Chapter 12

See Zola,Manet(Paris, 1867); E. Bazire,Manet(Paris, 1884); G. Geffroy,La Vie artistique(1893).

(H. Fr.)

MANETENERIS,a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Purus river, and between it and the Jurua, north-western Brazil. They manufacture cotton cloth, and have iron axes and fish hooks. The men wear long ponchos, the women sacks open at the bottom. The Maneteneris are essentially a waterside people. Their cedarwood canoes are very long and beautifully made.

MANETHO(Μανέθωνin an inscription of Carthage;Μανεθὼςin a papyrus), Egyptian priest and annalist, was a native of Sebennytus in the Delta. The name which he bears has a good Egyptian appearance, and has been found on a contemporary papyrus probably referring to the man himself. The evidence of Plutarch and other indications connect him with the reigns of Ptolemy I. and II. His most important work was an Egyptian history in Greek, for which he translated the native records. It is now only known by some fragments of narrative in Josephus’s treatiseAgainst Apion, and by tables of dynasties and kings with lengths of reigns, divided into three books, in the works of Christian chronographers. The earliest and best of the latter is Julius Africanus, besides whom Eusebius andsome falsifying apologists offer the same materials; the chief text is that preserved in theChronographiaof Georgius Syncellus. It is difficult to judge the value of the original from these extracts: it is clear from the different versions of the lists that they have been corrupted. Manetho’s work was probably based on native lists like that of the Turin Papyrus of Kings: even his division into dynasties may have been derived from such. The fragments of narrative give a very confused idea of Egyptian history in the time of the Hyksos and the XVIIIth Dynasty. The royal lists, too, are crowded with errors of detail, both in the names and order of the kings, and in the lengths attributed to the reigns. The brief notes attached to some of the names may be derived from Manetho’s narrative, but they are chiefly references to kings mentioned by Herodotus or to marvels that were supposed to have occurred: they certainly possess little historical value. A puzzling annotation to the name of Bocchoris, “in whose time a lamb spake 990 years,” has been well explained by Krall’s reading of a demotic story written in the twenty-third year of Augustus. According to this a lamb prophesied that after Bocchoris’s reign Egypt should be in the hands of the oppressor 900 years; in Africanus’s day it was necessary to lengthen the period in order to keep up the spirits of the patriots after the stated term had expired. This is evidently not from the pure text of Manetho. Notwithstanding all their defects, the fragments of Manetho have provided the accepted scheme of Egyptian dynasties and have been of great service to scholars ever since the first months of Champollion’s decipherment.

See C. Müller,Fragmenta historicorum graecorum, ii. 511-616; A. Wiedemann,Aegyptische Geschichte(Gotha, 1884), pp. 121 et sqq.; J. Krall inFestgaben für Büdinger(Innsbruck, 1898); Grenfell and Hunt,El Hibeh Papyri, i. 223; also the section on chronology inEgypt, and generally books on Egyptian history and chronology.

(F. Ll. G.)

MANFRED(c.1232-1266), king of Sicily, was a natural son of the emperor Frederick II. by Bianca Lancia, or Lanzia, who is reported on somewhat slender evidence to have been married to the emperor just before his death. Frederick himself appears to have regarded Manfred as legitimate, and by his will named him as prince of Tarentum and appointed him as the representative in Italy of his half-brother, the German king, Conrad IV. Although only about eighteen years of age Manfred acted loyally and with vigour in the execution of his trust, and when Conrad appeared in southern Italy in 1252 his authority was quickly and generally acknowledged. When in May 1254 the German king died, Manfred, after refusing to surrender Sicily to Pope Innocent IV., accepted the regency on behalf of Conradin, the infant son of Conrad. But the strength of the papal party in the Sicilian kingdom rendered the position of the regent so precarious that he decided to open negotiations with Innocent. By a treaty made in September 1254, Apulia passed under the authority of the pope, who was personally conducted by Manfred into his new possession. But Manfred’s suspicions being aroused by the demeanour of the papal retinue, he fled to the Saracens at Lucera. Aided by Saracen allies, he defeated the papal troops at Foggia on the 2nd of December 1254, and soon established his authority over Sicily and the Sicilian possessions on the mainland.

Taking advantage in 1258 of a rumour that Conradin was dead, Manfred was crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 10th of August in that year. The falsehood of this report was soon manifest; but the new king, supported by the popular voice, declined to abdicate, and pointed out to Conradin’s envoys the necessity for a strong native ruler. But the pope, to whom the Saracen alliance was a serious offence, declared Manfred’s coronation void and pronounced sentence of excommunication. Undeterred by this sentence Manfred sought to obtain power in central and northern Italy, and in conjunction with the Ghibellines his forces defeated the Guelphs at Monte Aperto on the 4th of September 1260. He was then recognized as protector of Tuscany by the citizens of Florence, who did homage to his representative, and he was chosen senator of the Romans by a faction in the city. Terrified by these proceedings, Pope Urban IV. implored aid from France, and persuaded Charles count of Anjou, a brother of King Louis IX., to accept the investiture of the kingdom of Sicily at his hands. Hearing of the approach of Charles, Manfred issued a manifesto to the Romans, in which he not only defended his rule over Italy but even claimed the imperial crown. The rival armies met near Benevento on the 26th of February 1266, where, although the Germans fought with undaunted courage, the cowardice of the Italians quickly brought destruction on Manfred’s army. The king himself, refusing to fly, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Over his body, which was buried on the battlefield, a huge heap of stones was placed, but afterwards with the consent of the pope the remains were unearthed, cast out of the papal territory, and interred on the banks of the Liris. Manfred was twice married. His first wife was Beatrice, daughter of Amadeus IV. count of Savoy, by whom he had a daughter, Constance, who became the wife of Peter III. king of Aragon; and his second wife, who died in prison in 1271, was Helena, daughter of Michael II. despot of Epirus. Contemporaries praise the noble and magnanimous character of Manfred, who was renowned for his physical beauty and intellectual attainments.

