Chapter 18

Governors of Plymouth Colony(Chosen annually by the people).John Carver1620-1621William Bradford1621-1633Edward Winslow1633-1634Thomas Prence (or Prince)1634-1635William Bradford1635-1636Edward Winslow1636-1637William Bradford1637-1638Thomas Prence (or Prince)1638-1639William Bradford1639-1644Edward Winslow1644-1645William Bradford1645-1657Thomas Prence (or Prince)1657-1673Josiah Winslow1673-1680Thomas Hinckley1680-1686Sir Edmund Andros1686-1689Thomas Hinckley1689-1692Governors of Massachusetts(Under the First Charter—chosen annually)John Endecott241629-1630John Winthrop1630-1634Thomas Dudley1634-1635John Haynes1635-1636Henry Vane1636-1637John Winthrop1637-1640Thomas Dudley1640-1641Richard Bellingham1641-1642John Winthrop1642-1644John Endecott1644-1645Thomas Dudley1645-1646John Winthrop1646-1649John Endecott1649-1650Thomas Dudley1650-1651John Endecott1651-1654Richard Bellingham1654-1655John Endecott1655-1665Richard Bellingham1665-1672John Leverett (acting, 1672-1673)1672-1679Simon Bradstreet1679-1686———————Sir Edmund Andros1686-1689Simon Bradstreet1689-1692Under Second Charter—appointed by the Crown25Sir William Phips1692-1694William Stoughton (acting)1694-1699Richard Coote, earl of Bellomont1699-1700William Stoughton (acting)1700-1701Joseph Dudley1702-1715William Tailer (acting)1715-1716Samuel Shute1716-1722William Dummer (acting)1722-1728William Burnet1728-1729William Dummer (acting)1729-1730William Tailer (acting)1730Jonathan Belcher1730-1741William Shirley1741-1749Spencer Phips (acting)1749-1753William Shirley1753-1756Spencer Phips (acting)1756-1757Thomas Pownal1757-1760Thomas Hutchinson (acting)1760Sir Francis Bernard, Bart1760-1769Thomas Hutchinson (acting)1769-1771Thomas Hutchinson1771-1774Thomas Gage261774-1775Under the ConstitutionJohn Hancock1780-1785James Bowdoin1785-1787John Hancock1787-1793Samuel Adams (acting)1793-1794Samuel Adams1794-1797Increase SumnerFederalist1797-1799Moses Gill (lieut-governor; acting)”1799-1800Caleb Strong”1800-1807Jas SullivanDemocratic-Republican1807-1808Levi Lincoln (acting)”1808-1809Christopher GoreFederalist1809-1810Elbridge GerryDemocratic-Republican1810-1812Caleb StrongFederalist1812-1816John Brooks”1816-1823William EustisDemocratic-Republican1823-1825Levi Lincoln”1825-1834John DavisWhig1834-1835Edward Everett”1836-1840Marcus MortonDemocrat1840-1841John DavisWhig1841-1843Marcus MortonDemocrat1843-1844George N BriggsWhig1844-1851George S BoutwellFree-Soil Democrat1851-1853John H CliffordWhig1853-1854Emory Washburn”1854-1855Henry J GardnerKnow-Nothing1855-1858Nathaniel P BanksRepublican1858-1861Marcus MortonDemocrat1840-1841John A. AndrewRepublican1861-1866Alexander H. Bullock”1866-1869William Claflin”1869-1872William B. Washburn”1872-1874Thomas Talbot (acting)”1874-1875William GastonDemocrat1875-1876Alexander H. RiceRepublican1876-1879Thomas Talbot”1879-1880John Davis Long”1880-1883Benjamin F. ButlerDemocrat1883-1884George D. RobinsonRepublican1884-1887Oliver Ames”1887-1890John Q. A. Brackett”1890-1891William E. RussellDemocrat1891-1894Frederic T. GreenhalgeRepublican1894-1896Roger Wolcott”1896-1897Roger Wolcott”1897-1900W. Murray Crane”1900-1903John L. Bates”1903-1905William L. DouglasDemocrat1905-1906Curtis L. GuildRepublican1906-1909Eben S. Draper”1909-1911Eugene N. FossDemocrat1911-

