The chart of the world by Juan de la Cosa, the companion of Columbus, is the earliest extant which depicts the discoveries in the new world (1500), Nicolaus de Canerio, a Genoese, and the map which Alberto Cantino caused to be drawn at Lisbon for Hercules d’Este of Ferrara (1502), illustrating in addition the recent discoveries of the Portuguese in the East. Other cosmographers of distinction were Pedro Reinel (1504-1542), Nuno Garcia de Toreno (1520), to whom we are indebted for 21 charts, illustrating Magellan’s voyage, Diogo Ribero (maps of the world 1527, 1529),24Alonzo de Santa Cruz, of Seville, whoseIsolario generalincludes charts of all parts of the world (1541), John Rotz or Rut (1542), Sebastian Cabot (1544), as also Nicolas Desliens, Pierre Desceliers, G. Breton and V. Vallard, all of Arques, near Dieppe, whose charts were compiled between 1541 and 1554.
Of the many general maps of the world or of particular countries, a large number illustrate such works as G. Reisch’sMargarita philosophica(1163), the cosmographies of Peter Apianus or Bienewitz (1520, 1522, 1530), Seb. Münster (1544), J. Honter (1546) and Gulielmus Postel (1561) or theGeographiaof Livio Sanuto (1588); others, and these the more numerous and important, supplement the original maps of several editions of Ptolemy. Thus the Roman edition of 1507, edited by Marcus Benaventura and Joa Cota, contains 6 modern maps, and to these was added in 1508 Joh. Ruysch’s famous map of the world on a modified conical projection. The next edition published at Venice in 1511 contained a heart-shaped world by Bernhard Sylvanus. The Strassburg Ptolemy of 1513 has a supplement of as many as 20 modern maps by Martin Waldseemüller or Ilacomilus, several among which are copied from Portuguese originals. Waldseemüller was one of the most distinguished cartographers of his day. He was born at Radolfzell in Baden in 1470, was associated with Ringmann at the gymnasium ofSt Dié, and died in 1521. He published in 1507 a huge map of the world, in 12 sheets, together with a small globe of a diameter of 110 mm., the segments for which were printed from wood-blocks. On these documents the new world is called America, after Amerigo Vespucci, its supposed discoverer. In 1511 Waldseemüller published a large map of Europe, in 1513 he prepared his maps for the Strassburg edition of Ptolemy, and in 1516 he engraved a copy of Canerio’s map of the world. The Strassburg Ptolemy of 1522 contains Waldseemüller’s maps,25edited on a reduced scale by Laurentius Frisius, together with three additional ones. The same set of maps is reprinted in the Strassburg edition of 1524, newly translated by W. Pirckheimer with notes by Joh. Müller Regiomontanus, and in the Lyon edition of 1535, edited by Michael Servetus. The new maps of the Basel edition of 1540, twenty-one in number, are by Sebastian Münster; Jacob Gastaldo supplied the Venice edition of 1548 with 34 modern maps, and these with a few additions are repeated in Girolamo Ruscelli’s Italian translation of Ptolemy published at Venice in 1561.
Equally interesting with these Ptolemaic supplements are collections like that of Anton Lafreri, which contains reprints of 142 maps of all parts of the world originally published between 1556 and 1572 (Geografica tavole moderne, Rome, n.d.), or that of J. F. Camocio, published at Venice in 1576, which contains 88 reprints.
The number of cartographers throughout Europe was considerable, and we confine ourselves to mentioning a few leading men. Among them Germany is then represented by G. Glockedon, the author of an interesting road-map of central Europe (1501), Sebastian Münster (1489-1552), Elias Camerarius, whose map of the mark of Brandenburg won the praise of Mercator; Wolfgang Latz von Lazius, to whom we are indebted for maps of Austria and Hungary (1561), and Philip Apianus, who made a survey of Bavaria (1553-1563), which was published 1568 on the reduced scale of 1 : 144,000, and is fairly described as the topographical masterpiece of the 16th century. For maps of Switzerland we are indebted to Konrad Türst (1495-1497), Johann Stumpf (1548) and Aegidius Tschudi (1538). A map of the Netherlands from actual survey was produced by Jacob of Deventer (1536-1539). Leonardo da Vinci, the famous artist, while in the service of Cesare Borgia as military engineer, made surveys of several districts in central Italy. Other Italian cartographers of merit were Giovanni Battiste Agnese of Venice, whose atlases (1517-1564) enjoyed a wide popularity; Benedetto Bordone (1528); Giacomo Gastaldo, cosmographer of the Venetian Republic (1534-1568), and his successor, Paolo Forlani. New maps of Spain and Portugal appeared in 1560, the former being due to Pedro de Medina, the latter to Fernando Alvarez Secco and Hernando Alvaro. Among the French map-makers of this period may be mentioned Oronce Finée (Finaeus), who in 1525 published a map of France, and Jean Jolivet (c.1560). Gregorio Lilly (1546) and Humphrey Lhuyd of Denbigh (d. 1510) furnished maps of the British Isles, Olaus Magnus (1539) of Scandinavia, Anton Wied (1542), Sigismund von Herberstein (1549) and Anthony Jenkinson (1562) of Muscovy.
The cylindrical and modified conical projections of Marinus and Ptolemy were still widely used, the stereographical projection of Hipparchus, was for the first time employed for terrestrial maps in the 16th century, but new projections were introduced in addition to these. The earliest of these, a trapeziform projection with equidistant parallels, by D. Nicolaus Germanus (1466), naturally led to what is generally known as Flamsteed’s projection. Joh. Stabius (1502) and his pupil J. Werner (1514) devised three heart-shaped projections, one of which was equivalent. Petrus Apianus (1524) gave his map an elliptical shape. H. Glareanus (1510) was the first to employ an equidistant zenithal polar projection.
No reasonable fault can be found with the marine surveyors of this period, but the scientific cartographers allowed themselves too frequently to be influenced by Ptolemaic traditions. Thus Gastaldo (1548) presents us with a map of Italy, which, except as to nomenclature, differs but little from that of Ptolemy, although on the Portolano charts the peninsula had long since assumed its correct shape. Many of the local maps, too, were excellent specimens of cartography, but when we follow any cartographer of the period into regions the successful delineation of which depended upon an intelligent interpretation of itineraries, and of information collected by recent travellers, they are generally found to fail utterly. This is illustrated by the four sketch maps shown in fig. 28.
Columbus, trusting to Toscanelli’s misleading chart, looked upon the countries discovered by him as belonging to eastern Asia, a view still shared about 1507 by his brother Bartolomeo. Waldseemüller (1507) was the first to separate America and Asia by an ocean of considerable width, but J. Ruysch (1508) returns to the old idea, and even joins Greenland (Gruenlant) to eastern Asia. Bologninus Zalterius on a map of 1566, and Mercator on his famous chart of 1569, separates the two continents by a narrow strait which they call Streto de Anian, thus anticipating the discovery of Bering Strait by more than a hundred and fifty years. Anian, however, which they place upon the American coast, is no other than Marco Polo’s Anica or Anin, our modern Annam. Such an error could never have arisen had the old compilers of maps taken the trouble to plan Marco Polo’s routes.