Manfred forms the subject of dramas by E. B. S. Raupach, O. Marbach and F. W. Roggee. Three letters written by Manfred are published by J. B. Carusius inBibliotheca historica regni Siciliae(Palermo, 1732). See Cesare,Storia di Manfredi(Naples, 1837); Münch,König Manfred(Stuttgart, 1840); Riccio,Alcuni studii storici intorno a Manfredi e Conradino(Naples, 1850); F. W. Schirrmacher,Die letzten Hohenstaufen(Göttingen, 1871); Capesso,Historia diplomatica regni Siciliae(Naples, 1874); A. Karst,Geschichte Manfreds vom Tode Friedrichs II. bis zu seiner Krönung(Berlin, 1897); and K. Hampe,Urban IV. und Manfred(Heidelberg, 1905).

MANFREDONIA,a town and archiepiscopal see (with Viesti) of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, from which it is 22½ m. N.E. by rail, situated on the coast, facing E., 13 ft. above sea-level, to the south of Monte Gargano, and giving its name to the gulf to the east of it. Pop. (1901), 11,549. It was founded by Manfred in 1263, and destroyed by the Turks in 1620; but the medieval castle of the Angevins and parts of the town walls are well preserved. In the church of S. Domenico, the chapel of the Maddalena contains old paintings of the 14th century. Two miles to the south-west is the fine cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore di Siponto, built in 1117 in the Romanesque style, with a dome and crypt. S. Leonardo, nearer Foggia, belonging to the Teutonic order, is of the same date. This marks the site of the ancient Sipontum, the harbour of Arpi, which became a Roman colony in 194B.C., and was not deserted in favour of Manfredonia until the 13th century, having become unhealthy owing to the stagnation of the water in the lagoons.

See A. Beltramelli,Il Gargano(Bergamo, 1907).

(T. As.)

MANGABEY,a name (probably of French origin) applied to the West African monkeys of the genusCercocebus, the more typical representatives of which are characterized by their bare, flesh-coloured upper eye-lids, and the uniformly coloured hairs of the fur. (SeePrimates.)

MANGALIA,a town in the department of Constantza Rumania, situated on the Black Sea, and at the mouth of a small stream, the Mangalia, 10 m. N. of the Bulgarian frontier. Pop. (1900), 1459. The inhabitants, among whom are many Turks and Bulgarians, are mostly fisherfolk. Mangalia is to be identified with the Thracian Kallatis or Acervetis, a colony of Miletus which continued to be a flourishing place to the close of the Roman period. In the 14th century it had 30,000 inhabitants, and a large trade with Genoa.

MANGALORE,a seaport of British India, administrative headquarters of the South Kanara district of Madras, and terminus of the west coast line of the Madras railway. Pop. (1901), 44,108. The harbour is formed by the backwater of two small rivers. Vessels ride in 24 to 30 ft. of water, and load from and unload into lighters. The chief exports are coffee, coco-nut products, timber, rice and spices. Mangalore clears and exports all the coffee of Coorg, and trades directly with Arabia and thePersian Gulf. There is a small shipbuilding industry. The town has a large Roman Catholic population, with a European bishop, several churches, a convent and a college. It is the headquarters of the Basel Lutheran mission, which possesses one of the most active printing presses in southern India, and has also successfully introduced the industries of weaving and the manufacture of tiles. Two colleges (Government and St Aloysius) are situated here. Mangalore was gallantly defended by Colonel John Campbell of the 42nd regiment from May 6, 1783, to January 30, 1784, with a garrison of 1850 men, of whom 412 were English, against Tippoo Sultan’s whole army.

MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE(1803-1849), Irish poet, was born in Dublin on the 1st of May 1803. His baptismal name was James, the “Clarence” being his own addition. His father, a grocer, who boasted of the terror with which he inspired his children, had ruined himself by imprudent speculation and extravagant hospitality. The burden of supporting the family fell on James, who entered a scrivener’s office, at the age of fifteen, and drudged as a copying clerk for ten years. He was employed for some time in the library of Trinity College, and in 1833 he found a place in the Irish Ordnance Survey. He suffered a disappointment in love, and continued ill health drove him to the use of opium. He was habitually the victim of hallucinations which at times threatened his reason. For Charles Maturin, the eccentric author ofMelmoth, he cherished a deep admiration, the results of which are evident in his prose stories. He belonged to the Comet Club, a group of youthful enthusiasts who carried on war in their paper, theComet, against the levying of tithes on behalf of the Protestant clergy. Contributions to theDublin Penny Journalfollowed; and to theDublin University Magazinehe sent translations from the German poets. The mystical tendency of German poetry had a special appeal for him. He chose poems that were attuned to his own melancholy temperament, and did much that was excellent in this field. He also wrote versions of old Irish poems, though his knowledge of the language, at any rate at the beginning of his career, was but slight. Some of his best-known Irish poems, however,O’Hussey’s Ode to the Maguire, for instance, follow the originals very closely. Besides these were “translations” from Arabic, Turkish and Persian. How much of these languages he knew is uncertain, but he had read widely in Oriental subjects, and some of the poems are exquisite though the original authors whom he cites are frequently mythical. He took a mischievous pleasure in mystifying his readers, and in practising extraordinary metres. For theNationhe wrote from the beginning (1842) of its career, and much of his best work appeared in it. He afterwards contributed to theUnited Irishman. On the 20th of June 1849 he died at Meath Hospital, Dublin, of cholera. It was alleged at the time that starvation was the real cause. This statement was untrue, but there is no doubt that his wretched poverty made him ill able to withstand disease.

Mangan holds a high place among Irish poets, but his fame was deferred by the inequality and mass of his work, much of which lay buried in inaccessible newspaper files under his many pseudonyms, “Vacuus,” “Terrae Filius,” “Clarence,” &c. Of his genius, morbid though it sometimes is, as in his tragic autobiographical ballad ofThe Nameless One, there can be no question. He expressed with rare sincerity the tragedy of Irish hopes and aspirations, and he furnished abundant proof of his versatility in his excellent nonsense verses, which are in strange contrast with the general trend of his work.

