Chapter 19

Principal rivers are the Besut, Stiu, Trengganu, Dungun and Kmamun, none of which is navigable for any distance. The climate is mild and fairly healthy. The population numbers about 180,000, almost all Malays, and mostly clusters round the mouths and lower reaches of the rivers. The capital, which is situated at the mouth of the Trengganu River, contains, with its suburbs, not less than 30,000 people. Difficulty of access by river and by land render the interior districts almost uninhabitable. Communication is maintained by boat along the coast. There are no roads and no postal or telegraphic communications.The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is grown, but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much pepper and gambier were at one time grown and exported, but about the year 1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing insecurity of life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few head of cattle exported from Besut being mostly stolen from across the neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under European control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything possible was done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the probable mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched. Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form of Malay clothing (sarongs) of patterns and quality which are widely celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware was at one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu is not increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half million dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great extent carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some carrying trade for other states on the east coast.The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca in the 13th century and during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries its possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam. The present sultan is the descendant of an ancient family, the members of which have quarrelled and fought with each other for the succession from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance was in 1837 when the grandfather of the present sultan stole the throne from his nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great Britain a triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this with occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost the only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government there was practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of his powers and prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious seclusion and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were devoured by the relatives, a small part of those accruing from the capital sufficing for the sultan’s needs. There were no written laws, no courts and no police. All manner of crime was rampant, the peasantry was mercilessly downtrodden, but the land was full of holy men and the cries of the miserable were drowned in the noise of ostentatious prayer. In fine, Trengganu presented in the beginning of the year 1909 the type of untrammelled Malay rule which had fortunately disappeared from every other state in the peninsula. In July of that year, however, the first British adviser or agent arrived in the state, which was shortly afterwards visited by the governor of the Straits Settlements, who discussed with the sultan the changed conditions consequent upon the Anglo-Siamese treaty and laid the foundations of future reform.

The majority of the people are sailors and fishermen. Rice is grown, but not in sufficient quantities to supply local needs. Much pepper and gambier were at one time grown and exported, but about the year 1903 agriculture began to fall off owing to prevailing insecurity of life and property. Not much livestock is raised, the few head of cattle exported from Besut being mostly stolen from across the neighbouring Kelantan border. A successful tin mine under European control exists in the Kmamun district, but as everything possible was done in the past to discourage all foreign enterprise, the probable mineral wealth of the country is still practically untouched. Silk-weaving, carried on entirely by the women, is a considerable industry. The silk is imported raw and is re-exported in the form of Malay clothing (sarongs) of patterns and quality which are widely celebrated. The manufacture of native weapons and of brassware was at one time brisk but is declining. The trade of Trengganu is not increasing. It is valued roughly at about one and a half million dollars a year, is chiefly with Singapore, and is to a great extent carried in Trengganu-built ships, which latter also do some carrying trade for other states on the east coast.

The Trengganu sultanate is one of the most ancient in the peninsula and ranks with that of Riau. The state was feudatory to Malacca in the 13th century and during the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries its possession was frequently disputed between Malacca and Siam. The present sultan is the descendant of an ancient family, the members of which have quarrelled and fought with each other for the succession from time immemorial. The last serious disturbance was in 1837 when the grandfather of the present sultan stole the throne from his nephew. Until the acquisition of the state by Great Britain a triennial tribute of gold flowers was paid to Siam, and this with occasional letters of instructions and advice, constituted almost the only tangible evidence of Siamese suzerainty. Of government there was practically none. The sultan, having alienated most of his powers and prerogatives to his relatives, passed his life in religious seclusion and was ruler in no more than name. The revenues were devoured by the relatives, a small part of those accruing from the capital sufficing for the sultan’s needs. There were no written laws, no courts and no police. All manner of crime was rampant, the peasantry was mercilessly downtrodden, but the land was full of holy men and the cries of the miserable were drowned in the noise of ostentatious prayer. In fine, Trengganu presented in the beginning of the year 1909 the type of untrammelled Malay rule which had fortunately disappeared from every other state in the peninsula. In July of that year, however, the first British adviser or agent arrived in the state, which was shortly afterwards visited by the governor of the Straits Settlements, who discussed with the sultan the changed conditions consequent upon the Anglo-Siamese treaty and laid the foundations of future reform.

Kedah.—This state, on the west coast of the peninsula, lies between parallels 5° 20′ and 6° 42′ N., and is bounded, N. by Palit and Songkla, E. by Songkla and Raman, S. by Province Wellesley and Perak, and W. by the sea. The coast-line is 65 m. long, the greatest distance from north to south is 115 m. and the greatest breadth 46 m. Off the coast lies a group of islands, the largest of which is Langkawi, well peopled and forming a district of the state.