Bibliography.—For Topography: W. M. Davis,Physical Geography of Southern New England(New York, 1895), and for the western counties, R. D. Mallary,Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands(New York-London, 1902); alsoInland Massachusetts, Illustrated ...(Springfield, 1890); C. F. Warner,Picturesque Berkshire(also Franklin, Hampden, Hampshire, Northampton, 1890-1893); U.S. Geological Survey,Bulletin 116, H. Gannett, “Geographic Dictionary of Massachusetts.” On Minerals:U.S. Census, 1900, andU.S. Geological Survey, annual volume onMineral Resources. On Agriculture:U.S. Censusand reports of Mass. Census (alternating with Federal census), and reports and bulletins of the Board of Agriculture (1852) and the Agricultural College (1867), and Experiment Station (1883) at Amherst. On Manufactures, &c.: SeeReportsof state and Federal censuses; alsoAnnual Reports(1869) of the state Bureau of Statistics of Labor, which contain a wealth of valuable material (e.g.1903, “Race in Industry”; 1902, “Sex in Industry”; 1885, “Wages and Prices, 1752-1863,” &c.); W. R. Bagnall,The Textile Industries of the United States(vol. i., 1639-1810, Cambridge, 1893); J. L. Hayes, “American Textile Machinery: its Early History, &c.” (Cambridge, 1870;Bulletinof National Association of Wool Manufacturers), and literature therein referred to. On Commerce and Communications:U.S. Census, 1902 (vol. on “Electric Railways”); U.S. Interstate Commerce Commission, annualStatistics of Railways; publications of the State Board of Trade; W. Hill on “First Stages of the Tariff Policy of the United States” inAmerican Economic Association Publications, vol. viii., no. 6 (1893). On Population: Census reports, state and Federal, publications of Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Board of Health (1869-; the Annual Report of 1896 contains an exhaustive analysis of vital statistics, 1856-1895); Board of Charity (1878- ), &c. On Administration: G. H. Haynes,Representation and Suffrage in Massachusetts, 1620-1691, in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in History, xii.;Manual for the General Court(Annual); R. H. Whitten,Public Administration in Massachusetts, in Columbia University, Studies in History, vol. viii. (1898); H. R. Spencer,Constitutional Conflict in Provincial Massachusetts(Columbus, O., 1905); and the annualPublic Documents of Massachusetts, embracing the reports of all state officers and institutions. On Taxation: See especially the official “Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Expediency of Revising and Amending the Laws ... Relating to Taxation” (1897), and vol. xi. of theReport of the United States Industrial Commission(Wash., 1901); H. G. Friedman,The Taxation of Corporations in Massachusetts(New York, 1907); and C. J. Bullock,Historical Sketch of the Finances and Financial Policy of Massachusetts(1907). On Education: SeeAnnual Reportsof the United States Commissioner of Education; G. G. Bush,History of Higher Education in Massachusetts(Washington, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1891); article onHarvard University. On History: Elaborate bibliography is given in J. Winsor’sNarrative and Critical History of Americaand in hisMemorial History of Boston. The colonial historical classics are William Bradford,History of Plimoth Plantation(pub. by the commonwealth, 1898; also edited by Charles Deane, inCollectionsof the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1856, series 4, vol. iii.); J. Winthrop,History of New England 1630-1649, edited by J. Savage (Boston, 2 vols. 1825-1826, new ed., 1853); S. E. Sewall,Diary, 1674-1729(3 vols.,Collectionsof the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 5, vols. v.-vii., 1878-1882), a fascinating and microscopic picture of colonial life; T. Hutchinson,History of ... Massachusetts(3 vols., respectively Boston, 1764, 1767, London, 1828); also the very valuableHutchinson Papers(2 vols., Prince Society, Boston, 1865). For the period 1662-1666, when Massachusetts was investigated by royal commissioners, seeCollectionsof the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 2, vol. viii., 1819; on the Andros period, 1689-1691, see theAndros Tracts(3 vols., Prince Society Publications, v.