An autobiography which appeared in theIrish Monthly(1882) does not reproduce the real facts of his career with any fidelity. For some time after his death there was no adequate edition of his works, butGerman Anthology(1845), andThe Poets and Poetry of Munster(1849) had appeared during his lifetime. In 1850 Hercules Ellis included thirty of his ballads in hisRomances and Ballads of Ireland. Other selections appeared subsequently, notably one (1897), by Miss L. I. Guiney.The Poems of James ClarenceMangan(1903), and theProse Writings(1904), were both edited by D. J. O’Donoghue, who wrote in 1897 a complete account of theLife and Writingsof the poet.

MANGANESE[symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (O = 16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite) has been known from very early times, and was at first mistaken for a magnetic oxide of iron. In 1740 J. H. Pott showed that it did not contain iron and that it yielded a definite series of salts, whilst in 1774 C. Scheele proved that it was the oxide of a distinctive metal. Manganese is found widely distributed in nature, being generally found to a greater or less extent associated with the carbonates and silicates of iron, calcium and magnesium, and also as the minerals braunite, hausmannite, psilomelane, manganite, manganese spar and hauerite. It has also been recognized in the atmosphere of the sun (A. Cornu,Comptes rendus, 1878, 86, pp. 315, 530), in sea water, and in many mineral waters.

The metal was isolated by J. G. Gahn in 1774, and in 1807 J. F. John (Gehlen’s Jour. chem. phys., 1807, 3, p. 452) obtained an impure metal by reducing the carbonate at a high temperature with charcoal, mixed with a small quantity of oil. R. Bunsen prepared the metal by electrolysing manganese chloride in a porous cell surrounded by a carbon crucible containing hydrochloric acid. Various reduction methods have been employed for the isolation of the metal. C. Brunner (Pogg. Ann., 1857, 101, p. 264) reduced the fluoride by metallic sodium, and E. Glatzel (Ber., 1889, 22, p. 2857) the chloride by magnesium, H. Moissan (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1896 (7) 9, p. 286) reduced the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace; and H. Goldschmidt has prepared the metal from the oxide by means of his “thermite” process (seeChromium). W. H. Green and W. H. Wahl [German patent 70773 (1893)] prepare a 97% manganese from pyrolusite by heating it with 30% sulphuric acid, the product being then converted into manganous oxide by heating in a current of reducing gas at a dull red heat, cooled in a reducing atmosphere, and finally reduced by heating with granulated aluminium in a magnesia crucible with lime and fluorspar as a flux. A purer metal is obtained by reducing manganese amalgam by hydrogen (O. Prelinger,Monats., 1894, 14, p. 353).

Prelinger’s manganese has a specific gravity of 7.42, and the variety obtained by distilling pure manganese amalgamin vacuois pyrophoric (A. Guntz,Bull. Soc.[3], 7, 275), and burns when heated in a current of sulphur dioxide. The pure metal readily evolves hydrogen when acted upon by sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and is readily attacked by dilute nitric acid. It precipitates many metals from solutions of their salts. It is employed commercially in the manufacture of special steels. (SeeIron and Steel.)