The total area of Kedah is about 4000 sq. m. The land is low-lying and swampy near the coast except towards the south where the height known as Kedah Hill rises from the shore opposite Penang, flat and fertile farther inland, and mountainous towards the eastern border. The rivers are small, the Sungei Kedah, navigable for a few miles for vessels of 50 tons, and the S. Muda, which forms the boundary with Province Wellesley, being the only streams worthy of notice. The plains are formed of marine deposit, and in the mountains limestone and granite preponderate. The population is estimated at 220,000, of whom about 100,000 are Malays, 50,000 Siamese and Samsams and 70,000 Chinese and Madrassis (Klings). There are three towns of importance. Alor Star, the capital, on the Kedah river, 10 miles from the sea, in a flat, unhealthy, but fertile locality, is a well laid out town with good streets, many handsome public and private buildings, and good wharfage for small vessels. The population is about 20,000, of whom more than half are Chinese and the remainder government servants and retainers of the local aristocracy. Kuala Muda (pop. 10,000) and Kulim (pop. 8000) situated in the south, are unimposing collections of small birch houses and thatched bamboo huts; the latter is the centre of the Kedah tin mining industry. The bulk of the population is scattered over the plains in small villages. A good road runs north from Alor Star to the border of the state, a distance of 40 miles, and other roads are being constructed. The state has 185 miles of telegraph line and 75 miles of telephone line. Mails are closed daily at Alor Star for Penang and there is a good internal postal service. The chief industry is rice cultivation. Coco-nut, betel-nut and fruit plantations are many, and the cultivation of rubber has recently been taken up with prospects of success. The estimated area under cultivation is about 300,000 acres. There are rice-mills at Alor Star and at Kuala Muda. The principal exports are rice, cattle and tin. The chief imports are cotton goods, provisions, hardware and raw silk. Accurate trade statistics are not available. The ruler holds the rank of sultan and is assisted in the government by a council and by the British adviser who since the state passed from Siamese to British protection in 1909, has replaced the officer formerly appointed by Siam. The sultan comes of a family long recognized by Siam as having hereditary right to the rulership. The penal and civil laws are administered in accordance with the precepts of Islamism, the official religion of the state. Though much has been done to improve the courts, justice is not easily obtainable. A land registration system is in force but is in a state of confusion, though a land law passed in 1905 gives security of tenure over lands newly acquired. The mining laws are similar to those of Siam. In 1905 the Siamese government advanced two and a half million dollars to Kedah, to pay the debts of the state, which sum was refunded by the British Government on assuming the position of protector. The annual revenue is $1,000,000 and the expenditure about the same. Chief heads of revenue are opium and land tax. Many revenue monopolies, created in the past, have not yet expired; but for this the revenue would be greater than it is. There is no army. In 1906 the police service was reorganized under British officers, resulting in great improvement to this department. The state is divided into a number of administrative districts under Malay officials. Each district comprises severalmukimor parishes, theimamof which exercise both spiritual and temporal control. There are schools in the chief towns, but education has not yet been seriously undertaken.Kedah was founded by colonists from India inA.D.1200, about which time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and claimed the whole Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca shook Siamese authority in the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between them, and on the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to Siam, though the capital was raided and burnt by the Europeans. The ruler and his people were converted to Islam in the 15th century. In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being disorganized, the sultan of Kedah entered into direct political relations with the Hon. East India Company, leasing the island of Penang to the latter. Further treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but in 1821 Siam reasserted her control, expelling the rebellious sultan after a sanguinary war. The sultan made several fruitless efforts to recover the state, and at length made full submission, when he was reinstated. In 1868 an agreement between Great Britain and Siam was substituted for the treaties of the East India Company with the sultan. The present sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years governed well, but in 1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the government to his minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the Siamese government had to intervene to avert a condition of bankruptcy, adjusting the finances and reorganizing the general administration to such effect that when, four years later, the state became a British dependency, a government was found established on a sound basis and requiring nothing but the presence of a firm and experienced officer as adviser to maintain its efficiency and assist its further advance.

Kedah was founded by colonists from India inA.D.1200, about which time the Siamese had subdued Nakhon Sri Tammarat and claimed the whole Malay Peninsula. When the rise of Malacca shook Siamese authority in the peninsula, Kedah oscillated between them, and on the conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese, fell to Siam, though the capital was raided and burnt by the Europeans. The ruler and his people were converted to Islam in the 15th century. In 1768, the Siamese kingdom being disorganized, the sultan of Kedah entered into direct political relations with the Hon. East India Company, leasing the island of Penang to the latter. Further treaties followed in 1791 and 1802, but in 1821 Siam reasserted her control, expelling the rebellious sultan after a sanguinary war. The sultan made several fruitless efforts to recover the state, and at length made full submission, when he was reinstated. In 1868 an agreement between Great Britain and Siam was substituted for the treaties of the East India Company with the sultan. The present sultan succeeded in 1881, and for 14 years governed well, but in 1895 he began to contract debts and to leave the government to his minions. The result was chaos, and in 1905 the Siamese government had to intervene to avert a condition of bankruptcy, adjusting the finances and reorganizing the general administration to such effect that when, four years later, the state became a British dependency, a government was found established on a sound basis and requiring nothing but the presence of a firm and experienced officer as adviser to maintain its efficiency and assist its further advance.

Perlis(Palit).—This small state, consisting of the left bank drainage area of the Perlis River, lies between Setul and Kedah, which bound it on the N. and W. and on the E. respectively. It touches the sea only round the mouth of the river.

The population is about 10,000, Malays and Chinese. The chief town, Perlis, is situated about 12 m. up the river. A good deal of tin is worked, and rice and pepper are grown and exported. In the early part of the 19th century Perlis was a district of Kedah, but during a period of disturbance in the latter state it established itself as a separate chiefdom. In 1897 Siam restored the nominal authority of Kedah, but the measure was not productive of good. In 1905 the Siamese government advanced a loan of $200,000 to Perlis, and appointed an English adviser to assist in the general administration. This money was refunded to Siam and the adviser relieved by a British officer when the state became British in July 1909. The condition of the state has improved, but the revenue, $80,000, is not sufficient for the immediate needs of government.

Authorities.—Norman,The Far East(London, 1895); H. Clifford, in theGeographical Journal(London, 1896); Carter,TheKingdom of Siam(London, 1904); Graham,Reports on Kelantan(Bangkok, 1905-1909); Skeat and Blagden,Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula(London, 1906); Hart,Reports on Kedah(Calcutta, 1907-1909); Graham,Kelantan, a Handbook(Glasgow, 1907).