Globes, both celestial and terrestrial, became popular after the discovery of America. They were included among the scientific apparatus of ships and of educational establishments. Columbus and Magellan had such globes, those of the latter produced by P. Reinel (1519), and Conrad Celtes tells us that he illustrated his lectures at the university of Vienna with the help of globes (1501). Globes were still engraved on copper, or painted by hand, but since 1507, in which year Waldseemüller published a small globe of a diameter of 110 mm., covered with printed segments or gores, this cheap and expeditious method has come into general use. Waldseemüller constructed his gores graphically, A. Dürer (1525) and Hen. Loriti Glareanus (1527) were the first who dealt scientifically with the principles underlying their construction. Globescovered with printed gores were produced by L. Boulenger (1514), Joh. Schöner (1515), P. Apianus, Gemma Frisius (1530) and G. Mercator (1541). Leonardo da Vinci’s rough map of the world in 8 segments (c.1513) seems likewise to have been intended for a globe. Of J. Schöner we know that he produced four globes, three printed from segments (1515, 1523, 1533), and one of larger size (diam. 822 mm.), which is drawn by hand, and is preserved in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg. Among engraved globes, one of the most interesting is that which was discovered by R. M. Hunt in Paris, and is preserved in the Lenox Library, New York. Its diameter is only 41⁄2in. (127 mm.). The so-called “Nancy globe” is of chased silver, richly ornamented, and formerly served the purpose of a pyx. Its diameter is 160 mm., its date about 1530. About the same date is assigned to a globe by Robert de Bailly, engraved on copper and gilt (diam. 440 mm.). Celestial globes were manufactured by Regiomontanus (d. 1476) at Nuremberg, by Joh. Stöffler (1499), and by G. Hartmann (1535).
Mercator and his Successors.—Of Gerhard Kremer (1512-1594) the earliest works are a map of Palestine (1537), a map of the world on a double heart-shaped projection (1525), and a topographical map of Flanders based upon his own surveys (1540), a pair of globes (1541, diam. 120 mm.), and a large map of Europe which has been praised deservedly for its accuracy (1554). He is best known by his marine chart (1569) and his atlas. The projection of the former may have been suggested by a note by W. Pirkheimer in his edition of Ptolemy (1525). Mercator constructed it graphically, the mathematical principles underlying it being first explained by E. Wright (1594). The “Atlas” was only published after Mercator’s death, in 1595. It only contained nine maps, but after the plates had been sold to Jodocus (Jesse) Hondius the number of maps was rapidly increased, although Mercator’s name was retained. Mercator’s maps are carefully engraved on copper. Latin letters are used throughout; the miniatures of older maps are superseded by symbols, and in the better-known countries the maps are fairly correct, but they fail lamentably when we follow their author into regions—the successful delineation of which depends upon a critical combination of imperfect information.
Even before Mercator’s death, Antwerp and Amsterdam had become great centres of cartographic activity, and they maintained their pre-eminence until the beginning of the 18th century. Abraham Ortelius (1527-1592), of Antwerp, a man of culture and enterprise, but not a scientific cartographer, published the first edition of hisTheatrum orbis terrarumin 1570. It then contained 53 maps, by various authors. By 1595 the number of maps had increased to 119, including aParergonor supplement of 12 maps illustrating ancient history. In 1578 was published theSpeculum orbis terrarumof Gerard de Jude or de Judaeis. Lucas Janszon Waghenaer (Aurigarius) of Enkhuizen published the first edition of hisSpiegel der Zeevaart(Mariners’ Mirror) at Leiden in 1585. It was the first collection of marine maps, lived through many editions, was issued in several languages and became known asCharettierandWaggoner. In the same year Adrian Gerritsz published a valuablePaskaarteof the European Sea. Ten years afterwards, in 1595, W. Barentszoon published a marine atlas of the Mediterranean, the major axis of which he reduced to 42 degrees. Jodocus Hondius has already been referred to as the purchaser of Mercator’s plates. The business founded by him about 1602 was continued by his sons and his son-in-law, Jan Janszon (Jansonius) and others. By 1653 this firm had already produced atlases including 451 charts. Willem Janszon, the father of Hondius’s partner, published a collection of charts (1608), to which he gave the title ofHet Licht der Zeevaart(the seaman’s light).Another cartographic publishing firm was established at Amsterdam in 1612 by Willem Janszon Blaeu (1571-1638), a friend of Tycho Brahe, from 1633 “mapmaker” of the states-general, and a man of scientific culture. He was succeeded by his son Jan (d. 1673) and grandson Cornelius, and before the end of the century turned out aZee-Spiegelof 108 charts (1623), anAtlas novus(Nieuwe Atlas), 1642, enlarged in the course of time until it consisted of 12 folio volumes containing hundreds of maps. J. A. Colom in 1633 published a collection of maps under the quaint title ofVurig Colom der Zeevaert(Fiery Column of Navigation). Among more recent Dutch map publishers are Nicolaus Vischer (Piscator), R. Goos, H. Doncker, F. de Wit, and J. and G. van Keulen, whose atlases were published between 1681 and 1722. These Dutch maps and charts are generally accompanied by descriptive notes or sailing directions printed on the back of them. A similar work is theArcano del mareof Sir Robert Dudley, duke of Northumberland, the numerous sheets of which are on Mercator’s projection (1631).
In France, in the meantime, an arc of the meridian had been measured (1669-1670) by Jean Picard, numerous longitudes had been observed between 1672 and 1680 by the same, and by Phil. de Lahire (d. 1719), and these were utilized in aCarte de France“as corrected from the observations of the members of the Academy of Sciences” (1666-1699), in a map of the world (1694) by D. Cassini, as also inLe Neptune François(1693) with contributions by Pene, D. Cassini and others. These corrected longitudes were not yet available for the maps produced by Nicolas Sanson of Abbeville, since 1627. The cartographical establishment founded by him in that year was carried on after his death in 1667 by his sons, his son-in-law, P. Duval (d. 1683) and his grandson Robert du Vaugondy (d. 1766). Among the cartographers whom he employed were M. Tavernier and Mariette, and in many instances he mentioned the authors whose maps he copied. By 1710 the maps published by the firm numbered 466. Nicolas de Fer, the great rival of Sanson, and his heirs, are stated to have published as many as 600 maps after 1700.
In no other country of Europe was there at the close of the 16th century a geographical establishment capable of competing with the Dutch towns or with Sanson, but the number of those who produced maps, in many instances based upon original surveys, was large. Germany is thus represented, among others, by C. Henneberger (map of Prussia, 1576), by M. Oeder, (survey of Saxony, 1586-1607), A. Rauh (fine hill features on a map of the environs of Wangen and Lindau, 1617), W. Schickhardt (survey of Württemberg, 1624-1635), and G. M. Vischer (map of Austria and Styrai, 1669-1786); Switzerland by H. C. Gyger (Canton of Zürich, a masterpiece, 1667); Italy by G. A. Magini (1558-1610), and V. Coronelli, appointed cosmographer of the Venetian Republic, 1685, and founder of the Ac. Cosmogr. dei Argonauti, the earliest geographical society, and Diogo Homem, a Portuguese settled at Venice (1558-1574); Denmark by J. Mejer of Husum (1650); Sweden by A. Buraeus, the “father of Swedish cartographers” (1650-1660); the British Islands by Ch. Saxton (County Atlas of England and Wales 1575), J. Speed (Theatrumof Great Britain, 1610), Timothy Pont and Robert Gordon of Strathloch (map of Scotland, 1608), and A. Moll. ANovus atlas sinensis, based upon Chinese surveys, was published in 1655 by Martin Martini, S.J., a missionary recently returned from China. Isaac Voss, in his workDe Nili(1659), published a map of central Africa, in which he anticipated D’Anville by rejecting all the fanciful details which found a place upon Filippo Pigafetta’s map of that continent.
The first maps illustrating the variation of the compass were published by Chris. Burrus (d. 1632) and Athanasius Kircher (Magnes, Rome, 1643), and maps of the ocean and tidal currents by the latter in hisMundus subterraneus(1665). Edmund Halley, the astronomer, compiled the first variation chart of scientific value (1683), as also a chart of the winds (1686).