CompoundsManganese forms several oxides, the most important of which are manganous oxide, MnO, trimanganese tetroxide, Mn3O4, manganese sesquioxide, Mn2O3, manganese dioxide, MnO2, manganese trioxide, MnO3, and manganese heptoxide, Mn3O7.Manganous oxide, MnO, is obtained by heating a mixture of anhydrous manganese chloride and sodium carbonate with a small quantity of ammonium chloride (J. v. Liebig and F. Wöhler,Pogg. Ann., 1830, 21, p. 584); or by reducing the higher oxides with hydrogen or carbon monoxide. It is a dark coloured powder of specific gravity 5.09.Manganous hydroxide, Mn(OH)2, is obtained as a white precipitate on adding a solution of a caustic alkali to a manganous salt. For the preparation of the crystalline variety identical with the mineral pyrochroite (see A. de Schulten,Comptes rendus, 1887, 105, p. 1265). It rapidly oxidizes on exposure to air and turns brown, going ultimately to the sesquioxide.Trimanganese tetroxide, Mn3O4, is produced more or less pure when the other oxides are heated. It may be obtained crystalline by heating manganese sulphate and potassium sulphate to a bright red heat (H. Debray,Comptes rendus, 1861, 52, p. 985). It is a reddish-brown powder, which when heated with hydrochloric acid yields chlorine.Manganese sesquioxide, Mn2O3, found native as the mineral braunite, may be obtained by igniting the other oxides in a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, containing not more than 26% of the latter gas (W. Dittmar,Jour. Chem. Soc., 1864, 17, p. 294). The hydrated form, found native as the mineral manganite, is produced by the spontaneous oxidation of manganous hydroxide. In the hydrated condition it is a dark brown powder which readily loses water at above 100° C., it dissolves in hot nitric acid, giving manganous nitrate and manganese dioxide: 2MnO(OH) + 2HNO3= Mn(NO3)2+ MnO2+ 2H2O.Manganese dioxide, or pyrolusite (q.v.), MnO2, the most important oxide, may be prepared by heating crystallized manganous nitrate until red fumes are given off, decanting the clear liquid, and heating to 150° to 160° C. for 40 to 60 hours (A. Gorgen,Bull. Soc., 1890 [3], 4, p. 16),or by heating manganese carbonate to 260° C. in the presence of air and washing the residue with very dilute cold hydrochloric acid. It is a hard black solid which readily loses oxygen when strongly heated, leaving a residue of Mn3O4. When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine, and with concentrated sulphuric acid it yields oxygen. It is reduced to the monoxide when heated in a current of hydrogen. It is a strong oxidizing agent. It dissolves in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid, forming a dark brown solution which probably contains manganic chloride (see R. J. Meyer,Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1899, 22, p. 169; G. Neumann,Monats., 1894, 15, p. 489). It is almost impossible to prepare a pure hydrated manganese dioxide owing to the readiness with which it loses oxygen, leaving residues of the typexMnO·yMnO2. Such mixtures are obtained by the action of alkaline hypochlorites on manganous salts, or by suspending manganous carbonate in water and passing chlorine through the mixture. The solid matter is filtered off, washed with water, and warmed with 10% nitric acid (A. Gorgen). It is a dark brown powder, which reddens litmus. Manganese dioxide combines with other basic oxides to formmanganites, and on this property is based the Weldon process for the recovery of manganese from the waste liquors of the chlorine stills (seeChlorine). The manganites are amorphous brown solids, insoluble in water, and decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the evolution of chlorine.Manganese trioxide, MnO3, is obtained in small quantity as an unstable deliquescent red solid by dropping a solution of potassium permanganate in sulphuric acid on to dry sodium carbonate (B. Franke,Jour. prak. Chem., 1887 [2], 36, p. 31). Above 50° C. it decomposes into the dioxide and oxygen. It dissolves in water forming manganic acid, H2MnO4.Manganese heptoxide, Mn2O7, prepared by adding pure potassium permanganate to well cooled, concentrated sulphuric acid, when the oxide separates as a dark oil (H. Aschoff,Pogg. Ann., 1860, 111, p. 217), is very unstable, continually giving off oxygen. It decomposes violently on heating, and explodes in contact with hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. It dissolves in water to form a deep red solution which containspermanganic acid, HMnO4. This acid is also formed by decomposing barium or lead permanganate with dilute sulphuric acid. It is only known in aqueous solution. This solution is of a deep violet-red colour, and is somewhat fluorescent; it decomposes on exposure to light, or when heated. It is a monobasic acid, and a very powerful oxidizing agent (M. M. P. Muir,Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, 91, p. 1485).Manganous Salts.—The anhydrouschloride, MnCl2, is obtained as a rose-red crystalline solid by passing hydrochloric acid gas over manganese carbonate, first in the cold and afterwards at a moderate red heat. The hydrated chloride, MnCl2·4H2O, is obtained in rose-red crystals by dissolving the metal or its carbonate in aqueous hydrochloric acid and concentrating the solution. It may be obtained in at least two different forms, one isomorphous with NaCl·2H2O, by concentrating the solution between 15° C. and 20°C.; the other, isomorphous with FeCl2·4H2O, by slow evaporation of the mother liquors from the former. It forms double salts with the chlorides of the alkali metals. ThebromideMnBr2·4H2O,iodide, MnI2, andfluoride, MnF2, are known.Manganous Sulphate, MnSO4, is prepared by strongly heating a paste of pyrolusite and concentrated sulphuric acid until acid fumes cease to be evolved. The ferric and aluminium sulphates present are thus converted into insoluble basic salts, and the residue yields manganous sulphate when extracted with water. The salt crystallizes with varying quantities of water, according to the temperature at which crystallization is effected: between −4° C. and +6° C. with 7H2O, between 15° C. and 20° C. with 5H2O, and between 25° C. and 31° C. with 4H2O. It crystallizes in large pink crystals, the colour of which is probably due to the presence of a small quantity of manganic sulphate or of a cobalt sulphate. It combines with the sulphates of the alkali metals to form double salts.Manganous Nitrate, Mn(NO3)2·6H2O, obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid and concentrating the solution, crystallizes from nitric acid solutions in long colourless needles, which melt at 25.8° C. and boil at 129.5° C. with some decomposition.Manganous Carbonate, MnCO3, found native as manganese spar, may be prepared as an amorphous powder by heating manganese chloride with sodium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150° C., or in the hydrated form as a white flocculent precipitate by adding sodium carbonate to a manganous salt. In the moist condition it rapidly turns brown on exposure to air.Manganous Sulphide, MnS, found native as manganese glance, may be obtained by heating the monoxide or carbonate in a porcelain tube in a current of carbon bisulphide vapour. R. Schneider (Pogg. Ann., 1874, 151, 449) obtained a crystalline variety by melting sulphur with anhydrous manganous sulphate and dry potassium carbonate, extracting the residue and drying it in a current of hydrogen. Four sulphides are known; the red and green are anhydrous, a grey variety contains much water, whilst the pink is a mixture of the grey and red (J. C. Olsen and W. S. Rapalje,Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1904, 26, p. 1615). Ammonium sulphide alone gives incomplete precipitation of the sulphide. In the presence of ammonium salts the precipitate is dirty white in colour, whilst in the presence of free ammonia it is a buff colour. This form of the sulphide is readily oxidized when exposed in the moist condition, and is easily decomposed by dilute mineral acids.Manganese Disulphide, MnS2, found native as hauerite, is formed as a red coloured powder by heating manganous sulphate with potassium polysulphide in a sealed tube at 160°-170° C. (H. v. Senarmont,Jour. prak. Chem., 1850, 51, p. 385).Manganic Salts.—The sulphate, Mn2(SO4)3, is prepared by gradually heating at 138° C. a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and manganese dioxide until the whole becomes of a dark green colour. The excess of acid is removed by spreading the mass on a porous plate, the residue stirred for some hours with nitric acid, again spread on a porous plate, and finally dried quickly at about 130° C. It is a dark green deliquescent powder which decomposes on heating or on exposure to moist air. It is readily decomposed by dilute acids. With potassium sulphate in the presence of sulphuric acid it forms potassium manganese alum, K2SO4·Mn2(SO4)2·24H2O. A. Piccini (Zeit. anorg. Chem.1898, 17, p. 355) has also obtained a manganese caesium alum.Manganic Fluoride, MnF3, a solid obtained by the action of fluorine on manganous chloride, is decomposed by heat into manganous fluoride and fluorine. By suspending the dioxide in carbon tetrachloride and passing in hydrochloric acid gas, W. B. Holmes (Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii., p. 873) obtained a black trichloride and a reddish-brown tetrachloride.Manganese Carbide, Mn3C, is prepared by heating manganous oxide with sugar charcoal in an electric furnace, or by fusing manganese chloride and calcium carbide. Water decomposes it, giving methane and hydrogen (H. Moissan); Mn3C + 6H2O = 3Mn(OH)2+ CH4+ H2.Manganates.—These salts are derived from manganic acid H2MnO4. Those of the alkali metals are prepared by fusing manganese dioxide with sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of air or of some oxidizing agent (nitre, potassium chlorate, &c.); MnO2+ 2KHO + O = K2MnO4+ H2O. In the absence of air the reaction proceeds slightly differently, some manganese sesquioxide being formed; 3MnO2+ 2KHO = K2MnO4+ Mn2O3+ H2O. The fused mass has a dark olive-green colour, and dissolves in a small quantity of cold water to a green solution, which is, however, only stable in the presence of an excess of alkali. The green solution is readily converted into a pink one of permanganate by a large dilution with water, or by passing carbon dioxide through it: 3K2MnO4+ 2CO2= 2K2CO3+ 2KMnO4+ MnO2.Permanganatesare the salts of permanganic acid, HMnO4. Thepotassiumsalt, KMnO4, may be prepared by passing chlorine or carbon dioxide through an aqueous solution of potassium manganate, or by the electrolytic oxidation of the manganate at the anode [German patent 101710 (1898)]. It crystallizes in dark purple-red prisms, isomorphous with potassium perchlorate. It acts as a powerful oxidizing agent, both in acid and alkaline solution; in the first case two molecules yield five atoms of available oxygen and in the second, three atoms:2KMnO4+ 3H2SO4= K2SO4+ 2MnSO4+ 3H2O + 5O;2KMnO4+ 3H2O= 2MnO2·H2O + 2KHO + 3O.It completely decomposes hydrogen peroxide in sulphuric acid solution—2KMnO4+ 5H2O2+ 3H2SO4= K2SO4+ 2MnSO4+ 8H2O + 5O2.It decomposes when heated to200°-240° C. : 2KMnO4= K2MnO4+ MnO2+ O2;and when warmed with hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine:2KMnO4+ 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2+ 8H2O + 5Cl2.Sodium Permanganate, NaMnO4.3H2O (?), may be prepared in a similar manner, or by precipitating the silver salt with sodium chloride. It crystallizes with great difficulty. A solution of the crude salt is used as a disinfectant under the name of “Condy’s fluid.”Ammonium Permanganate, NH4·MnO4, explodes violently on rubbing, and its aqueous solution decomposes on boiling (W. Muthmann,Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1018); NH4·MnO4= MnO2+ N2+ 2H2O.Barium Permanganate, BaMn2O3, crystallizes in almost black needles, and is formed by passing carbon dioxide through water containing suspended barium manganate.Detection.—Manganese salts can be detected by the amethyst colour they impart to a borax-bead when heated in the Bunsen flame, and by the green mass formed when they are fused with a mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate. Manganese may be estimated quantitatively by precipitation as carbonate, this salt being then converted into the oxide, Mn3O4by ignition; or by precipitation as hydrated dioxide by means of ammonia and bromine water, followed by ignition to Mn3O4. The valuation of pyrolusite is generally carried out by means of a distillation with hydrochloric acid, the liberated chlorine passing through a solution of potassium iodide, and the amount of iodine liberated being ascertained by means of a standard solution of sodium thiosulphate.The atomic weight of manganese has been frequently determined. J. Berzelius, by analysis of the chloride, obtained the value 54.86; K. v. Hauer (Sitzb. Akad. Wien., 1857, 25, p. 132), by conversion of the sulphate into sulphide, obtained the value 54.78; J. Dewar and A. Scott (Chem. News, 1883, 47, p. 98), by analysis of silver permanganate, obtained the value 55.038; J. M. Weeren (Stahl. u.Eisen, 1893, 13, p. 559), by conversion of manganous oxide into the sulphate obtained the value 54.883, and of the sulphate into sulphide the value 54.876 (H = 1), and finally G. P. Baxter and Hines (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1906, 28, p. 1360), by analyses of the chloride and bromide, obtained 54.96 (O = 16).