(W. A. G.)

MALAY STATES(Siamese). The authority of Siam, which at one time covered the whole of the Malay peninsula, now extends southward to an irregular line drawn across the Peninsula at about 6° 30′ N. Between that line and the Isthmus of Kra, usually accepted as the northernmost point of the Malay Peninsula, there lie some 20,000 sq. m. of territory inhabited by a mixed population of Siamese and Malays with here and there a few remnants of the aboriginal inhabitants clinging to the wilder districts, and with a few Chinese settlers engaged in commerce. Formerly this tract was divided into a number of states, each of which was ruled by a chief (Siamese,Chao Muang; Malay,raja), who held his title from the king of Siam, but, subject to a few restrictions, conducted the affairs of his state in accordance with his own desires; the office of chief, moreover, was hereditary, subject always to the approval of the suzerain. The states formed two groups: a northern, including Langsuan, Chaya, Nakhon Sri Tammarat, Songkla, Renawng, Takoapa, Pang Nga, Tongka and Trang, in which the Siamese element predominated and of which the chiefs were usually Siamese or Chinese; and a southern, including Palean, Satun (Setul), Patani, Raman, Jering, Sai (Teloban), Re Nge (Legeh), Yala (Jalor) and Nong Chik, in which the population was principally Malay and the ruler also Malay. Four other states of the southern group, Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah and Perlis, of which the population is entirely Malay, passed from Siamese to British protection in 1909.

With the gradual consolidation of the Siamese kingdom all the states of the northern group have been incorporated as ordinary provinces of Siam (q.v.), the hereditaryChao Muanghaving died or been pensioned and replaced by officials of the Siamese Civil Service, while the states themselves now constitute provinces of the administrative divisions of Chumpon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat and Puket. The states of the southern group, however, retain their hereditary rulers, each of whom presides over a council and governs with the aid of a Siamese assistant commissioner and with a staff of Siamese district officials, subject to the general control of high commissioners under whom the states are grouped. This southern group, with a total area of about 7000 sq. m. and a population of 375,000, constitutes the Siamese Malay States. A British consul with headquarters at Puket, and a vice-consul who resides at Songkla, watch over the interests of British subjects in the states of the west and east sides of the peninsula respectively. Other foreign powers are unrepresented.

Palean.—This small state on the west coast, bounded N. by the province of Trang, E. by the Songkla division, S. by the state of Setul, and W. by the sea, is about 900 sq. m. in area, and has a population of about 20,000. It is attached for administrative purposes to the province of Trang, and its people are chiefly engaged in the cultivation of pepper, of which about 150 tons are annually exported. A few tin mines are also worked.Satun(Setul).—This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m. area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast of the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of Kedah, then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not a success, and in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to prevailing corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief and, cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent under the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms of the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis was added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the latter was considerably increased.Patani.—The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering, Yala (Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-ngé (Legeh) were constituted from the old state of Patani at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1906 they were reunited to form the Patani administrative division of Siam, but each state retains its Malay ruler, who governs jointly with a Siamese officer under the direction of the Siamese high commissioner, and many of the ancient privileges and customs of Malay government are preserved. The group of States is situated between 5° 34′ and 6° 52′ N. and 100° 54′ and 101° 58′ E. It is bounded N. by the China Sea, E. by the China Sea and Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. by Kedah. The total area is about 5000 sq. m. The country is mountainous except close to the coast. The principal rivers are the Patani andtheTeloban, long, winding and shallow, and navigable for small boats only. The population is about 335,000, of whom the great majority are Malays. Each state has its capital, but Patani (the headquarters of the high commissioner) is the only town of importance. Communications are poor and are chiefly by river, but roads are under construction. Patani and Sai are in telegraphic communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and regular weekly mails are despatched to those places. The area under cultivation is small except round about Patani and in Nawng Chik, where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a growing industry; many Chinese own mines and several European syndicates are at work in Raman, Ra-ngé and Patani, prospecting for, or mining, this metal. Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion of the population. The annual export of tin is about 400 tons, and dried fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. Steamers up to 300 tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons.Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited property disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of Siam obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each state, and there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from amongst Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about 600,000 ticals, or £45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers as private income for themselves and their relatives, one-third expended on the administration, and one-third reserved for special purposes, but it is usually found necessary to devote the last-mentioned third to the expenses of administration. Patani has been subject to Siam from the remotest times. It is said that the old state adopted Islamism in the 16th century, the chief, a relative of the kings of Siam, embracing that religion and at the same time revolting to Malacca. It has several times been necessary to send punitive expeditions to recall the state to its allegiance. The present rulers are mostly descended from the ruling families of the neighbouring state of Kelantan, but the chief of Patani itself is a member of the family which ruled there in the days of its greatness. Throughout the 17th century Patani was resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and English merchants, who had factories ashore and used the place as an emporium for trade with Siam. In 1621 an engagement took place in the Patani roads between three Dutch and two British ships, the latter being taken after the president of the British merchants, John Jourdain, had been killed. In 1899 the border between the state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an agreement between England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being thereby settled, but the question was reopened in the negotiations which preceded the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border line was fixed between British and Siamese possessions in the Peninsula.

Satun(Setul).—This small state, bounded N. by Palean, E. by Songkla, S. by Perlis, and W. by the sea, contains about 1000 sq. m. area with a population of about 25,000, Malays, Siamese and a few Chinese. The principal production is pepper, which is exported in junks and in the small Penang steamers which ply on the west coast of the peninsula. In 1897 Setul was placed under the control of Kedah, then a Siamese dependency, but the arrangement was not a success, and in 1907 the Siamese government was forced, owing to prevailing corruption and misrule, to restrict the powers of the chief and, cancelling the authority of Kedah, to place him to some extent under the orders of the high commissioner of Songkla. By the terms of the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909 about half of the state of Perlis was added to Satun, an arrangement by which the importance of the latter was considerably increased.