-vii., Boston, 1868-1874), ed. by J. H. Whitmore. The one-time-standardgeneral history was that of J. G. Palfrey,History of New England(5 vols., Boston, 1858-1890), to the War of Independence. It is generally accurate in facts but written in an unsatisfactorily eulogistic vein. Of importance in more modern views is a volume ofLectures Delivered ... before the Lowell Institute ... by Members of the Massachusetts Historical Society on Subjects Relating to the Early History of Massachusetts(Boston, 1869), perhaps especially the lectures of G. E. Ellis, later expanded, and in the process somewhat weakened, into hisPuritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay, 1629-1685(Boston, 1888; 3rd ed., 1891). See C. F. Adams,Massachusetts: its Historians and its History(Boston, 1893), for a critique of the “filiopietistic” traditions of Massachusetts writers; also hisThree Episodes of Massachusetts History,—namely, Settlement of the Colony, Antinomianism, and church and town government in Quincy from 1634-1888 (2 vols., Boston, 1892). On town government see further E. Channing in Johns Hopkins University,Studies in Historyvol. ii. (1884); P. E. Aldrich in American Antiquarian Society,Proceedings, new series, vol. 3, pp. 111-124; and C. F. Adams and others in Massachusetts Historical Society,Proceedings, 2nd series, vol. vii (1892). On the Pilgrims and Puritans: See articlePlymouth; also E. H. Byington,The Puritan in England and America(Boston, 1896) andThe Puritan as Colonist and Reformer(Boston, 1899). On the Quaker Persecution: R. P. Hallowell,The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts(Boston, 1883; rev. ed., 1887). On Witchcraft: See C. W. Upham,Witchcraft in Salem(2 vols., Boston, 1867); S. G. Drake,Annals of Witchcraft(Boston, 1869) andThe Witchcraft Delusion in New England(3 vols., Roxbury, 1866), this last a reprint of accounts of the time by Cotton Mather and R. Calef; W. F. Poole, “Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft” (North American Review, April 1869); and controversy of A. C. Goodell and G. H. Moore in Massachusetts Historical Society,Proceedings. On Slavery: G. H. Moore,Notes on the History of Slavery(New York, 1866); E. Washburn inCollections, Massachusetts Historical Society, series 4, iv., 333-346; C. Deane in same, pp. 375-442, and inProceedings, American Antiquarian Society, new series, iv., 191-222. In the essays of J. R. Lowell are two on “New England two Centuries Ago” and “Witchcraft.” For economic history, W. B. Weeden,Economic and Social History of New England, 1620-1789(2 vols., Boston, 1890); C. H. J. Douglas,The Financial History of Massachusetts ... to the American Revolution(in Columbia University Studies, vol i., 1892). On the revolutionary epoch, Mellen Chamberlain,John Adams... with other Essays and Addresses(Boston, 1898); T. Hutchinson,Diary and Letters(2 vols., Boston, 1884-1886); H. A. Cushing,Transition from Provincial to Commonwealth Government in Massachusetts(Columbia University Studies in History, vol. iii., 1896); S. B. Harding,Contest over the Ratification of the Federal Constitution in Massachusetts(Harvard University Studies, New York, 1896); and on the Shays Rebellion compare J. P. Warren inAmerican Historical Review(Oct., 1905). On New England discontent preceding 1812, Henry Adams,Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1780-1815(Boston, 1877); T. W. Higginson,Massachusetts in the Army and Navy during the War of 1861-65(Official, Boston, 2 vols., 1896). For a list of the historical societies of the state consult A. M. Davis inPublicationsof the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, vol. i.; the most important are the Massachusetts Historical Society, established 1791, publishingCollections and Proceedings(Boston) and the American Antiquarian Society, established 1812, publishingProceedings(Worcester). In many cases the most valuable material on various periods is indicated under the biographies (or autobiographies in some cases) of the public men named in the above article, to which add Timothy Pickering, George Cabot, Joseph Warren, Elbridge Gerry, Benjamin F. Butler, G. S. Boutwell and George F. Hoar. Many townships have published their local records, and many township and county histories contain valuable matter of general interest (e.g.as showing in detail township action before the War of Independence), though generally weighted heavily with genealogy and matters of merely local interest. In American works of fiction, particularly of New England authors, the reader will find a wealth of description of Massachusetts and New England life, past and present, as in the writings of William D. Howells, Sarah O. Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins-Freeman, Harriet B. Stowe and others.