Compounds

Manganese forms several oxides, the most important of which are manganous oxide, MnO, trimanganese tetroxide, Mn3O4, manganese sesquioxide, Mn2O3, manganese dioxide, MnO2, manganese trioxide, MnO3, and manganese heptoxide, Mn3O7.

Manganous oxide, MnO, is obtained by heating a mixture of anhydrous manganese chloride and sodium carbonate with a small quantity of ammonium chloride (J. v. Liebig and F. Wöhler,Pogg. Ann., 1830, 21, p. 584); or by reducing the higher oxides with hydrogen or carbon monoxide. It is a dark coloured powder of specific gravity 5.09.Manganous hydroxide, Mn(OH)2, is obtained as a white precipitate on adding a solution of a caustic alkali to a manganous salt. For the preparation of the crystalline variety identical with the mineral pyrochroite (see A. de Schulten,Comptes rendus, 1887, 105, p. 1265). It rapidly oxidizes on exposure to air and turns brown, going ultimately to the sesquioxide.Trimanganese tetroxide, Mn3O4, is produced more or less pure when the other oxides are heated. It may be obtained crystalline by heating manganese sulphate and potassium sulphate to a bright red heat (H. Debray,Comptes rendus, 1861, 52, p. 985). It is a reddish-brown powder, which when heated with hydrochloric acid yields chlorine.Manganese sesquioxide, Mn2O3, found native as the mineral braunite, may be obtained by igniting the other oxides in a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, containing not more than 26% of the latter gas (W. Dittmar,Jour. Chem. Soc., 1864, 17, p. 294). The hydrated form, found native as the mineral manganite, is produced by the spontaneous oxidation of manganous hydroxide. In the hydrated condition it is a dark brown powder which readily loses water at above 100° C., it dissolves in hot nitric acid, giving manganous nitrate and manganese dioxide: 2MnO(OH) + 2HNO3= Mn(NO3)2+ MnO2+ 2H2O.Manganese dioxide, or pyrolusite (q.v.), MnO2, the most important oxide, may be prepared by heating crystallized manganous nitrate until red fumes are given off, decanting the clear liquid, and heating to 150° to 160° C. for 40 to 60 hours (A. Gorgen,Bull. Soc., 1890 [3], 4, p. 16),or by heating manganese carbonate to 260° C. in the presence of air and washing the residue with very dilute cold hydrochloric acid. It is a hard black solid which readily loses oxygen when strongly heated, leaving a residue of Mn3O4. When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine, and with concentrated sulphuric acid it yields oxygen. It is reduced to the monoxide when heated in a current of hydrogen. It is a strong oxidizing agent. It dissolves in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid, forming a dark brown solution which probably contains manganic chloride (see R. J. Meyer,Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1899, 22, p. 169; G. Neumann,Monats., 1894, 15, p. 489). It is almost impossible to prepare a pure hydrated manganese dioxide owing to the readiness with which it loses oxygen, leaving residues of the typexMnO·yMnO2. Such mixtures are obtained by the action of alkaline hypochlorites on manganous salts, or by suspending manganous carbonate in water and passing chlorine through the mixture. The solid matter is filtered off, washed with water, and warmed with 10% nitric acid (A. Gorgen). It is a dark brown powder, which reddens litmus. Manganese dioxide combines with other basic oxides to formmanganites, and on this property is based the Weldon process for the recovery of manganese from the waste liquors of the chlorine stills (seeChlorine). The manganites are amorphous brown solids, insoluble in water, and decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the evolution of chlorine.Manganese trioxide, MnO3, is obtained in small quantity as an unstable deliquescent red solid by dropping a solution of potassium permanganate in sulphuric acid on to dry sodium carbonate (B. Franke,Jour. prak. Chem., 1887 [2], 36, p. 31). Above 50° C. it decomposes into the dioxide and oxygen. It dissolves in water forming manganic acid, H2MnO4.Manganese heptoxide, Mn2O7, prepared by adding pure potassium permanganate to well cooled, concentrated sulphuric acid, when the oxide separates as a dark oil (H. Aschoff,Pogg. Ann., 1860, 111, p. 217), is very unstable, continually giving off oxygen. It decomposes violently on heating, and explodes in contact with hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. It dissolves in water to form a deep red solution which containspermanganic acid, HMnO4. This acid is also formed by decomposing barium or lead permanganate with dilute sulphuric acid. It is only known in aqueous solution. This solution is of a deep violet-red colour, and is somewhat fluorescent; it decomposes on exposure to light, or when heated. It is a monobasic acid, and a very powerful oxidizing agent (M. M. P. Muir,Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, 91, p. 1485).