Patani.—The seven Malay states of Nawng Chik, Patani, Jering, Yala (Jalor), Sai (Teloban), Raman and Ra-ngé (Legeh) were constituted from the old state of Patani at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1906 they were reunited to form the Patani administrative division of Siam, but each state retains its Malay ruler, who governs jointly with a Siamese officer under the direction of the Siamese high commissioner, and many of the ancient privileges and customs of Malay government are preserved. The group of States is situated between 5° 34′ and 6° 52′ N. and 100° 54′ and 101° 58′ E. It is bounded N. by the China Sea, E. by the China Sea and Kelantan, S. by Perak, and W. by Kedah. The total area is about 5000 sq. m. The country is mountainous except close to the coast. The principal rivers are the Patani andtheTeloban, long, winding and shallow, and navigable for small boats only. The population is about 335,000, of whom the great majority are Malays. Each state has its capital, but Patani (the headquarters of the high commissioner) is the only town of importance. Communications are poor and are chiefly by river, but roads are under construction. Patani and Sai are in telegraphic communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and regular weekly mails are despatched to those places. The area under cultivation is small except round about Patani and in Nawng Chik, where much rice is grown. Tin mining is a growing industry; many Chinese own mines and several European syndicates are at work in Raman, Ra-ngé and Patani, prospecting for, or mining, this metal. Fishing and salt-evaporation occupy a large proportion of the population. The annual export of tin is about 400 tons, and dried fish, salt, cattle and elephants are other exports. Steamers up to 300 tons maintain frequent communication with Bangkok and Singapore, and the Patani roads afford good anchorage at all seasons.

Mahommedan law is followed in the settlement of inherited property disputes and of matrimonial affairs; otherwise the laws of Siam obtain. Efficient law courts have been established in each state, and there is a serviceable force of gendarmerie recruited from amongst Malays and Siamese alike. The revenue amounts to about 600,000 ticals, or £45,000 a year, one-third being payable to the rulers as private income for themselves and their relatives, one-third expended on the administration, and one-third reserved for special purposes, but it is usually found necessary to devote the last-mentioned third to the expenses of administration. Patani has been subject to Siam from the remotest times. It is said that the old state adopted Islamism in the 16th century, the chief, a relative of the kings of Siam, embracing that religion and at the same time revolting to Malacca. It has several times been necessary to send punitive expeditions to recall the state to its allegiance. The present rulers are mostly descended from the ruling families of the neighbouring state of Kelantan, but the chief of Patani itself is a member of the family which ruled there in the days of its greatness. Throughout the 17th century Patani was resorted to by Portuguese, Dutch and English merchants, who had factories ashore and used the place as an emporium for trade with Siam. In 1621 an engagement took place in the Patani roads between three Dutch and two British ships, the latter being taken after the president of the British merchants, John Jourdain, had been killed. In 1899 the border between the state of Perak and Raman was fixed by an agreement between England and Siam, a dispute of old standing being thereby settled, but the question was reopened in the negotiations which preceded the Anglo-Siamese treaty of 1909, when a new border line was fixed between British and Siamese possessions in the Peninsula.

(W. A. G.)

MALCHIN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the river Peene, between lakes Malchin and Kummerow, 28 m. by rail N.W. of Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. (1900), 7449. It is, alternately with Sternberg, the place of assembly of the Diet of Mecklenburg. Here are the châteaux of Remplin, Basedow and Schlitz; a church dating from the 14th century, and a fine town-hall. The well-wooded and undulating country, environing the shores of Lake Malchin, is known as the “Mecklenburg Switzerland,” and is increasing in favour as a summer resort. A canal unites Lake Kummerow with the Peene. The industries of the town include the manufacture of sugar and bricks, and brewing and malting. Malchin became a town in 1236.

MALCOLM, the name of four kings of the Scots, two of whom,Malcolm I., king from 943 to 954, andMalcolm II., king from 1005 to 1034, are shadowy and unimportant personages.

Malcolm III. (d. 1093), called Canmore or the “large-headed,” was a son of King Duncan I., and became king after the defeat of the usurper Macbeth in July 1054, being crowned at Scone in April 1057. Having married as his second wife, (St) Margaret (q.v.), a sister of Edgar Ætheling, who was a fugitive at his court, he invaded England in 1070 to support the claim of Edgar to the English throne, returning to Scotland with many captives after harrying Northumbria. William the Conqueror answered this attack by marching into Scotland in 1072, whereupon Malcolm made peace with the English king at Abernethy and “was his man.” However, in spite of this promise he ravaged the north of England again and again, until in 1091 William Rufus invaded Scotland and received his submission. Then in 1092 a fresh dispute arose between the two kings, and William summoned Malcolm to his court at Gloucester. TheScot obeyed, and calling at Durham on his southward journey was present at the foundation of Durham Cathedral. When he reached Gloucester Rufus refused to receive him unless he did homage for his kingdom; he declined and returned home in high dudgeon. Almost at once he invaded Northumbria, and was killed at a place afterwards called Malcolm’s Cross, near Alnwick, on the 13th of November 1093. Four of Malcolm’s sons, Duncan II., Edgar, Alexander I., and David I., became kings of Scotland; and one of his daughters, Matilda, became the wife of Henry I. of England, a marriage which united the Saxon and the Norman royal houses.