Globes manufactured for commercial purposes by Blaeu and others have already been mentioned, but several large globes, for show rather than for use, were produced in addition to these. Thus A. Busch, of Limburg (1656-1664), manufactured a globe for Duke Frederick of Holstein, formerly at Gottorp, but since 1713 at Tsarskoye Zelo. It has a diameter of 11 ft. (3.57 metres) and is hollow, the inner surface of the shell being covered with a star map, and the outer surface with a map of the world. Professor Erh. Weigel (1696) produced a hollow celestial globe in copper, having a small terrestrial globe in its centre. Its diameter is 3.25 metres. Lastly there is a pair of giant globes of artistic design, turned out by V. Coronelli (1623), and intended as presents to Louis XIV. Their diameter is nearly 5 metres. A pair of globes of 1592 by Emeric Molineux (diam. 610 mm.) is now in the Temple Library, and is referred to in Blundeville’sExercises(1594).
The Eighteenth Century.—It was no mere accident which enabled France to enjoy a pre-eminence in cartographic work during the greater part of the 18th century. Not only had French men of science and scientific travellers done excellent work as explorers in different parts of the world, but France could also boast of two men, Guillaume Delisle and J. B. Bourguignon d’Anville, able to utilize in the compilation of their maps the information they acquired.
Delisle (1675-1726) published 98 maps, and although as works of art they were inferior to the maps of certain contemporaries, they were far superior to them in scientific value. On one of his earliest maps compiled under advice of his father Claude (1700), he gave the Mediterranean its true longitudinal extension of 41°. It was Delisle who assumed the meridian of Ferro, which had been imposed upon French navigators by royal order (1634), to lie exactly 20° to the west of Paris. The work of reform was carried further by B. D’Anville (1697-1782). Altogether he published 211 maps, of which 66 are included in hisAtlas général(1737-1780); he swept away the fanciful lakes from off the face of Africa, thus forcibly bringing home to us the poverty of our knowledge (fig. 32), delineated the Chinese Empire in accordance with the map based on the surveys conducted during the reign of the emperor Kanghi, with the aid of Jesuit missionaries, and published in 1718; boldly refused to believe in the existence of an Antarctic continent covering half the southern hemisphere, and always brought a sound judgment to bear upon the materials which the ever-increasing number of travellers placed at his disposal. Among other French works of importance deserving notice areLe Neptune orientalof Mannevillette (1745) and more especially theCarte géometrique de la France, which is based upon surveys carried on (1744-1783) by César François Cassini de Thury and his son Dominique de Cassini. It is on a transversal cylindrical (rectangular) projection devised by Jacques Cassini (d. 1746). The hills are shown in rough hachures.
England, which had entered upon a career of naval conquest and scientific exploration, had reason to be proud of J. F. W. Desbarres,Atlantic Neptune(1774), a North-American Pilot (1779), which first made known the naval surveys of J. Cook and of others; and Tho. Jefferys’sWest IndianandAmerican Atlases(1775, 1778). James Rennell (1742-1830), who was surveyor-general of India, published theBengal Atlas(1781), and sagaciously arranged the vast mass of information collected by British travellers and others in India and Africa, but it is chiefly with the name of Aaron Arrowsmith, who came to London in 1778, and his successors, with which the glory of the older school of cartographers is most intimately connected. His nephew John died in 1873. Among local cartographers may be mentioned H. Moll (d. 1732), J. Senex, whose atlas was published in 1725, and Dowet, whose atlas was brought out at the expense of the duke of Argyll.
In Germany J. B. Homann (d. 1724) founded a geographical establishment in 1702, which depended at first upon copies of British and French maps, but in course of time published also original maps such as J. M. Hase’sAfrica(1727) and Tobias Meyer’sMappa criticaof Germany (1780), J. T. Güssfeld’s map of Brandenburg (1773), John Majer’s Württemburg (1710), and J. C. Müller’s Bavaria, both based on trigonometrical surveys. Colonel Schmettau’s excellent survey of the country to the west of the Weser (1767-1787) was never published, as Frederick the Great feared it might prove of use to his military enemies. Switzerland is represented by J. J. Scheuchzer (1712), J. Gessner (d. 1790), G. Walser (Atlas novus Helvetiae, 1769), and W. R. Meyer,Atlas der Schweiz(1786-1802). Of the Austrian Netherlands, Count Joseph de Ferrari published a chorographic map on the same scale as Cassini’sCarte de la France(1777). Of Denmark a fine map was published under the auspices of the Academy of Science of Copenhagen (1766-1825); of Spain and Portugal an atlas in 102 sheets by Thomas Lopez (1765-1802); of Russia a map by J. N. Delisle in 19 sheets (1730-1745); charts illustrating the variation of the compass and of magnetic “dip” by E. Dunn (1776), J. C. Wiffe (1768); a chart of the world by W. Dampier (1789). Map projections were dealt with by two eminent mathematicians, J. H. Lambert (1772) and Leonh. Euler (1777).
On the maps of Delisle and d’Anville the ground is still represented by “molehills.” Hachures of a rude nature first made their appearance on David Vivier’s map of the environs of Paris (1674), and on Cassini’sCarte de la France. Contour lines (isobaths) were introduced for the first time on a chart of the Merwede by M. S. Cruquius (1728), and on a chart of the English Channel by Phil. Buache (1737). Dupain-Triel, acting on a suggestion of Du Carla, compiled a contoured map of France (1791), and it only needed the introduction of graduated tints between these contours to secure a graphic picture of the features of the ground. It was J. G. Lehmann (1783) who based his method of hill-shading or hachuring upon these horizontal contours. More than 80 methods of showing the hills have found advocates since that time, but all methods must be based upon contours to be scientifically satisfactory.
Two relief maps of Central Switzerland deserve to be mentioned, the one by R. L. Pfyffer in wax, now in Lucerne, the other by J. R. Meyer of Aarau and Müller of Engelberg in papier mâché, now in Zurich. Globes of the usual commercial type were manufactured in France by Delisle (1700), Forbin (1710-1731), R. and J. de Vaugondy (1752), Lalande (1771); in England by E. and G. Adams (1710-1766); Germany by Homann and Seutter (1750). A hollow celestial globe 18 ft. in diameter was set up by Dr Roger Long at Cambridge; the terrestrial globe which Count Ch. Gravie of Vergennes presented to Louis XVI. in 1787 had a diameter of 26 metres, or 85 ft.
Modern Cartography.—The compiler of maps of the present day enjoys many advantages not enjoyed by men similarly occupied a hundred years ago. Topographical surveys are gradually extending, and explorers of recent years are better trained for their work than they were a generation ago, whilst technical processes of recent invention—such as lithography, photography and heliogravure—facilitate or expedite the completion of his task. This task, however, has grown more difficult and exacting. Mere outline maps, such as formerly satisfied the public, suffice no longer. He is called upon moreespecially to give a satisfactory delineation of the ground, he must meet the requirements of various classes of the public, and be prepared to record cartographically all the facts of physical or political geography which are capable of being recorded on his maps. The ingenuity of the compiler is frequently taxed when called upon to illustrate graphically the results of statistical information of every description.