Manganous Salts.—The anhydrouschloride, MnCl2, is obtained as a rose-red crystalline solid by passing hydrochloric acid gas over manganese carbonate, first in the cold and afterwards at a moderate red heat. The hydrated chloride, MnCl2·4H2O, is obtained in rose-red crystals by dissolving the metal or its carbonate in aqueous hydrochloric acid and concentrating the solution. It may be obtained in at least two different forms, one isomorphous with NaCl·2H2O, by concentrating the solution between 15° C. and 20°C.; the other, isomorphous with FeCl2·4H2O, by slow evaporation of the mother liquors from the former. It forms double salts with the chlorides of the alkali metals. ThebromideMnBr2·4H2O,iodide, MnI2, andfluoride, MnF2, are known.

Manganous Sulphate, MnSO4, is prepared by strongly heating a paste of pyrolusite and concentrated sulphuric acid until acid fumes cease to be evolved. The ferric and aluminium sulphates present are thus converted into insoluble basic salts, and the residue yields manganous sulphate when extracted with water. The salt crystallizes with varying quantities of water, according to the temperature at which crystallization is effected: between −4° C. and +6° C. with 7H2O, between 15° C. and 20° C. with 5H2O, and between 25° C. and 31° C. with 4H2O. It crystallizes in large pink crystals, the colour of which is probably due to the presence of a small quantity of manganic sulphate or of a cobalt sulphate. It combines with the sulphates of the alkali metals to form double salts.

Manganous Nitrate, Mn(NO3)2·6H2O, obtained by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid and concentrating the solution, crystallizes from nitric acid solutions in long colourless needles, which melt at 25.8° C. and boil at 129.5° C. with some decomposition.

Manganous Carbonate, MnCO3, found native as manganese spar, may be prepared as an amorphous powder by heating manganese chloride with sodium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150° C., or in the hydrated form as a white flocculent precipitate by adding sodium carbonate to a manganous salt. In the moist condition it rapidly turns brown on exposure to air.

Manganous Sulphide, MnS, found native as manganese glance, may be obtained by heating the monoxide or carbonate in a porcelain tube in a current of carbon bisulphide vapour. R. Schneider (Pogg. Ann., 1874, 151, 449) obtained a crystalline variety by melting sulphur with anhydrous manganous sulphate and dry potassium carbonate, extracting the residue and drying it in a current of hydrogen. Four sulphides are known; the red and green are anhydrous, a grey variety contains much water, whilst the pink is a mixture of the grey and red (J. C. Olsen and W. S. Rapalje,Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1904, 26, p. 1615). Ammonium sulphide alone gives incomplete precipitation of the sulphide. In the presence of ammonium salts the precipitate is dirty white in colour, whilst in the presence of free ammonia it is a buff colour. This form of the sulphide is readily oxidized when exposed in the moist condition, and is easily decomposed by dilute mineral acids.

Manganese Disulphide, MnS2, found native as hauerite, is formed as a red coloured powder by heating manganous sulphate with potassium polysulphide in a sealed tube at 160°-170° C. (H. v. Senarmont,Jour. prak. Chem., 1850, 51, p. 385).

Manganic Salts.—The sulphate, Mn2(SO4)3, is prepared by gradually heating at 138° C. a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and manganese dioxide until the whole becomes of a dark green colour. The excess of acid is removed by spreading the mass on a porous plate, the residue stirred for some hours with nitric acid, again spread on a porous plate, and finally dried quickly at about 130° C. It is a dark green deliquescent powder which decomposes on heating or on exposure to moist air. It is readily decomposed by dilute acids. With potassium sulphate in the presence of sulphuric acid it forms potassium manganese alum, K2SO4·Mn2(SO4)2·24H2O. A. Piccini (Zeit. anorg. Chem.1898, 17, p. 355) has also obtained a manganese caesium alum.Manganic Fluoride, MnF3, a solid obtained by the action of fluorine on manganous chloride, is decomposed by heat into manganous fluoride and fluorine. By suspending the dioxide in carbon tetrachloride and passing in hydrochloric acid gas, W. B. Holmes (Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii., p. 873) obtained a black trichloride and a reddish-brown tetrachloride.