Malcolm IV.(c.1141-1165) was the eldest son of Henry, earl of Huntingdon (d. 1152), son of King David I., and succeeded his grandfather David as king of Scotland in 1153. He is called the “Maiden,” and died unmarried on the 9th of December 1165.

See E. A. Freeman,The Norman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. (1867-1879), andThe Reign of William Rufus(1882); W. F. Skene,Celtic Scotland(1876-1880); E. W. Robertson,Scotland under her Early Kings(1862); and A. Lang,History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900).

MALCOLM, SIR JOHN(1769-1833), Anglo-Indian soldier, diplomatist, administrator and author, was born at Burnfoot on the Esk, near Langholm, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, on the 2nd of May 1769. His father was a humble farmer, but three of his sons attained the honour of knighthood. At the age of twelve he received a cadetship in the Indian army, and in April 1783 he landed at Madras, shortly afterwards joining his regiment at Vellore. In 1792, having for some time devoted himself to the study of Persian, he was appointed to the staff of Lord Cornwallis as Persian interpreter, but two years afterwards was compelled by ill health to leave for England. On his return to India in 1796 he became military secretary to Sir Alured Clarke, commander-in-chief at Madras, and afterwards to his successor General Harris; and in 1798 he was appointed by Lord Wellesley assistant to the resident at Hyderabad. In the last-mentioned capacity he highly distinguished himself by the manner in which he gave effect to the difficult measure of disbanding the French corps in the pay of the nizam. In 1799, under the walls of Seringapatam, began his intimacy with Colonel Arthur Wellesley, which in a short time ripened into a lifelong friendship. In the course of the same year he acted as first secretary to the commission appointed to settle the Mysore government, and before its close he was appointed by Lord Wellesley to proceed as envoy to the court of Persia for the purpose of counteracting the policy of the French by inducing that country to form a British alliance. Arriving at Teheran in December 1800, he was successful in negotiating favourable treaties, both political and commercial, and returned to Bombay by way of Bagdad in May 1801. He now for some time held the interim post of private secretary to Lord Wellesley, and in 1803 was appointed to the Mysore residency. At the close of the Mahratta War, in 1804, and again in 1805, he negotiated important treaties with Sindhia and Holkar, and in 1806, besides seeing the arrangements arising out of these alliances carried out, he directed the difficult work of reducing the immense body of irregular native troops. In 1808 he was again sent on a mission to Persia, but circumstances prevented him from getting beyond Bushire; on his reappointment in 1810, he was successful indeed in procuring a favourable reception at court, but otherwise his embassy, if the information which he afterwards incorporated in his works on Persia be left out of account, was (through no fault of his) without any substantial result. He sailed for England in 1811, and shortly after his arrival in the following year was knighted. His intervals of leisure he devoted to literary work, and especially to the composition of aHistory of Persia, which was published in two quarto volumes in 1815. On his return to India in 1817 he was appointed by Lord Moira his political agent in the Deccan, with eligibility for military command; as brigadier-general under Sir T. Hislop he took a distinguished part in the victory of Mehidpur (December 21, 1817), as also in the subsequent work of following up the fugitives, determining the conditions of peace and settling the country. In 1821 he returned once more to England, where he remained until 1827, when he was appointed governor of Bombay. His influence in this office was directed to the promotion of various economical reforms and useful administrative measures. Leaving India for the last time in 1830, he shortly after his arrival in England entered parliament as member for Launceston, and was an active opponent of the Reform Bill. He died of paralysis on the 30th of May 1833.

Besides the work mentioned above, Sir John Malcolm publishedSketch of the Political History of India since ... 1784(in 1811 and 1826);Sketch of the Sikhs(1812);Observations on the Disturbances in the Madras Army in 1809(1812);Persia, a Poem, anonymous (1814);A Memoir of Central India(2 vols., 1823); andSketches of Persia, anonymous (1827). A posthumous work,Life of Robert, Lord Clive, appeared in 1836. SeeLife and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm, by J. W. Kaye (2 vols., 1856).

MALDA, a district of British India, in the Rajshahi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 1899 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 884,030, showing an increase of 8.5 in the decade. The administrative headquarters are at English Bazar (pop. 13,667) near the town of Old Malda. The district is divided into two almost equal parts by the Mahananda river, flowing from north to south. The western tract between the Mahananda and the main stream of the Ganges is an alluvial plain of sandy soil and great fertility. The eastern half is an elevated region broken by the deep valleys of the Tangan and Purnabhaba rivers and their small tributary streams. The soil here is a hard red clay; and the whole is overgrown with thorny tree jungle known as thekātāl. Agricultural prosperity centres on the Mahananda, where mango orchards and high raised plots of mulberry land extend continuously along both banks of the river. The Ganges nowhere intersects the district, but skirts it from its north-western corner to the extreme south. The Mahananda flows in a deep well-defined channel through the centre, and joins the Ganges at the southern corner. Its tributaries are the Kalindri on the right, and the Tangan and Purnabhaba on the left bank. The two principal industries are the production of indigo and silk. The first has declined, and so has the second as far as concerns the weaving of piece goods, but the rearing of silkworms and the export of raw silk and silk thread are carried on upon a large scale. No railway touches the district, but the communications by water are good.

Malda supplied two great capitals to the early Mahommedan kings of Bengal; and the sites of Gaur and Pandua exhibit the most interesting remains to be found in the lower valley of the Ganges. (SeeGaur.) The connexion of the East India Company with Malda dates from a very early period. As far back as 1676 there was a factory there. In 1770 English Bazar was fixed upon for a commercial residency, the buildings of which at the present day form both the public offices and private residence of the collector.