Germany since the middle of the 19th century has become the headquarters of scientific cartography. This is due as much to the inspiriting teachings of Ritter and Humboldt as to the general culture and scientific training combined with technical skill commanded by the men who more especially devote themselves to this branch of geography, which elsewhere is too frequently allowed to fall into the hands of mere mechanics. Men like H. Berghaus (1797-1884), H. Kiepert (1818-1899), and A. Petermann (1822-1878) must always occupy a foremost place in the history of cartography. Among the geographical establishments of Germany, that founded by Justus Perthes (1785), at Gotha, occupies the highest rank. Among its publications are A. Stieler’sHand-Atlas(1817-1832), K. von Spruner’sHistorical Atlas(1438-1488), H. Berghaus’Physical Atlas(1838-1842), E. von Sydow’sWall Maps for Schools(1838-1840) andSchool Atlas(1847). The titles of these atlases survive, though the authors of the original editions are long dead, and the maps have been repeatedly superseded by others bringing the information up to the date of publication. To the same firm we are indebted for Petermann’sMitteilungen, started in 1855 by A. Petermann, after whose death in 1902 they were successively edited by E. Behm, A. Supan and P. Langhans, as also theGeographisches Jahrbuch(since 1866), at first edited by E. Behm, afterwards by Professor H. Wagner. Among other geographical institutes in Germany which deserve mention are the Weimar Institut, founded in 1791 by F. J. Bertuch, and directed in 1845-1852 by H. Kiepert; Paul Fleming at Glogau (K. Sohr’s Handatlas, 1845), A. Ravenstein at Frankfort, D. Reimer at Berlin (H. Kiepert,Handatlas, 1860); R. Andree (Hand-Atlas, 1880), and E. Debes (Hand-Atlas, 1894) in Leipzig, and E. Hölzer in Vienna (Vincenz von Haardt’s maps). France is represented by the publishing firms of Ch. Delagrave (Levaseur’s maps), Hachette (Vivien de St Martin’sAtlas universel, in progress since 1875, F. Schrader’sAtlas de géographie moderne, 1880), and Armand Colin (Vidal de la Blache’sAtlas général, 1894). In Great Britain A. Arrowsmith established himself in London in 1770 (General Atlas, 1817), but the cartographical business ceased on the death of John Arrowsmith in 1873. John Walker, to whose initiative the charts published by the admiralty are indebted for the perspicuous, firm and yet artistic execution, which facilitate their use by the mariner, was also the author of the maps published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1820-1840). Among more recent firms are W. and A. K. Johnston (founded 1825;Royal Atlas, 1855); J. Bartholomew & Co., now carried on by J. G. Bartholomew (Reduced Survey maps,Atlas of the World’s Commerce, 1906); Philip & Sons (Imperial Atlas, 1890;Systematic Atlasby E. G. Ravenstein, 1894;Mercantile Marine Atlas, 1904, globes), and E. Stanford (London Atlas).
In 1890 Professor A. Penck proposed to prepare a map of the world, including the oceans, on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000, and his scheme was promised the support of a committee which met in London in 1909, and upon which were represented the leading powers of the world. Maps on that scale of a great part of Africa, Asia and America have been published by British, French, German and United States authorities. A bathymetrical chart of the oceans, by Professor J. Thoulet was published in 1904 at the expense of Prince Albert of Monaco.
Reliefs from printed maps were first produced by Bauerkeller of Darmstadt and Dondorf at Frankfort, from originals furnished by A. Ravenstein (1838-1844). The exaggeration in altitude, on these maps and on those of a later date and on a larger scale, was very considerable. No such exaggeration exists in the case of reliefs of parts of the Alps, on a large scale, by P. Keil and Pelikan (1890), X. Imfeld (1891), P. Oberlerchner (1891-1895), C. Perron (1893-1900), F. Becker (1900), A. Heim (1904) and others. A relief globe was first suggested in a letter of M. Maestlin to J. Kepler (1596). The first globe of this description for the use of the blind, was made by A. Zeune in 1810. H. Erben is the author of a rough relief on a convex surface (1842), but the finest example of this description is a relief of Italy, by César Pomba and H. Fritsche, on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000 and without exaggeration of heights (1880-1884). A map of Italy in the baptistery of St Peter at Rome has occasionally been described as a relief, though it is merely a rude outline map of Italy, by Carlo Fontana (1698), carved into a convex surface.
Several globes of unusual dimensions were produced in the course of last century. That which Colonel Langlois erected in the Champs Elysées (1824) had a diameter of 39 metres. James Wyld’s hollow globe, or “Georama,” diam. 18 metres, occupied Leicester Square until swept away as a nuisance. The giant globe proposed by Elisée Reclus in 1895 has never been erected; he has, however, produced maps on a concave surface, as suggested by J. D. Hauber in 1742.
Authorities.—The history of maps is dealt with ably in Vivien de Saint Martin’sHistoire de la géographie(Paris, 1875), and in Peschel’sGeschichte der Erdkunde(2nd ed. by Sophus Ruge, Berlin, 1877), as also by W. Wollkenhauer (Leitfaden zur Geschichte der Kartographie, Breslau, 1895), and H. Zondervan (Allgemeine Kartenkunde, Leipzig, 1901). J. Lelewel’sGeographie du moyen âge, with an atlas (Brussels, 1850-1857), has in part been superseded by more recent researches. There are, however, a number of works, beautifully illustrated, which deal fully with particular periods of the subject. Among these may be mentioned Konrad Miller’sDie ältesten Weltkarten(Stuttgart, 1895-1897), which only deals with maps not influenced by the ideas of Ptolemy. The contents of the following collections are more varied in their nature, viz. E. F. Jomard’sMonuments de la géographie(Paris, 1862), Santarem’sAtlas composé de mappemondes et de portulans, &c. (Paris, 1842-1853, 78 plates). A. E. Nordenskiöld’sFacsimile Atlas(Stockholm, 1889), Gabriel Marcell,Choix de cartes et de mappemondes XIVeet XVesiècles(Paris, 1896). C. H. Coote’sRemarkable Maps of the XVth, XVIth and XVIIth Centuries reproduced in their Original Size(Amsterdam, 1894-1897), andBibliotheca lindesiana(London, 1898) with facsimiles of the Harleian and other Dieppese maps of the 16th century. Nautical charts are dealt with in A. E. Nordenskiöld’sPeriplus(Stockholm, 1869), and Th. Fischer’sSammlung mittelälterlicher Welt- und Seekarten(Vienna, 1886). The discovery and mapping of America are illustrated by F. Kunstmann’sEntdeckung Amerikas(Munich, 1859), K. Kretschmer’sAtlas zur Entdeckung Amerikas(Berlin, 1892), G. Marcel’sReproductions de cartes et de globes relatives à la découverte de l’Amérique du XVIeau XVIIIesiècle(Paris, 1893) and E. L. Stevenson’sMaps Illustrating the early Discovery and Exploration of America, 1502-1530(New Brunswick, N.J., 1906). In addition to these collections, numerous single maps have been published in geographical periodicals or separately. See also V. Hantzsch and L. Schmidt,Kartog. Denkmäler zur Entdeckungsgeschichte von Amerika, Asien, Australien und Afrika aus der k. Bibliothek zu Dresden(Leipzig, 1903), and the Crown Collection of photographs of American maps (1600-1800), selected and edited by A. B. Hulbert (Cleveland, 1904-1909).For reports on the progress of cartography, seeGeographisches Jahrbuch(Gotha, since 1866); for announcements of new publications,Bibliotheca geographica, published annually by the Berlin Geographical Society, and to thegeographical Journal(London).