Manganese Carbide, Mn3C, is prepared by heating manganous oxide with sugar charcoal in an electric furnace, or by fusing manganese chloride and calcium carbide. Water decomposes it, giving methane and hydrogen (H. Moissan); Mn3C + 6H2O = 3Mn(OH)2+ CH4+ H2.

Manganates.—These salts are derived from manganic acid H2MnO4. Those of the alkali metals are prepared by fusing manganese dioxide with sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of air or of some oxidizing agent (nitre, potassium chlorate, &c.); MnO2+ 2KHO + O = K2MnO4+ H2O. In the absence of air the reaction proceeds slightly differently, some manganese sesquioxide being formed; 3MnO2+ 2KHO = K2MnO4+ Mn2O3+ H2O. The fused mass has a dark olive-green colour, and dissolves in a small quantity of cold water to a green solution, which is, however, only stable in the presence of an excess of alkali. The green solution is readily converted into a pink one of permanganate by a large dilution with water, or by passing carbon dioxide through it: 3K2MnO4+ 2CO2= 2K2CO3+ 2KMnO4+ MnO2.

Permanganatesare the salts of permanganic acid, HMnO4. Thepotassiumsalt, KMnO4, may be prepared by passing chlorine or carbon dioxide through an aqueous solution of potassium manganate, or by the electrolytic oxidation of the manganate at the anode [German patent 101710 (1898)]. It crystallizes in dark purple-red prisms, isomorphous with potassium perchlorate. It acts as a powerful oxidizing agent, both in acid and alkaline solution; in the first case two molecules yield five atoms of available oxygen and in the second, three atoms:

It completely decomposes hydrogen peroxide in sulphuric acid solution—

2KMnO4+ 5H2O2+ 3H2SO4= K2SO4+ 2MnSO4+ 8H2O + 5O2.

It decomposes when heated to

200°-240° C. : 2KMnO4= K2MnO4+ MnO2+ O2;

and when warmed with hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine:

2KMnO4+ 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2+ 8H2O + 5Cl2.

Sodium Permanganate, NaMnO4.3H2O (?), may be prepared in a similar manner, or by precipitating the silver salt with sodium chloride. It crystallizes with great difficulty. A solution of the crude salt is used as a disinfectant under the name of “Condy’s fluid.”

Ammonium Permanganate, NH4·MnO4, explodes violently on rubbing, and its aqueous solution decomposes on boiling (W. Muthmann,Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1018); NH4·MnO4= MnO2+ N2+ 2H2O.

Barium Permanganate, BaMn2O3, crystallizes in almost black needles, and is formed by passing carbon dioxide through water containing suspended barium manganate.

Detection.—Manganese salts can be detected by the amethyst colour they impart to a borax-bead when heated in the Bunsen flame, and by the green mass formed when they are fused with a mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate. Manganese may be estimated quantitatively by precipitation as carbonate, this salt being then converted into the oxide, Mn3O4by ignition; or by precipitation as hydrated dioxide by means of ammonia and bromine water, followed by ignition to Mn3O4. The valuation of pyrolusite is generally carried out by means of a distillation with hydrochloric acid, the liberated chlorine passing through a solution of potassium iodide, and the amount of iodine liberated being ascertained by means of a standard solution of sodium thiosulphate.

The atomic weight of manganese has been frequently determined. J. Berzelius, by analysis of the chloride, obtained the value 54.86; K. v. Hauer (Sitzb. Akad. Wien., 1857, 25, p. 132), by conversion of the sulphate into sulphide, obtained the value 54.78; J. Dewar and A. Scott (Chem. News, 1883, 47, p. 98), by analysis of silver permanganate, obtained the value 55.038; J. M. Weeren (Stahl. u.Eisen, 1893, 13, p. 559), by conversion of manganous oxide into the sulphate obtained the value 54.883, and of the sulphate into sulphide the value 54.876 (H = 1), and finally G. P. Baxter and Hines (Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1906, 28, p. 1360), by analyses of the chloride and bromide, obtained 54.96 (O = 16).

MANGANITE,a mineral consisting of hydrated manganese sesquioxide, Mn2O3·H2O, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with diaspore and göthite. Crystals are prismatic and deeply striated parallel to their length; they are often grouped together in bundles. The colour is dark steel-grey to iron-black, and the lustre brilliant and submetallic: the streak is dark reddish-brown. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 4.3. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid, and less perfect cleavage parallel to the prism facesm. Twinned crystals are not infrequent. The mineral contains 89.7% of manganese sesquioxide; it dissolves in hydrochloric acid with evolution of chlorine. The best crystallized specimens are those from Ilfeld in the Harz, where the mineral occurs with calcite and barytes in veins traversing porphyry. Crystals have also been found at Ilmenau in Thuringia, Neukirch near Schlettstadt in Alsace (“newkirkite”), Granam near Towie in Aberdeenshire, Upton Pyne near Exeter and Negaunee in Michigan. As an ore of manganese it is much less abundant than pyrolusite or psilomelane. The name manganite was given by W. Haidinger in 1827: French authors adopt F. S. Beudant’s name “acerdèse,” (Gr.ἀκερδής, unprofitable) because the mineral is of little value for bleaching purposes as compared with pyrolusite.

(L. J. S.)

MANGBETTU(Monbuttu), a negroid people of Central Africa living to the south of the Niam-Niam in the Welle district of Belgian Congo. They number about a million. Their country is a table-land at an altitude of 2500 to 2800 ft. Despite its abundant animal life, luxuriant vegetation and rich crops of plantain and oil-palm, the Mangbettu have been some of the most inveterate cannibals in Africa; but since the Congo State established posts in the country (c.1895) considerable efforts have been made to stamp out cannibalism. Physically the Mangbettu differ greatly from their negro neighbours. They are not so black and their faces are less negroid, many having quite aquiline noses. The beard, too, is fuller than in most negroes. They appear to have imposed their language and customs on the surrounding tribes, the Mundu, Abisanga, &c. Once a considerable power, they have practically disappeared as far as the original stock is concerned; their language and culture, however, remain, maintained by their subjects, with whom they have to a large extent intermixed. The men wear bark cloth, the art of weaving being unknown, the women a simple loin cloth, often not that. Both sexes paint the body in elaborate designs. As potters, sculptors, boatbuilders and masons the Mangbettu have had few rivals in Africa. Their huts, with pointed roofs, were not only larger and better built, but were cleaner than those of their neighbours, and some of their more important buildings were of great size and exhibited some skill in architecture.