MALDEN, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Malden river, about 5 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 23,031, (1900), 33,664, of whom 9513 were foreign-born, 3673 being English Canadians, 870 English, and 617 Swedes; (1910 census) 44,404. Malden had in 1906 a land area of 4.78 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric railways. Although it is largely a residential suburb of Boston—its post office is a Boston sub-station—it has important manufacturing industries. The most valuable manufactured product is rubber boots and shoes. The capital invested in manufacturing in 1905 was $5,553,432; and the value of the factory product, $11,235,635, was 70.2% greater than the value of the factory product in 1900. Among Malden’s institutions are the public library (endowed by Elisha S. Converse), the Malden hospital, the Malden day nursery, a Young Men’s Christian Association, and a home for the aged. A fine system of parks is maintained; the best known is possibly Pine Banks. To the north and west is the Middlesex Fells, a state reservation; about 60 acres of this and about 20 acres of the Middlesex Fells Parkway lie within Malden. Malden, when first settled about 1640, was part of Charlestown, and was known for some years as Mystic Side. It was incorporated as a town under the name of “Mauldon” in 1640, and was chartered as a city in 1881. The north part of Malden was set off in 1850 to form Melrose, and the south partin 1870 to form the town of Everett. Malden was the birthplace of Adoniram Judson, the “apostle to Burma.” Michael Wigglesworth was pastor here from 1656 until 1705.

See D. P. Corey,History of Malden(Malden, 1899); andMalden, Past and Present(Malden, 1899).

MALDIVE ISLANDS, an archipelago of coral islets in the Indian Ocean, forming a chain between 7° 6′ N. and 0° 42′ S. It consists of seventeen atolls with an immense number of islands, of which some three hundred are inhabited. In the extreme south are the isolated atolls of Addu and Fua-Mulaku, separated from Suvadiva by the Equatorial Channel, which is itself separated from the main chain of atolls by One-and-a-half-degree Channel.1Following the chain northward from this channel, we have Haddumati and Kolumadulu, after which the chain becomes double: to the east the chief atolls are Mulaku, Felidu, South Malé, North Malé, Kardiva (where the channel of the same name, 35 m. broad, partly breaks the chain), and Fadiffolu. To the west are South Nilandu, North Nilandu, Ari, South Mahlos, North Mahlos and Miladumadulu. To the north again are Tiladumati and Ihavandifulu. Finally, to the north of Eight-degree Channel is Minikoi, 71 m. from the nearest point of the Maldives, and 110 m. from that of the Laccadives to the north. The main part of the archipelago, north of One-and-a-half-degree Channel, consists of a series of banks either surrounded or studded all over with reefs (see J. S. Gardiner, “Formation of the Maldives,” inGeographical Journ.xix. 277 seq.). Mr Gardiner regarded these banks as plateaus rising to different elevations beneath the surface of the sea from a main plateau rising steeply from the great depths of the Indian Ocean.

After the Portuguese, from about 1518 onwards, had attempted many times to establish themselves on the islands by force, and after the Maldivians had endured frequent raids by the Mopla pirates of the Malabar coast, they began to send tokens of homage and claims of protection (the first recorded being in 1645) to the rulers of Ceylon, and their association with this island has continued practically ever since. The hereditary sultan of the archipelago is tributary to the British government of Ceylon. The population of the Maldives is estimated at 30,000. All are Mahommedans. By Messrs. Gardiner and Cooper they are classed in four ethnological divisions. (1) Those of the atolls north of the Kardiva Channel. Here the reefs are generally less perfect than elsewhere, seldom forming complete central lagoons, and as they were formerly exposed to the constant attacks of the Mopla pirates from India, the people are hardier and more vigorous than their less warlike southern neighbours. They annually visited the coasts of India or Ceylon, and often married Indian wives, thus acquiring distinct racial characters of an approximately Dravidian type. (2) Those of the central division, comprising the atolls between North Malé and Haddumati, who are under the direct rule of the sultan, and have been more exposed to Arab influences. They formerly traded with Arabia and Malaysia, and many Arabs settled amongst them, so that they betray a strong strain of Semitic blood in their features. (3 and 4) The natives of Suvadiva, Addu, Mulaku and the other southern clusters, who have had little communication with the Central Malé people, and probably preserve more of the primitive type, approximating in appearance to the Sinhalese villagers of Ceylon. They are an intelligent and industrious people, growing their own crops, manufacturing their own cloth and mats, and building their own boats, while many read Arabic more or less fluently, although still believers in magic and witchcraft. The language is a dialect of Sinhalese, but indicating a separation of ancient date and more or less mahommedanized.

The sultan’s residence and the capital of the archipelago is the island of Malé. From the earliest notices the production of coir, the collection of cowries, and the weaving of excellent textures on these islands have been noted. The chief exports of the islands besides coir and cowries (a decreasing trade) are coco-nuts, copra, tortoise-shell and dried bonito-fish.

Minikoi atoll, with the numerous wrecks on its reefs, its lighthouse, and its position on the track of all eastward-bound vessels, is a familiar sight to seafarers in these waters. The atoll, which is pear-shaped and disposed in the direction from S.W. to N.E. is 5 m. long, with an extreme breadth of nearly 3 m., with a large but shallow lagoon approached from the north by a passage two fathoms deep. The atoll is growing outwards on every side, and at one place rises 19 ft. above sea-level. The population, which numbers about 3000, is sharply divided into five castes, of which the three highest are pure Maldivians, the lower two the same as in the Laccadives. All are centred in a small village opposite Mou Rambu Point on the west or lagoon side; but most of the men are generally absent, many being employed with the Lascar crews on board the large liners plying in the eastern seas.