Authorities.—The history of maps is dealt with ably in Vivien de Saint Martin’sHistoire de la géographie(Paris, 1875), and in Peschel’sGeschichte der Erdkunde(2nd ed. by Sophus Ruge, Berlin, 1877), as also by W. Wollkenhauer (Leitfaden zur Geschichte der Kartographie, Breslau, 1895), and H. Zondervan (Allgemeine Kartenkunde, Leipzig, 1901). J. Lelewel’sGeographie du moyen âge, with an atlas (Brussels, 1850-1857), has in part been superseded by more recent researches. There are, however, a number of works, beautifully illustrated, which deal fully with particular periods of the subject. Among these may be mentioned Konrad Miller’sDie ältesten Weltkarten(Stuttgart, 1895-1897), which only deals with maps not influenced by the ideas of Ptolemy. The contents of the following collections are more varied in their nature, viz. E. F. Jomard’sMonuments de la géographie(Paris, 1862), Santarem’sAtlas composé de mappemondes et de portulans, &c. (Paris, 1842-1853, 78 plates). A. E. Nordenskiöld’sFacsimile Atlas(Stockholm, 1889), Gabriel Marcell,Choix de cartes et de mappemondes XIVeet XVesiècles(Paris, 1896). C. H. Coote’sRemarkable Maps of the XVth, XVIth and XVIIth Centuries reproduced in their Original Size(Amsterdam, 1894-1897), andBibliotheca lindesiana(London, 1898) with facsimiles of the Harleian and other Dieppese maps of the 16th century. Nautical charts are dealt with in A. E. Nordenskiöld’sPeriplus(Stockholm, 1869), and Th. Fischer’sSammlung mittelälterlicher Welt- und Seekarten(Vienna, 1886). The discovery and mapping of America are illustrated by F. Kunstmann’sEntdeckung Amerikas(Munich, 1859), K. Kretschmer’sAtlas zur Entdeckung Amerikas(Berlin, 1892), G. Marcel’sReproductions de cartes et de globes relatives à la découverte de l’Amérique du XVIeau XVIIIesiècle(Paris, 1893) and E. L. Stevenson’sMaps Illustrating the early Discovery and Exploration of America, 1502-1530(New Brunswick, N.J., 1906). In addition to these collections, numerous single maps have been published in geographical periodicals or separately. See also V. Hantzsch and L. Schmidt,Kartog. Denkmäler zur Entdeckungsgeschichte von Amerika, Asien, Australien und Afrika aus der k. Bibliothek zu Dresden(Leipzig, 1903), and the Crown Collection of photographs of American maps (1600-1800), selected and edited by A. B. Hulbert (Cleveland, 1904-1909).
For reports on the progress of cartography, seeGeographisches Jahrbuch(Gotha, since 1866); for announcements of new publications,Bibliotheca geographica, published annually by the Berlin Geographical Society, and to thegeographical Journal(London).
Topographical Surveys.
The year 1784 marks the beginning of the ordnance survey, for in that year Major-General Roy measured a base line of 27,404 ft. on Hounslow Heath. Six additional base lines were measured up to 1849, including the LoughUnited Kingdom.Foyle, in 1827-1828, and that on Salisbury Plain, in 1849. The primary triangulation was only completed in 1858, but in the meantime, in 1791, the detail survey had begun. At first it was merely intended to produce a map sufficiently accurate on a scale of 1 in. to a mile (1 : 63,360). Ireland having been surveyed (1824-1842) on a scale of 6 in. to a mile (1 : 10,560), it was determined in 1840, after the whole of England and Wales, with the exception of Lancashire and Yorkshire, had been completed on one-inch scales, to adopt that scale for the whole of the United Kingdom. Finally, in 1854, a cadastral survey of the whole of the United Kingdom, only excepting uncultivated districts, was resolved upon, on a scale of 1 : 2500, still larger scales (1 : 500 or 1 : 1000) being adopted for town plans. Parish boundaries are laid down with the help of local meresmen appointed by justices at quarter sessions. The horizontalcontours are based upon instrumental measurement, and as a whole these ordnance maps were undoubtedly superior in accuracy, with rare exceptions, to similar maps published by foreign governments. Even though the hill hachures on the older one-inch maps are not quite satisfactory, this deficiency is in a large measure compensated for by the presence of absolutely trustworthy contours. Originally the maps were engraved on copper, and the progress of publication was slow; but since the introduction of modern processes, such as electrotyping (in 1840), photography (in 1855) and zincography (in 1859), it has been rapid. A plan, the engraving of which formerly took two years, can now be produced in two days.
The one-inch map for the whole of the United Kingdom was completed in 1890. It covers 697 sheets (or 488 of a “new series” in large sheets), and is published in three editions, viz. (a) in outline, with contours in black, (b) with hills hachured in brown or black, and (c) printed in five colours. Carefully revised editions of these and of the other maps are brought out at intervals of 15 years at most. Since 1898 the department has also published maps on a smaller scale, viz. a map of England and Wales, on a scale of 2 m. to 1 in., in two editions, both printed in colour, the one with hills stippled in brown, the other coloured on the “layer system” as a strata-relief map; a map of the United Kingdom on a scale of 4 m. to 1 in., also in two editions, the one in outline, showing five classes of roads and parish boundaries, the other in colours, with stippled hills; a map on a scale of 10 m. to 1 in., also in two editions, and finally a map of the United Kingdom on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000.
The geological surveys of Great Britain and Ireland were connected from 1832 to 1853 with the ordnance survey, but are now carried on independently. The ordnance survey, too, no longer depends on the war office but upon the board of agriculture and fisheries. ABathymetrical Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland, under the direction of Sir John Murray and L. Pullar, was completed in 1908, and the results published by the Royal Geographical Society.
Proposals for a new map of France, to replace the famous Cassini map of 1744-1793 were made in 1802 and again by R. Bonne in 1808, but owing to the wars then devastating Europe no steps were taken until 1817, andFrance.theCarte de France de l’état majoron a scale of 1 : 80,000 was only completed in 1880. It is engraved on copper. The hachured hills are based upon contours, and are of admirable commensurability. It has served as a basis for aCarte de la France, published by the Service Vicinal on a scale of 1 : 100,000, in 596 sheets, and of a general map prepared by the ministère des travaux publics on a scale of 1 : 200,000 in 80 sheets. On both these maps the hills are printed in grey chalk. A third topographical map of France is being published in accordance with the recommendation of a committee presided over by General de la Noix in 1897. The surveys for this map were begun in 1905. The maps are based upon the cadastral plans (1 : 1000), thoroughly revised and connected with the triangulation of France and furnished with contours at intervals of 5 m. by precise measurement. Theseminutesare published on a scale of 1 : 10,000 or 1 : 20,000 for mountain districts, while the scale of the general map is 1 : 50,000. Each sheet is bounded by parallels and meridians. The hills are shown in brown contours at intervals of 10 m. and grey shading in chalk (Berthaut,La Carte de France, 1750-1898; Paris, 1899). A geological map of France on a scale of 1 : 80,000 is nearly completed, there are also a map (1 : 500,000) by Carez and Vasseur, and an officialCarte géologique(1 : 1,000,000; 1906).
By the middle of the 19th century topographical maps of the various German states had been completed, and in several instances surveys of a more exact nature had been completed or begun, when in 1878 the governments ofGermany.Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Württemberg agreed to supersede local maps by publishing a map of the empire (Reichskarte) in 674 sheets on a scale of 1 : 100,000. The earlier sheets of this excellent map were lithographed, but these are gradually being superseded by maps engraved on copper. Colour-printing is employed since 1901. The hills are hachured and in some instances contours at intervals of 50 metres are introduced. The map was completed in 1909, but is continually undergoing renewal. TheMesstischblätter, calledPositionsblätterin Bavaria, are on a scale of 1 : 25,000. The older among them leave much to be desired, but those of a later date are satisfactory. This applies more especially to the maps of Saxony (since 1879) and Württemberg (since 1893). The features of the ground on most of these maps are shown by contours at intervals of 10 metres. The map produced on this large scale numbers over 5000 sheets, and is used as a basis for the geological surveys carried on in several of the states of Germany. A general map of the German Empire (Uebersichtskarte) on a scale of 1 : 200,000, in 196 sheets, is in progress since 1893. It is printed in three colours, and gives contours at intervals of 10 metres. In addition to these maps there are D. G. Reymann’s well-knownSpecialkarte von Mittel Europa(1 : 200,000), acquired by the Prussian government in 1874 (it will ultimately consist of 796 sheets), a government and Liebenow’s map of central Europe (1 : 300,000) and C. Vogel’s beautiful map of Germany (1 : 500,000).