1At least seventy hills in the state, mainly in this quarter, have an elevation of 1500 ft. (twenty-four above 2000 ft.).2In some localities it is not easy to establish irrefutably and in detail the inter-arrangement of drainage and rock structure that proves it to be a subaerial peneplain instead of an uplifted submarine platform; but the general proof is very clear.3The yield of cereals and of such other crops in 1907 as are recorded in theYearbookof the United States Department of Agriculture was as follows: Indian corn, 1,584,000 bushels; oats, 245,000 bushels; barley, 64,000 bushels; buckwheat, 42,000 bushels; potatoes, 3,600,000 bushels; hay, 760,000 tons; tobacco, 7,167,500 ℔. In the same year, according to the same authority, there were in the state 196,000 milch cows, 92,000 other neat cattle, 45,000 sheep and 70,000 swine.4The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of Rhode Island, Bulletin, U.S. Geological Survey, No. 311, 1907.5In 1905 Massachusetts produced 60.7% of the writing paper manufactured in the country. Besides writing paper, book paper and building paper are made in the state, but very little newspaper.6It must be noted, however, that the first successful construction of cards, drawing and roving, and of spindles, on the Arkwright principle was by S. Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790.7The tax valuation on ships engaged in foreign trade was lowered between 1884 and 1900 from $2,801,405 to $147,768.8The population of the state was 378,787 in 1790; 422,845 in 1800; 472,040 in 1810; 523,287 in 1820; 610,408 in 1830; 737,699 in 1840; 994,514 in 1850; 1,231,066 in 1860; 1,457,351 in 1870; 1,783,085 in 1880; 2,238,943 in 1890; and 2,805,346 in 1900. In 1905, according to the state census, the population was 3,003,680, or about 7.7% more than in 1900.9In 1910 the following townships each had populations of more than 15,000: Revere, Leominster, Westfield, Attleborough, Peabody, Hyde Park.10The birth-rates every fifth (census) year up to 1895 varied for natives from 14.48 to 19.49; for foreigners from 45.87 to 66.68. The marriage rates in quinquennial periods up to 1905 were 19.6, 18.6, 21.0, 19.8, 15.6, 18.6, 18.6, 18.6, 17.4 and 17.4; the ratio of marriages to the marriageable population was for males (above 16 years) 61.5, for females (above 14) 46.0; the fecundity of marriages seemed to have increased, being about twice as high for foreigners as for natives. SeeAnnual Reportof the Board of Health (1896), by S. W. Abbott; andSixty-fourth Report of Births, Marriages and Deaths in Massachusetts(1906).11The number of representatives from 1832 to 1908 varied from 240 to 635, and the length of session from 58 to 206 days (since 1867 none of under 100 days), with an almost continual increase in both respects.12However, every office-holder was, and every subject might be, required to take (though this was not a condition of the franchise) the oaths enjoined by parliament in the first year of the reign of William and Mary as a substitute for the oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy; and the same still applies to the signing of the Declaration.13From 1887-1900, out of 290 cases settled, only 107 were formal arbitrations, 124 agreements were effected by the mediation of the Board, 100 were effected otherwise while proceedings were pending, and in 59 cases the Board interposed when the parties preferred hostilities.14For a summary statement of state labour laws in the United States in 1903 seeBulletin 54of the United States Bureau of Labor, September 1904; and for a summary of labour laws in force at the end of 1907 see 22ndAnnual Report(for 1907) of the U.S. Commissioner of Labor (Washington, 1908).15The usual allotment of the cost of this work is as follows: 65% is paid by the railway company, 25% by the commonwealth and 10% by the municipality in which the crossing is located.16The cost was apportioned between the commonwealth and the local government in the proportion of 3 to 1.17Boston remained a township, governed by town-meetings, until 1822, when it had a population of some 47,000. The government of Brookline (pop. in 1905, 23,436) is an interesting example of the adaptation of the township system to urban conditions. The town is frequently referred to as a model residential suburb; its budgets are very large, its schools are excellent, and, among other things, it has established a township gymnasium. The town hall is not large enough for an assemblage of all the voters, but actually the attendance is usually limited to about 200, and since 1901 there has been in force a kind of referendum, under which any measure passed by a town-meeting attended by 700 or more voters may be referred, upon petition of 100 legal voters, to a regular vote at the polls. Much of the work of the town-meetings is done through special committees.18E. G. Brown, inMonographs on Education in the United Statesprepared for the Paris Exposition of 1900 and edited by N. M. Butler.19This is an especially honourable distinction, for William T. Harris has said that “The history of education since the time of Horace Mann is very largely an account of the successive modifications introduced into elementary schools through the direct or indirect influence of the normal school.”20In 1869 the personalty valuation was 60% that of realty; but it steadily fell thereafter, amounting in 1893 to 32%. From 1874-1882 the assessment of realty increased nearly twelve times as much as personalty. In the intervening period the assessed valuation of realty in Boston increased more than 100%, while that of personalty slightly diminished (the corresponding figures for the entire United States from 1860 to 1890 being 172% and 12%), yet the most competent business and expert opinions regarded the true value of personalty as at least equal to and most likely twice as great as that of realty.21In this document, whose democracy is characteristic of differences between the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts Bay, the signatories “solemnly and mutually ... covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame—[laws]—unto which we promise all due submission and obedience.” This was signed 11/21 of November 1620 by 41 persons.22Slavery had existed as a social fact from the earliest years, and legally after 1641; but it was never profitable, and was virtually abolished long before the War of American Independence; still it was never abolished explicitly by Massachusetts, though the slave trade was prohibited in 1788, and though a number of negroes were declared free after the adoption of the constitution of 1780 on the strength of the sweeping declaration of human rights in that instrument.23According to the final report of the U.S. Adjutant-General in 1885, the enlistments were 146,730 men, of whom 13,942 died in war. These figures are probably less accurate than those of the state.24Endecott, by commission dated the 30th of April 1629, was made “governor of London’s plantation in the Massachusetts Bay.” Matthew Cradock, first governor of the Company, from the 4th of March 1629 to the 20th of October 1629, was succeeded on the latter date by John Winthrop, who, on reaching Salem on the 12th of June 1630 with the charter, superseded Endecott.25During three periods, 1701-1702, in February 1715, and from April to August 1757 the affairs of the colony were administered by the Executive Council.26General Gage was military governor, Hutchinson remaining nominally civil governor.