In 1899-1900 Messrs. J. Stanley Gardiner and C. Forster Cooper carried out an expedition to the Maldives and Laccadives, for the important results of which seeThe Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, ed. J. S. Gardiner (Cambridge, 1901-1905), alsoProceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. xi. pt. 1 (1900), and theGeographical Journ.,loc. cit., &c. A French adventurer, François Pyrard de la Val, was wrecked in the Maldives in 1602 and detained there five years; he wrote an interesting account of the archipelago,Voyage de F. P. de la Val(Paris, 1679; previous editions 1611, &c.). See also A. Agassiz, “An Expedition to the Maldives” inAmer. Journ. Science, vol. xiii. (1902).

1These and other channels in the locality are named from their position under parallels of latitude.

MALDON,a market town, municipal borough and port, in the Maldon parliamentary borough of Essex, England, on an acclivity rising from the south side of the Blackwater, 43 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from Witham of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 5565. There are east and west railway stations. The church of All Saints, dating from 1056, but, as it stands, Early English and later, consists of chancel, nave and aisles, with a triangular Early English tower (a unique form) at the west end surmounted by a hexagonal spire. The tower of St Mary’s Church shows Norman work with Roman materials. The other public buildings are the grammar school, founded in 1547; the town-hall, formerly D’Arcy’s tower, built in the reign of Henry VI.; and the public hall. There are manufactures of crystallized salt, breweries, an oyster fishery and some shipping. On Osea Island, in the Blackwater estuary, there is a farm colony for the unemployed. A mile west of Maldon are remains of Beeleigh Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation of the 12th century. They consist of the chapter-house and another chamber, and are of fine Early English work. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3028 acres.

At Maldon (Maelduna,Melduna,MealdonorMeaudon) palaeolithic, neolithic and Roman remains that have been found seem to indicate an early settlement. It is not, however, an important Roman site. An earthwork, of which traces exist, may be Saxon or Danish. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle relates that Edward the Elder established a “burh” there about 921, and that Ealdorman Brihtnoth was killed there by the Danes in 991. The position of Maldon may have given it some commercial importance, but the fortress is the point emphasized by the Chronicle. Maldon remained a royal town up to the reign of Henry I., and thus is entered as onterra regisin Domesday. Henry II. granted the burgesses their first charter, probably in 1155, giving them the land of the borough and suburb with sac and soc and other judicial rights, also freedom from county and forest jurisdiction, danegeld, scutage, tallage and all tolls, by the service of one ship a year for forty days. This charter was confirmed by Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. in 1344, and by Richard II. in 1378. In 1403 the bishop of London granted further judicial and financial rights, and Henry V. confirmed the charters in 1417, Henry VI. in 1443, and Henry VIII. in 1525. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and Mary in 1554, and received confirmatory charters from Elizabeth in 1563 and 1592, from Charles I. in 1631, Charles II. and James II. In 1768 the incorporation charter was regranted, with modifications in 1810.

MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS(1638-1715), French philosopher of the Cartesian school, the youngest child of NicolasMalebranche, secretary to Louis XIII., and Catherine de Lauzon, sister of a viceroy of Canada, was born at Paris on the 6th of August 1638. Deformed and constitutionally feeble, he received his elementary education from a tutor, and left home only when sufficiently advanced to enter upon a course of philosophy at the Collège de la Marche, and subsequently to study theology at the Sorbonne. He had resolved to take holy orders, but his studious disposition led him to decline a stall in Notre Dame, and in 1660 he joined the congregation of the Oratory. He was first advised by Père Lecointe to devote himself to ecclesiastical history, and laboriously studied Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, but “the facts refused to arrange themselves in his mind, and mutually effaced one another.” Richard Simon undertook to teach him Hebrew and Biblical criticism with no better success. At last in 1664 he chanced to read Descartes’sTraité de l’homme(de homine), which moved him so deeply that (it is said) he was repeatedly compelled by palpitations of the heart to lay aside his reading. Malebranche was from that hour consecrated to philosophy, and after ten years’ study of the works of Descartes he produced the famousDe la recherche de la vérité, followed at intervals by other works, both speculative and controversial. Like most of the great metaphysicians of the 17th century, Malebranche interested himself also in questions of mathematics and natural philosophy, and in 1699 was admitted an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences. During his later years his society was much courted, and he received many visits from foreigners of distinction. He died on the 13th of October 1715; his end was said to have been hastened by a metaphysical argument into which he had been drawn in the course of an interview with Bishop Berkeley. For a critical account of Malebranche’s place in the history of philosophy, seeCartesianism.

Works.—De La recherche de la vérité(1674; 6th ed., 1712; ed. Bouillier, 1880; Latin trans, by J. Lenfant at Geneva in 1685; English trans. by R. Sault, 1694; and T. Taylor, 1694, 1712);Conversations chrétiennes(1677, and frequently; Eng. trans., London, 1695);Traité de la nature et de la grâce(1680; Eng. trans., London, 1695);Méditations chrétiennes et métaphysiques(1683);Traité de morale(1684; separate ed. by H. Joly, 1882; Eng. trans, by Sir J. Shipton, 1699); several polemical works against Arnauld from 1684 to 1688;Entretiens sur la métaphysique et sur la religion(1688);Traité de l’amour de Dieu(1697);Entretiens d’un philosophe chrétien et d’un philosophe chinois sur l’existence et la nature de Dieu(1708);Réflexions sur la prémotion physique(1715).A convenient edition of his works in two volumes, with an introduction, was published by Jules Simon in 1842. A full account by Mrs Norman Smith of his theory of vision, in which he unquestionably anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent work of Berkeley, will be found in theBritish Journal of Psychology(Jan. 1905). For recent criticism see H. Joly, in the seriesLes Grands philosophes(Paris, 1901); L. Ollé-Laprune,La Philosophie de Malebranche(1870); M. Novaro,Die Philosophie des Nicolaus Malebranche(1893).