TheSpecialkarteof Austria-Hungary on a scale of 1 : 75,000 (765 sheets), based upon a triangulation and cadastral surveys (1816-1867), was completed in 1889, and published in heliogravure. This map was repeatedly revised,Austria-Hungary.but as it no longer met modern requirements as to accuracy the director of the military geographical establishment at Vienna, Field Marshal Chr. von Steeb, in 1896, organized what practically amounts to a re-survey of the entire monarchy, to be completed in 75 years. At the same time the cadastral plans, reduced to a scale of 1 : 25,000, are being published in photo-lithography. A general map of central Europe in 283 sheets published by the Austrian government (1 : 200,000) includes nearly the whole of the Balkan Peninsula.
The famous map of Switzerland, with which is associated the name of General H. Dufour (d. 1875), is based upon a triangulation (1809-1833) and surveys on a scale of 1 : 25,000 for the lowlands, 1 : 50,000 for the alpine districts, andSwitzerland.was published (1842-1865) on a scale of 1 : 100,000. The hills are hachured, the light, in the case of the loftier regions, being supposed to fall obliquely. The original surveys, carefully revised, have been published since 1870 as aTopographical Atlas of Switzerland—the so-calledSiegfried Atlas, in 552 sheets. They are printed in three colours, contours at intervals of 10 and 20 metres being in brown, incidental features (ravines, cliffs, glaciers) in black or blue. To mountain-climbers these contour maps are invaluable, but for ordinary purposes “strata maps,” such as J. M. Ziegler’s hypsometric maps (1856) or so-called “relief maps,” which attempt to delineate the ground so as to give the impression of a relief, are generally preferred.
The new survey of Belgium was completed in 1872 and there have been published 527 plane-table sections orplanchettesonBelgium.a scale of 1 : 20,000 (1866-1880), a “Carte topographique de la Belgique,” in 72 sheets, on a scale of 1 : 40,000 (1861-1883), and a more recent map in 26 sheets on a scale of 1 : 100,000 (1903-1912). The last is printed in five colours, the ground is shown in contours of 10 metres interval and grey stippling.
The new survey of the Netherlands, based upon General Krayenhoff’s primary triangulation (1802-1811) was completedHolland.in 1855. The results have been published on a scale of 1 : 25,000 (776 sheets, since 1866), 1 : 50,000 (Topographic and Military Map, 62 sheets, 1850-1864, and a Waterstaatskaart, 1864-1892), and 1 : 200,000 (Topographical Atlas, 21 sheets, 1868-1871).
In Denmark, on the proposal of the Academy of Science, a survey was carried out in 1766-1825, but the maps issued by the Danish general staff depend upon moreDenmark.recent surveys. These include plane-table sections (Maalebordsblade), 1209 sheets on a scale of 1 : 20,000, with contours at intervals of 5 to 10 ft., published since 1830;Atlasbladeof Jutland and ofDe Danske Öer, on a scale of 1 : 40,000, the former in 131 sheets, since 1870, the latter, on the same scale, in 94 sheets, since 1890, and still in progress, and a general staff map on a scale of 1 : 100,000, in 68 sheets, since 1890. Maps of the Faroer and of Iceland have likewise been issued.
Modern surveys in Sweden date from the organization of a corps of “Landemätare,” known since 1874 as a topographical department of the general staff. The maps issuedScandinavia.by this authority include one of southern Sweden, 1 : 100,000, another of northern Sweden, 1 : 200,000, and a general map on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000. In Norway a geographical survey (Opmaaling) has been in progress since 1783, but the topographical map of the kingdom on a scale of 1 : 100,000 in 340 sheets, has not yet been completed.
Of Russia in Europe only the more densely peopled governments have been surveyed, since 1816, in the manner of other European countries, while for most regions there are only so-called “military surveys.” The mostRussia.readily available map of the whole country is the 10-verst map (1 : 420,000), known as General J. A. Strelbitzki’s, and published 1865-1880. A topographic map (1 : 126,000) embracing the whole of western Russia, with Poland and the country of the Don Cossacks, is designed to be extended over the whole empire. Certain governments—Moscow, Kief, Volhynia, Bessarabia, the Crimea, &c.—have been published on a scale of 1 : 24,000, while Finland, as far as 61° N., was re-surveyed in 1870-1895, and a map on a scale of 1 : 42,000 is approaching completion.
Surveys in Asiatic Russia are conducted by the topographical departments organized at Orenburg, Tashkent, Omsk, Irkutsk and Tiflis. To the latter we are indebted for a valuable map of Caucasia, 1 : 210,000, which since the first publication (1863-1885) has undergone careful revision. The Siberian departments have published a number of maps on a scale of 1 : 420,000. In addition to these the survey for the Trans-Siberian railway has been published on a scale of 1 : 630,000, as also maps of the Russo-Chinese frontier districts, 1 : 210,000 and 1 : 1,168,000. A map of Asiatic Russia, 1 : 420,000, by Bolshef, in 192 sheets, is in course of publication.
Passing to southern Europe we find that Portugal has completed aCharta chorographica(1 : 100,000) since 1856. InPortugal and Spain.Spain a plane-table survey on a scale of 1 : 20,000 has been in progress since 1870, but of the map of Spain in 1078 sheets on a scale of 1 : 50,000 only 150 had been issued by the depósito de la guerra up to 1910. Meanwhile reference may be made to B. F. Coello’sAtlas de la España(1848-1890), the maps of which are on a scale of 1 : 200,000.
In ItalyTavulette rilevataon a scale of 1 : 25,000 or 1 : 50,000,Italy.with contours, based on surveys made 1862-1890, are being published, and aCarta del regno d’Italia, 1 : 100,000, is practically complete. There are aCarta idrologicaand aCarta geologicaon the same scale, and aCarta orograficaon a scale of 1 : 500,000.
Greece is still dependent upon foreigners for its maps, among which theCarte de Grèce(1 : 200,000) from rapid surveys made by General Palet in 1828, was published in a new edition in 1880. A similar map, mainly based uponGreece.surveys made by Austrian officers and revised by H. Kiepert (1 : 300,000), was published by the Military Geographical Institute of Vienna in 1885. Far superior to these maps is theKarte von Attika(1 : 100,000 and 1 : 25,000) based upon careful surveys made by Prussian officers and published by E. Curtius and J. H. Kaupert on behalf of the German Archaeological Institute in Athens (1878), or A. Philippson’s map of the Peloponnese (1 : 300,000; 1901).
For maps of the Balkan Peninsula we are still largely indebted to the rapid surveys carried on by Austrian and Russian officers. The Austrian map of central Europe embraces the whole of the Balkan Peninsula on a scaleBalkan States.of 1 : 200,000; the Russian surveys (1877-1879) are embodied in a map of the eastern part of the Balkan on a scale 1 : 126,000, and a map of Bulgaria and southern Rumelia, on a scale 1 : 200,000, both published in 1883. A map of Turkey in Europe, scale 1 : 210,000, was published by the Turkish general staff (1899), and another map, scale 1 : 250,000, by the intelligence division of the British war office is in progress since 1906. Bosnia and Herzegovina are now included with the surveys of the Austrian Empire, the kingdom of Servia has been surveyed (1880-1891) and the results published on a scale of 1 : 75,000; in eastern Rumania surveys have been in progress since 1874 and the results have been published on a scale of 1 : 50,000; a general map of the entire kingdom, scale 1 : 200,000, was published in 1906-1907; a map of Montenegro (1 : 75,000), based on surveys by Austrian and Russian officers, was published at Vienna in 1894.