1At least seventy hills in the state, mainly in this quarter, have an elevation of 1500 ft. (twenty-four above 2000 ft.).

2In some localities it is not easy to establish irrefutably and in detail the inter-arrangement of drainage and rock structure that proves it to be a subaerial peneplain instead of an uplifted submarine platform; but the general proof is very clear.

3The yield of cereals and of such other crops in 1907 as are recorded in theYearbookof the United States Department of Agriculture was as follows: Indian corn, 1,584,000 bushels; oats, 245,000 bushels; barley, 64,000 bushels; buckwheat, 42,000 bushels; potatoes, 3,600,000 bushels; hay, 760,000 tons; tobacco, 7,167,500 ℔. In the same year, according to the same authority, there were in the state 196,000 milch cows, 92,000 other neat cattle, 45,000 sheep and 70,000 swine.

4The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of Rhode Island, Bulletin, U.S. Geological Survey, No. 311, 1907.

5In 1905 Massachusetts produced 60.7% of the writing paper manufactured in the country. Besides writing paper, book paper and building paper are made in the state, but very little newspaper.

6It must be noted, however, that the first successful construction of cards, drawing and roving, and of spindles, on the Arkwright principle was by S. Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790.

7The tax valuation on ships engaged in foreign trade was lowered between 1884 and 1900 from $2,801,405 to $147,768.

8The population of the state was 378,787 in 1790; 422,845 in 1800; 472,040 in 1810; 523,287 in 1820; 610,408 in 1830; 737,699 in 1840; 994,514 in 1850; 1,231,066 in 1860; 1,457,351 in 1870; 1,783,085 in 1880; 2,238,943 in 1890; and 2,805,346 in 1900. In 1905, according to the state census, the population was 3,003,680, or about 7.7% more than in 1900.

9In 1910 the following townships each had populations of more than 15,000: Revere, Leominster, Westfield, Attleborough, Peabody, Hyde Park.

10The birth-rates every fifth (census) year up to 1895 varied for natives from 14.48 to 19.49; for foreigners from 45.87 to 66.68. The marriage rates in quinquennial periods up to 1905 were 19.6, 18.6, 21.0, 19.8, 15.6, 18.6, 18.6, 18.6, 17.4 and 17.4; the ratio of marriages to the marriageable population was for males (above 16 years) 61.5, for females (above 14) 46.0; the fecundity of marriages seemed to have increased, being about twice as high for foreigners as for natives. SeeAnnual Reportof the Board of Health (1896), by S. W. Abbott; andSixty-fourth Report of Births, Marriages and Deaths in Massachusetts(1906).

11The number of representatives from 1832 to 1908 varied from 240 to 635, and the length of session from 58 to 206 days (since 1867 none of under 100 days), with an almost continual increase in both respects.

12However, every office-holder was, and every subject might be, required to take (though this was not a condition of the franchise) the oaths enjoined by parliament in the first year of the reign of William and Mary as a substitute for the oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy; and the same still applies to the signing of the Declaration.