See G. A. Schweinfurth,Heart of Africa(1874); W. Junker,Travels in Africa(1890); G. Casati,Ten Years in Equatoria(1891).

MANGEL-WURZEL,or field-beet, a variety of the common beet, known botanically asBeta vulgaris, var.macrorhiza. The name is German and means literally “root of scarcity.” R. C. A. Prior (Popular Names of British Plants) says it was originally mangold, a word of doubtful meaning. The so-called root consists of the much thickened primary root together with the “hypocotyl,”i.e.the original stem between the root and the seed-leaves. A transverse section of the root shows a similar structure to the beet, namely a series of concentric rings of firmer “woody” tissue alternating with rings of soft thin-walled parenchymatous “bast-tissue” which often has a crimson or yellowish tint. The root is a store of carbohydrate food-stuff in the form of sugar, which is formed in the first year of growth when the stem remains short and bears a rosette of large leaves. If the plant be allowed to remain in the ground till the following year strong leafy angular aerial stems are developed, 3 ft. or more in height, which branch and bear the inflorescences. The flowers are arranged in dense sessile clusters subtended by a small bract, and resemble those of the true beet. The so-called seeds are clusters of spurious fruits. After fertilization the fleshy receptacle and the base of the perianth of each flower enlarge and the flowers in a cluster become united; the fleshy parts with the ovaries, each of which contains one seed, become hard and woody. Hence several seeds are present in one “seed” of commerce, which necessitates the careful thinning of a young crop, as several seedlings may spring from one “seed.”

This plant is very susceptible of injury from frost, and hence in the short summer of Scotland it can neither be sown so early nor left in the ground so late as would be requisite for its mature growth. But it is peculiarly adapted for those southern parts of England where the climate is too hot and dry for the successful cultivation of the turnip. In feeding quality it rivals the swede; it is much relished by livestock—pigs especially doing remarkably well upon it; and it keeps in good condition till midsummer if required. The valuable constituent of mangel is dry matter which averages about 12% as against 11% in swedes. Of this two-thirds may be sugar, which only develops fully during storage. Indeed, it is only after it has been some months in the store heap that mangel becomes a palatable and safe food for cattle. It is, moreover, exempt from the attacks of the turnip beetle. On all these accounts, therefore, it is peculiarly valuable in those parts of Great Britain where the summer is usually hot and dry.

Up to the act of depositing the seed, the processes of preparation for mangel are similar to those described for the turnip; winter dunging being even more appropriate for the former than for the latter. The common drilling machines are easily fitted for sowing its large rough seeds, which should be sown from the beginning of April to the middle of May and may be deposited either on ridges or on the flat. The after culture is like that of the turnip. The plants are thinned out at distances of not less than 15 in. apart. Transplanting can be used for filling up of gaps with more certainty of success than in the case of swedes, but it is much more economical to avoid such gaps by sowing a little swede seed along with the mangel. Several varieties of the plant are cultivated—those in best repute being the long red, the yellow globe and the tankard, intermediate in shape. This crop requires a heavier dressing of manure than the turnip to grow it in perfection, and is much benefited by having salt mixed with the manure at the rate of 2 or 3 cwt. per acre. Nitrogenous manures are of more marked value than phosphatic manures. The crop requires to be secured in store heaps as early in autumn as possible, as it is easily injured by frost.

MANGLE.(1) A machine for pressing and smoothing clothes after washing (seeLaundry). The word was adopted from the Dutch;mangel-stokmeans a rolling pin, andlinnen mangelen, to press linen by rolling; similarly in O. Ital.manganomeant, according to Florio, “a presse to press buckrom,” &c. The origin of the word is to be found in the medieval Latin name,manganum,mangonusormangana, for an engine of war, the “mangonel,” for hurling stones and other missiles (seeCatapult). The Latin word was adapted from the Greekμάγγανον, a trick or device, cognate withμηχανή, a machine. (2) To cut in pieces, to damage or disfigure; to mutilate. This word is of obscure origin. According to theNew English Dictionaryit presents an Anglo-Frenchmahangler, a form ofmahaignerfrom which the English “maim” is derived, cf. the old form “mayhem,” surviving in legal phraseology. Skeat connects the word with the Latinmancus, maimed, with which “maim” is not cognate.

MANG LÖN,a state in the northern Shan states of Burma. It is the chief state of the Wa or Vü tribes, some of whom are head-hunters, and Mang Lön is the only one which as yet has direct relations with the British government. Estimated area, 3000 sq. m.; estimated population, 40,000. The state extends from about 21° 30′ to 23° N., or for 100 m. along the riverSalween. Its width varies greatly, from a mile or even less on either side of the river to perhaps 40 m. at its broadest part near Taküt, the capital. It is divided into East and West Mang Lön, the boundary being the Salween. There are no Wa in West Mang Lön. Shans form the chief population, but there are Palaungs, Chinese and Yanglam, besides Lahu. The bulk of the population in East Mang Lön is Wa, but there are many Shans and Lahu. Both portions are very hilly; the only flat land is along the banks of streams in the valleys, and here the Shans are settled. There are prosperous settlements and bazaars at Nawng Hkam and Möng Kao in West Mang Lön. The Wa of Mang Lön have given up head-hunting, and many profess Buddhism. The capital, Taküt, is perched on a hill-top 6000 ft. above sea-level. The sawbwa is a Wa, and has control over two sub-states, Mōt Hai to the north and Maw Hpa to the south.

MANGNALL, RICHMAL(1769-1820), English schoolmistress, was born, probably at Manchester, on the 7th of March 1769. She was a pupil and finally mistress of a school at Crofton Hall, near Wakefield, Yorkshire, which she conducted most successfully until her death there on the 1st of May 1820. She was the author ofHistorical and Miscellaneous Questions for the Use of Young People(1800), generally known as “Mangnall’s Questions,” which was prominent in the education of English girls in the first half of the 19th century.

Back to Index Next