In Asiatic Turkey several districts of historical interest have been surveyed, and surveys have likewise been made in the interest of railways, or by boundary commissions, but there is no such thing as a general surveyAsia.carried on under the direction of government. We are thus, to a large extent, still dependent upon compilations, such as R. Kiepert’sAsia Minor(1 : 400,000; 1904-1908), a map of eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria and western Persia (1 : 2,000,000; 1910), published by the Royal Geographical Society, or a Russian general map (1 : 630,000, published 1880-1885). Among maps based upon actual surveys those of Palestine, by Lieutenant G. R. Conder and H. H. (afterwards Lord) Kitchener (1 : 63,360, 1880), of the Sinai Peninsula by Sir C. W. Wilson and H. S. Palmer (1 : 126,730, 1870), of Arabia Petraea by Dr A. Musil (1 : 300,000, 1907) or of the Aden territory (1905) are among the more interesting. Of Cyprus an excellent map from surveys by Major (Lord) H. H. Kitchener was published in 1884 (1 : 63,360).
In the case of Persia and Afghanistan we are still dependent upon compilations such as a Russian staff map (1 : 840,000, published in 1886), Colonel Sir T. H. Holdich’s map of Persia (1 : 1,014,000, Simla, 1897-1899), or a smaller map (1 : 2,028,000 and 1 : 4,056,000), published by the geographical division of the general staff. The settlement of boundaries in northern Afghanistan (1883) and in Seistan (1870) has necessitated surveys of some interest.
A trigonometrical survey of British India was begun in 1800 and the country can now boast of a survey which in most respects is equal to those of most European states. The surveys are made on scales varying according to the necessities of the case or the nature of the country, and they have been extended since 1862 beyond the boundaries of India proper. Revenue surveys for land settlement are published on a scale of 1 : 4000, but the usual scale for topographical maps is 1 : 63,360. AnIndian Atlas, on a scale of 1 : 255,660, includes also Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula, but although begun so long ago as 1827 many of its sheets are unpublished. There are in addition an official map of India (1 : 1,000,000), the first edition of which was published in 1903, as also maps of the great provinces of India, including Burma, all on a scale of 1 : 2,827,520, and a variety of physical and statistical maps. Ceylon and the Straits Settlements, with the Federal Malay States, have their own surveyors-general. The British North Borneo Company published aMap of British North Borneo, on a scale of 1 : 633,600 (1905).
In Siam a regular survey was organized by Mr J. McCarthy (1881-1883), a former official of the Indian survey, which did good work in connexion with the determination of the Franco-Siamese frontier (1906). The surveys are made on the scales of 1 : 4000, 1 : 31,680 and 1 : 63,360.
In French Indo-China surveys have been in progress since 1881. The Bureau of the Indo-Chinese general staff, has published a map of Indo-China, including Cambodia, in 45 sheets (1 : 200,000, 1895), while to the service géographique de l’Indo-Chine, organized in 1899, we owe aCarte de l’Indo-Chine(1 : 500,000).
For China we are still largely dependent upon careful compilations like Baron F. von Richthofen’sAtlas von China(1 : 750,000,Berlin, 1885-1890) or Bretschneider’sMap of China(1 : 4,600,000) a new edition of which appeared at St Petersburg in 1900. There are good survey maps of the British colony of Hong-Kong, of Wei-hai-Wei and of the country around Kiao-chou, and the establishment of topographical offices at Peking and Ngan-king holds out some promise of native surveys. In the meantime large scale maps prepared by European authorities are to be welcomed, such as maps of Chih-li and Shan-tung (1 : 200,000), from surveys by Prussian officers, 1901-1905, maps on East China (1 : 1,000,000) and of Yun-nan by British, German and Indian officers, of the Indo-Chinese frontier (1 : 200,000, Paris 1908), and of the upper Yangtsze-kiang by S. Chevalier (Shanghai, 1900).
Japan has a regular survey department originated by Europeans and successfully carried on by natives. The primary triangulation was completed in 1880, a topographical map coloured geologically (1 : 200,000) was published 1889-1897, and in addition to this there are being published an agronomical map on a scale of 1 : 100,000 (since 1887) and others. The Japanese government has likewise published a map of Korea (1 : 1,000,000; 1898).
The Philippine Islands are represented in a carefully compiled map by C. W. Hodgson (1 : 1,115,000, New York, 1908). Of Java we possess an excellent topographical map based upon surveys made 1850-1887 (1 : 100,000). A similar map has been in progress for Sumatra since 1883, while the maps for the remaining Dutch Indies are still based, almost exclusively, upon flying surveys. For general purposes theAtlas der Nederlandsche Bezittingen in Oost-Indieby J. N. Stemfoort and J. J. Ten Siethoff, of which a new edition has been published since 1900, may be consulted with confidence.
In Africa nearly all the international boundaries have been carefully surveyed and marked on the ground, since 1880, and yield a good basis as a guide for the map compiler. A general map of Africa, by Colonel Lannoy deAfrica.Bissy, on a scale of 1 : 2,000,000 was first published in 1882-1888, but is carefully revised from time to time. The geographical section of the British general staff is publishing maps of all Africa on scales of 1 : 250,000 and 1 : 1,000,000. In Egypt excellent work has been done by a survey department organized and directed by Captain H. G. Lyons up to 1909. It has published a topographical map of the Nile valley (1 : 50,000), an irrigation map (1 : 100,000), a general map (1 : 250,000), numerous cadastral plans, &c. Work on similar lines is carried on in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Algeria has been in course of survey since 1868, Tunis since 1878, and the results have been published on scales of 1 : 50,000 and 1 : 250,000. Of Morocco there are many maps, among which several compiled by the French service géographique de l’armée, including aCarte du Maroc(1 : 200,000), in progress since 1909. In the British colonies of tropical and of South Africa26surveys for the most part are carried on actively. Of the Gambia Colony there is a map by Major E. L. Cowie (1 : 250,000, 1904-1905); the survey of the Gold Coast Colony is being published by Major F. G. Guggisberg since 1907 (1 : 125,000 and 1 : 200,000); southern and northern Nigeria are adequately represented on the maps of the general staff (1 : 250,000). The states of British South Africa have each their surveyor-general, and a reconnaissance survey has been in progress since 1903. It is based upon a careful triangulation, superintended by Sir D. Gill, and carried in 1907 within 70 m. of Lake Tanganyika. This survey is rapidly superseding other maps, such as the surveyor-general’s map of Cape Colony (1 : 127,000); A. Duncan’s map of the Orange River State (1 : 148,705; 1902-1904) and Jeppe’s map of the Transvaal (1 : 476,000; 1899). The results of a survey of southern Rhodesia are given on the map of the British general staff (1 : 500,000; 1909), while of north-eastern Rhodesia we have an excellent map compiled by C. L. Beringer in 1907 (1 : 1,000,000). Surveys in British Central Africa were taken up in 1894; a survey of Lake Nyasa, by Lieut. E. L. Rhoades and W. B. Phillips, was published in 1902. As regards British East Africa and Uganda, the surveys in the latter (on scales of 1 : 10,000 and 1 : 125,000) have made considerable progress. The Victoria Nyanza was surveyed by Captain B. Whitehouse (1898-1900), and the results have been published on a scale of 1 : 292,000. These British possessions, together with the whole of Somaliland and southern Abyssinia, are satisfactorily represented on the maps of the British general staff.
