edinburgh. An analysis of these lectures,Elements of the Philosophy of History(1781), bears striking resemblance toA View of Ancient History(1787), printed as the work of Dr W. Rutherford, but thought by Logan’s friends to be his. In 1781 he published his ownPoems, including the “Ode to the Cuckoo” and some other poems which had appeared in his volume of Michael Bruce’s poems, and also his own contributions to the Paraphrases. His other publications wereAn Essay on the Manners and Governments of Asia(1782),Runnamede, a tragedy(1783), andA Review of the Principal Charges against Warren Hastings(1788). His connexion with the theatre gave offence to his congregation at South Leith; he was intemperate in his habits, and there was some local scandal attached to his name. He resigned his charge in 1786, retaining part of his stipend, and proceeded to London, where he became a writer for theEnglish Review. He died on the 28th of December 1788. Two posthumous volumes of sermons appeared in 1790 and 1791. They were very popular, and were reprinted in 1810. HisPoetical Workswere printed in Dr Robert Anderson’sBritish Poets(vol. xi., 1795), with a life of the author. They were reprinted in similar collections, and separately in 1805.
Logan was accused of having appropriated in hisPoems(1781) verses written by Michael Bruce. The statements of John Birrell and David Pearson on behalf of Bruce were included in Dr Anderson’sLife of Logan. The charge of plagiarism has been revived from time to time, notably by Dr W. Mackelvie (1837) and Mr James Mackenzie (1905). The whole controversy has been marked by strong partisanship. The chief points against Logan are the suppression of the major portion of Bruce’s MSS. and some proved cases of plagiarism in his sermons and hymns. Even in the beautiful “Braes of Yarrow” one of the verses is borrowed direct from an old border ballad. The traditional evidence in favour of Bruce’s authorship of the “Ode to the Cuckoo” can hardly be set aside, but Dr Robertson of Dalmeny, who was Logan’s literary executor, stated that he had gone over the MSS. procured at Kinnesswood with Logan.
Logan’s authorship of the poems in dispute is defended by David Laing,Ode to the Cuckoo with remarks on its authorship, in a letter to J. C. Shairp, LL.D.(1873); by John Small in theBritish and Foreign Evangelical Review(July, 1877, April and October, 1879); and by R. Small in two papers (ibid., 1878). See alsoBruce, Michael.
Logan’s authorship of the poems in dispute is defended by David Laing,Ode to the Cuckoo with remarks on its authorship, in a letter to J. C. Shairp, LL.D.(1873); by John Small in theBritish and Foreign Evangelical Review(July, 1877, April and October, 1879); and by R. Small in two papers (ibid., 1878). See alsoBruce, Michael.
LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER(1826-1886), American soldier and political leader, was born in what is now Murphysborough, Jackson county, Illinois, on the 9th of February 1826. He had no schooling until he was fourteen; he then studied for three years in Shiloh College, served in the Mexican war as a lieutenant of volunteers, studied law in the office of an uncle, graduated from the Law Department of Louisville University in 1851, and practised law with success. He entered politics as a Douglas Democrat, was elected county clerk in 1849, served in the State House of Representatives in 1853-1854 and in 1857, and for a time, during the interval, was prosecuting attorney of the Third Judicial District of Illinois. In 1858 and 1860 he was elected as a Democrat to the National House of Representatives. Though unattached and unenlisted, he fought at Bull Run, andthen returned to Washington, resigned his seat, and entered the Union army as colonel of the 31st Illinois Volunteers, which he organized. He was regarded as one of the ablest officers who entered the army from civil life. In Grant’s campaigns terminating in the capture of Vicksburg, which city Logan’s division was the first to enter and of which he was military governor, he rose to the rank of major-general of volunteers; in November 1863 he succeeded Sherman in command of the XV. Army Corps; and after the death of McPherson he was in command of the Army of the Tennessee at the battle of Atlanta. When the war closed, Logan resumed his political career as a Republican, and was a member of the National House of Representatives from 1867 to 1871, and of the United States Senate from 1871 until 1877 and again from 1879 until his death, which took place at Washington, D.C., on the 26th of December 1886. He was always a violent partisan, and was identified with the radical wing of the Republican party. In 1868 he was one of the managers in the impeachment of President Johnson. His war record and his great personal following, especially in the Grand Army of the Republic, contributed to his nomination for Vice-President in 1884 on the ticket with James G. Blaine, but he was not elected. His impetuous oratory, popular on the platform, was less adapted to the halls of legislation. He was commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic from 1868 to 1871, and in this position successfully urged the observance of Memorial or Decoration Day, an idea which probably originated with him. He was the author ofThe Great Conspiracy: Its Origin and History(1886), a partisan account of the Civil war, and ofThe Volunteer Soldier of America(1887). There is a fine statue of him by St Gaudens in Chicago.
The best biography is that by George F. Dawson,The Life and Services of Gen. John A. Logan, as Soldier and Statesman(Chicago and New York, 1887).
The best biography is that by George F. Dawson,The Life and Services of Gen. John A. Logan, as Soldier and Statesman(Chicago and New York, 1887).
LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND(1798-1875), British geologist, was born in Montreal on the 20th of April 1798, of Scottish parents. He was educated partly in Montreal, and subsequently at the High School and university of Edinburgh, where Robert Jameson did much to excite his interest in geology. He was in a business house in London from 1817 to 1830. In 1831 he settled in Swansea to take charge of a colliery and some copper-smelting works, and here his interest in geology found abundant scope. He collected a great amount of information respecting the South Wales coal-field; and his data, which he had depicted on the 1-in. ordnance survey map, were generously placed at the disposal of the geological survey under Sir H. T. de la Beche and fully utilized. In 1840 Logan brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated paper “On the character of the beds of clay lying immediately below the coal-seams of South Wales, and on the occurrence of coal-boulders in the Pennant Grit of that district.” He then pointed out that each coal-seam rests on an under-clay with rootlets ofStigmaria, and he expressed his opinion that the under-clay was the old soil in which grew the plants from which the coal was formed. To confirm this observation he visited America in 1841 and examined the coal-fields of Pennsylvania and Nova Scotia, where he found the under-clay almost invariably present beneath the seams of coal. In 1842 he was appointed to take charge of the newly established geological survey in Canada, and he continued as director until 1869. During the earlier years of the survey he had many difficulties to surmount and privations to undergo, but the work was carried on with great tact and energy, and he spared no pains to make his reports trustworthy. He described the Laurentian rocks of the Laurentian mountains in Canada and of the Adirondacks in the state of New York, pointing out that they comprised an immense series of crystalline rocks, gneiss, mica-schist, quartzite and limestone, more than 30,000 ft. in thickness. The series was rightly recognized as representing the oldest type of rocks on the globe, but it is now known to be a complex of highly altered sedimentary and intrusive rocks; and the supposed oldest known fossil, theEozoondescribed by Sir J. W. Dawson, is now regarded as a mineral structure. Logan was elected F.R.S. in 1851, and in 1856 was knighted. In the same year he was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London for his researches on the coal-strata, and for his excellent geological map of Canada. After his retirement in 1869, he returned to England, and eventually settled in South Wales. He died at Castle Malgwyn in Pembrokeshire, on the 22nd of June 1875.
See theLife, by B. J. Harrington (1883).
See theLife, by B. J. Harrington (1883).
(H. B. Wo.)
LOGAN,a city and the county-seat of Cache county, Utah, U.S.A., on the Logan river, about 70 m. N. of Salt Lake City. Pop. (1900) 5451 (1440 foreign-born); (1910) 7522. It is served by the Oregon Short Line railroad. It lies at the mouth of Logan Cañon, about 4500 ft. above the sea, and commands magnificent views of the Wasatch Mountains and the fertile Cache Valley. At Logan is a temple of the Latter-Day Saints (or Mormons), built in 1883, and the city is the seat of the Agricultural College of Utah, of Brigham Young College, and of New Jersey Academy (1878), erected by the women of the Synod of New Jersey and managed by the Woman’s Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church. The Agricultural College was founded in 1888 and opened in 1890; an agricultural experiment station is connected with it and the institution comprises schools of agriculture, domestic science and arts, commerce, mechanic arts and general science. Six experiment stations in different parts of the state and a central experimental farm near St George, Washington county, were in 1908 under the direction of the experiment station in Logan. Brigham Young College was endowed by Brigham Young in 1877 and was opened in 1878; it offers courses in the arts, theology, civil engineering, music, physical culture, domestic science, nurse training and manual training. Logan has various manufactures, and is the trade centre for a fertile farming region. The municipality owns and operates its water works and its electric lighting plant. Logan was settled in 1859 and first incorporated in 1866.
LOGANSPORT,a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wabash river, at the mouth of the Eel river, about 67 m. N. by W. of Indianapolis and 117 m. S. by E. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 16,204, of whom 1432 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 19,050. It is served by six divisions of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, two divisions of the Vandalia (Pennsylvania Lines), and the Wabash railways, and by electric interurban lines. The city is the seat of the Northern Indiana Hospital for the Insane (1888), and has a public library, and a hospital (conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph). Among the principal buildings are the court house, a Masonic temple, an Odd Fellows’ temple, and buildings of the Order of Elks, of the Knights of Pythias, and of the fraternal order of Eagles. Situated in the centre of a rich agricultural region, Logansport is one of the most important grain and produce markets in the state. The Wabash and the Eel rivers provide good water power, and the city has various manufactures, besides the railway repair shops of the Vandalia and of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways. The value of the city’s factory product increased from $2,100,394 in 1900 to $2,955,921 in 1905, or 40.7%. Limestone, for use in the manufacture of iron, is quarried in the vicinity. The city owns and operates the water works and the electric-lighting plant. Logansport was platted in 1828, was probably named in honour of a Shawnee chief, Captain Logan (d. 1812), became the county-seat of Cass county in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1838.
LOGAR,a river and valley of Afghanistan. The Logar river drains a wide tract of country, rising in the southern slopes of the Sanglakh range and receiving affluents from the Kharwar hills, N.E. of Ghazni. It joins the Kabul river a few miles below the city of Kabul. The Logar valley, which is watered by its southern affluents, is rich and beautiful, about 40 m. long by 12 wide, and highly irrigated throughout. Lying in the vicinity of the capital, the district contributes largely to its food-supply. The valley was traversed in 1879 by a brigade under Sir F. (afterwards Lord) Roberts.