A convenient edition of his works in two volumes, with an introduction, was published by Jules Simon in 1842. A full account by Mrs Norman Smith of his theory of vision, in which he unquestionably anticipated and in some respects surpassed the subsequent work of Berkeley, will be found in theBritish Journal of Psychology(Jan. 1905). For recent criticism see H. Joly, in the seriesLes Grands philosophes(Paris, 1901); L. Ollé-Laprune,La Philosophie de Malebranche(1870); M. Novaro,Die Philosophie des Nicolaus Malebranche(1893).

MALER KOTLA,a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. The territory lies south of Ludhiana. Area, 167 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 77,506, showing an increase of 2% in the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £30,100. The military force numbers 280 men; and there is no tribute. The town Maler Kotla is 30 m. S. of Ludhiana; pop. (1901), 21,122. The nawab or chief is of Afghan descent; his family originally came from Kabul, and occupied positions of trust in Sirhind under the Mogul emperors. They gradually became independent as the Mogul Empire sank into decay in the course of the 18th century. In General Lake’s campaign against Holkar in 1805 the nawab of Maler Kotla sided with the British. After the subjugation and flight of Holkar, the English government succeeded to the power of the Mahrattas in the districts between the Sutlej and the Jumna; and in 1809 its protection was formally extended to Maler Kotla, as to the other Cis-Sutlej states, against the formidable encroachments of Ranjit Singh. In the campaigns of 1806, 1807 and 1808 Ranjit Singh had made considerable conquests across the Sutlej; in 1808 he marched on Maler Kotla and demanded a ransom of £10,000 from the nawab. This led to the interference of the British, who addressed an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, declaring the Cis-Sutlej states to be under British protection. Finally the raja of Lahore submitted, and the nawab was reinstated in February 1809. Owing to the mental incapacity of nawab Ibrahim Ali Khan, the state was administered in recent years for some time by the chief of Loharu; but his son, Ahmed Ali Khan, was made regent in February 1905.

SeeMaler Kotla State Gazetteer(Lahore, 1908).

MALESHERBES, CHRÉTIEN GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON DE(1721-1794), commonly known as Lamoignon-Malesherbes, French statesman, minister, and afterwards counsel for the defence of Louis XVI., came of a famous legal family. He was born at Paris on the 6th of December 1721, and was educated for the legal profession. The young lawyer soon proved his intellectual capacity, when he was appointed president of thecour des aidesin the parlement of Paris in 1750 on the promotion of his father, Guillaume de Lamoignon, to be chancellor. One of the chancellor’s duties was to control the press, and this duty was entrusted to Malesherbes by his father during his eighteen years of office, and brought him into connexion with the public far more than his judicial functions. To carry it out efficiently he kept in communication with the literary leaders of Paris, and especially with Diderot, and Grimm even goes so far as to say that “without the assistance of Malesherbes theEncyclopédiewould probably never have been published.” In 1771 he was called upon to mix in politics; the parlements of France had been dissolved, and a new method of administering justice devised by Maupeou, which was in itself commendable as tending to the better and quicker administration of justice, but pernicious as exhibiting a tendency to over-centralization, and as abolishing the hereditary “nobility of the robe,” which, with all its faults, had from its nature preserved some independence, and been a check on the royal power. Malesherbes presented a strong remonstrance against the new system, and was at once banished to his country seat at St Lucie, to be recalled, however, with the old parlement on the accession of Louis XVI., and to be made minister of themaison du roiin 1775. He only held office nine months, during which, however, he directed his attention to the police of the kingdom, which came under his department, and did much to check the odious practice of issuinglettres de cachet. The protest of thecour des aidesin 1775 is one of the most important documents of the old régime in France. It gives a complete survey of the corrupt and inefficient administration, and presented the king with most outspoken criticism. On retiring from the ministry with Turgot in 1776, he betook himself entirely to a happy country and domestic life and travelled through Switzerland, Germany and Holland. An essay on Protestant marriages (1787) did much to procure for them the civil recognition in France. He had always been an enthusiastic botanist; his avenue at St Lucie was world famous; he had written against Buffon on behalf of the botanists whom Buffon had attacked, and had been elected a member of theAcadémie des sciencesas far back as 1750. He was now elected a member of theAcadémie française, and everything seemed to promise a quiet and peaceful old age spent in the bosom of his family and occupied with scientific and literary pursuits, when the king in his difficulties wished for the support of his name, and summoned him back to the ministry in 1787. Lamoignon-Malesherbes held office but a short time, but returned to his country life this time with a feeling of insecurity and disquiet, and, as the troubles increased, retired to Switzerland. Nevertheless, in December 1792, in spite of the fair excuse his old age and long retirement would have given him, he voluntarily left his asylum and undertook with Tronchet and Desèze the defence of the king before the Convention, and it was his painful task to break the news of his condemnation to the king. After this effort he returned once more to the country, but in December 1793 he was arrested with his daughter, his son-in-law M. de Rosambo, and his grandchildren, and on the 23rd of April 1794 he was guillotined, after having seen all whom he loved in the world executed before his eyes for their relationship to him. Malesherbes is one of thesweetest characters of the 18th century; though no man of action, hardly a man of the world, by his charity and unfeigned goodness he became one of the most popular men in France, and it was an act of truest self-devotion in him to sacrifice himself for a king who had done little or nothing for him.

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