Maps of the French Africa Colonies have been published by the service géographique de l’Afrique occidental and the service géographique des colonies. A map of Senegal (1 : 100,000) is in progress since 1905. The official maps of the other colonies have been compiled by A. Meunier between 1902 and 1909. They include French West Africa, (1 : 2,000,000; 2nd ed., 1908), French Guinea (1 : 500,000; 1902) and the Ivory Coast and Dahomey (1 : 1,500,000; 1907-1908). A map of the French Congo by J. Hansen (1 : 1,500,000), was published in 1907. In Madagascar a topographical bureau was established by General J. S. Gallieni in 1896, and the surveys are being published since 1900 on a scale of 1 : 100,000.
As regards the German colonies we are dependent upon compilations by R. Kiepert, P. Sprigade and M. Moisel. Good maps of the Portuguese colonies are to be found in anAtlas colonial Portugues, a second edition of which was published by the Commissão de Cartographia in 1909. Of the Congo State we have an official map on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000, published in 1907. Of Italian Eritrea we have excellent maps on various scales of 1 : 100,000, 1 : 200,000 and 1 : 500,000, based upon surveys made between 1888 and 1900.
In the states of Australia cadastral surveys conducted by surveyors-general have been in progress for many years, as also trigonometrical surveys (Western Australia excepted), and the publication of parish and township or countyAustralia.maps keeps pace with the settlement of the country; but with the exception of Victoria none of these states is in possession of a topographical map equal in accuracy to similar maps published in Europe. In Victoria the so-called geodetic survey was begun in 1858; the maps are published on a scale of 1 : 126,730. There exists also a general map, on a scale of 1 : 506,930. Maps on the same scale are available of New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania, on a scale of 1 : 560,000 for Western Australia, on a scale of 1 : 253,460 for Queensland. There are likewise maps on smaller scales, which undergo frequent revision. The map of British New Guinea is on a scale of 1 : 330,200 (1898). New Zealand has a good general map on a scale of 1 : 633,700. A trigonometrical survey was given up and only details of immediate practical use are required. The “Lands Department” of the Fiji Islands has published a map on a scale of 1 : 380,000 (1908).
The cadastral surveys in Canada are carried on by a commission of Crown-lands in the old provinces and by a Dominion land office, which lays out townships as in the United States, but with greater accuracy. A surveyor-generalNorth America.is attached to the department of the interior, at Ottawa. He publishes the topographical maps (1 : 63,366) since 1906. They are based upon theodolite traverses 15 m. apart, and connected with the United States lake and coast surveys, the details being filled in by plane-table surveys on a scale of 1 : 31,680. The contours, 25 ft. apart, depend upon spirit-levelling. In the Rocky Mountains surveys photographic apparatus is successfully employed. The surveyor-general issues also “sectional maps” (1 : 190,000 and 1 : 40,000) and so-called “Standard” topographical maps for the thinly peopled west, on scales of 1 : 250,000 and 1 : 500,000. He is responsible likewise for maps of Yukon and of Labrador, supplied by the geological survey, the former on a scale of 1 : 380,200, the latter of 1 : 1,584,000. The intelligence branch of the Canadian department of military defence is publishing since 1904 topographical maps on scales of 1 : 63,366 and 1 : 126,730, with contours. A geodetic survey department, under Dr. W. F. King, chief astronomer of the Dominion, was established in 1909.
Maps of Newfoundland, orographical as well as geological, scale 1 : 1,584,200, have been published.
In the United States a “geological survey” was organized in 1879, under Clarence King as director, whose successor, Major J. W. Powell, rightly conceived that it was necessary to produce good topographical maps before a geological survey could be pursued with advantage. It is under his wise guidance that the survey has attained its present efficiency. It is based upon a triangulation by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The maps of the more densely peopled parts of the Union are published on a scale of 1 : 62,500, and those of the remainder of the country on half or a quarter of that scale. The hills are shown by contours at intervals of 10 or 100 ft. The details given are considered sufficient to admit of the selection of general routes for railways or other public works. The survey progresses at the rate of about 40,000 sq. m. annually, and in course of time it will supersede the map of the separate states, based on older surveys. A “reconnaissance” map of Alaska (on a scale of 1 : 250,000) was published in 1908.
In Mexico the surveys are in charge of a comision geografica-exploradora attached to the secretaria de Fomento, but only about 140 sheets of aCarta generalon a scale ofCentral America.1 : 100,000 have been published. There are also a map of the state of S. Luis Potosi (1 : 250,000), of the environs of Puebla (1 : 50,000) and aCarta general de la republica mexicana(1 : 250,000).
A useful map of Central America has been published by the topographical section of the British general staff on a scale of 1 : 170,300. Of great value for cartographical work is a careful survey, carried out by American engineers (1897-1898), for a continental railway running along the west coast from Mexico to Chile. In South America, in proportion to the area of the country, only few surveys of a thoroughly scientific nature have been made, and it is therefore satisfactory that the service géographique of the French army should be publishing, since 1900, a map of the entire continent on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000.
Colombia is but inadequately represented by rough maps. For Colombia we have F. L. Vergara y Velasco’sAtlas de geografia colombiana(1906-1908); Ecuador is fairly well represented by Th. Wolf (1892) and Hans Meier (1907); in the case of Peru we still largely depend upon Paz Soldan’sAtlas geografica(1865-1867) and A. Raimondi’sMapa del Peru(1 : 500,000) based upon surveys made before 1869. Sir Martin Conway’s “Map of the Andes of La Paz” (1 : 600,000; 1900) as well as Major P. H. Fawcett’s survey of the Brazilian boundary (1906-1907) are welcome additions to our knowledge of Bolivia. In Chile a comisiontopograficawas appointed as long ago as 1848, but the map produced under its auspices by Professor F. Pissis (1 : 250,000, 1870-1877), leaves much to be desired. Since that time, however, valuable maps have been published by anOficina de mensura de tierras, by aseccion de geografia y minasconnected with the department of public works, by theOficina hidrografica, and more especially in connexion with surveys necessitated by the boundary disputes with Argentina, which were settled by arbitration in 1899 and 1902. The surveys which led to the latter were conducted by Sir Thomas Holdich.
In Venezuela a commission for producing aplano militaror military map of the country was appointed by General Castro in 1904, but little progress seems to have been made, and meantime we are dependent upon a revised edition of A. Codazzi’s map of 1840 which was published in 1884. In Brazil little or nothing is done by the central government, but the progressive states of São Paulo and Mines Gerães have commissãos geographicos e geologicos engaged in the production of topographical maps. Valuable materials have likewise been acquired by several river surveys including those of the Amazonas by Azevedo and Pinto (1862-1864) and W. Chandless (1862-1869) and of the Rio Madeira by Colonel G. Earl Church and Keller-Leuzinger (1860-1875). The proposal of a committee presided over by the Marshal H. de Beaurepaire-Rohan (1876) to prepare a map of Brazil on a scale of 1 : 200,000 has never been acted upon, and in the meantime we are dependent upon works like theAtlas do imperio do Brazilby Mendes de Almeida (1868) or the maps in our general atlases.
In Argentina an official geographical institute was established in 1879, but neither A. Seelstrang’sAtlas(1886-1892) nor H. Hoskold’sMapa topografica(1 : 2,000,000; London, 1895), which were published by it, nor any of the numerous provincial maps are based upon scientific surveys.