13From 1887-1900, out of 290 cases settled, only 107 were formal arbitrations, 124 agreements were effected by the mediation of the Board, 100 were effected otherwise while proceedings were pending, and in 59 cases the Board interposed when the parties preferred hostilities.

14For a summary statement of state labour laws in the United States in 1903 seeBulletin 54of the United States Bureau of Labor, September 1904; and for a summary of labour laws in force at the end of 1907 see 22ndAnnual Report(for 1907) of the U.S. Commissioner of Labor (Washington, 1908).

15The usual allotment of the cost of this work is as follows: 65% is paid by the railway company, 25% by the commonwealth and 10% by the municipality in which the crossing is located.

16The cost was apportioned between the commonwealth and the local government in the proportion of 3 to 1.

17Boston remained a township, governed by town-meetings, until 1822, when it had a population of some 47,000. The government of Brookline (pop. in 1905, 23,436) is an interesting example of the adaptation of the township system to urban conditions. The town is frequently referred to as a model residential suburb; its budgets are very large, its schools are excellent, and, among other things, it has established a township gymnasium. The town hall is not large enough for an assemblage of all the voters, but actually the attendance is usually limited to about 200, and since 1901 there has been in force a kind of referendum, under which any measure passed by a town-meeting attended by 700 or more voters may be referred, upon petition of 100 legal voters, to a regular vote at the polls. Much of the work of the town-meetings is done through special committees.

18E. G. Brown, inMonographs on Education in the United Statesprepared for the Paris Exposition of 1900 and edited by N. M. Butler.

19This is an especially honourable distinction, for William T. Harris has said that “The history of education since the time of Horace Mann is very largely an account of the successive modifications introduced into elementary schools through the direct or indirect influence of the normal school.”

20In 1869 the personalty valuation was 60% that of realty; but it steadily fell thereafter, amounting in 1893 to 32%. From 1874-1882 the assessment of realty increased nearly twelve times as much as personalty. In the intervening period the assessed valuation of realty in Boston increased more than 100%, while that of personalty slightly diminished (the corresponding figures for the entire United States from 1860 to 1890 being 172% and 12%), yet the most competent business and expert opinions regarded the true value of personalty as at least equal to and most likely twice as great as that of realty.

21In this document, whose democracy is characteristic of differences between the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts Bay, the signatories “solemnly and mutually ... covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame—[laws]—unto which we promise all due submission and obedience.” This was signed 11/21 of November 1620 by 41 persons.

22Slavery had existed as a social fact from the earliest years, and legally after 1641; but it was never profitable, and was virtually abolished long before the War of American Independence; still it was never abolished explicitly by Massachusetts, though the slave trade was prohibited in 1788, and though a number of negroes were declared free after the adoption of the constitution of 1780 on the strength of the sweeping declaration of human rights in that instrument.

23According to the final report of the U.S. Adjutant-General in 1885, the enlistments were 146,730 men, of whom 13,942 died in war. These figures are probably less accurate than those of the state.

24Endecott, by commission dated the 30th of April 1629, was made “governor of London’s plantation in the Massachusetts Bay.” Matthew Cradock, first governor of the Company, from the 4th of March 1629 to the 20th of October 1629, was succeeded on the latter date by John Winthrop, who, on reaching Salem on the 12th of June 1630 with the charter, superseded Endecott.

25During three periods, 1701-1702, in February 1715, and from April to August 1757 the affairs of the colony were administered by the Executive Council.

26General Gage was military governor, Hutchinson remaining nominally civil governor.

MASSACRE,a wholesale indiscriminate killing of persons, and also, in a transferred sense, of animals. The word is adopted from the French; but its origin is obscure. The meaning and the old formmacecleseem to point to it being a corruption of the Lat.macellum, butcher’s shop or shambles, hence meat market; this is probably from the rootmac-, seen inμάχεσθαι, to fight,μάχαιρα, sword, and Lat.mactare, to sacrifice. Another derivation connects with the Old Low Ger.matsken, to cut in pieces; cf. mod. Ger.metzeln, to massacre.

MASSAGE.The wordmassagehas of late years come into general use to signify the method of treating disease or other physical conditions by manipulating the muscles and joints. According to Littré the word is derived from the Arabicmass, and has the specific meaning of “pressing the muscular parts of the body with the hands, and exercising traction on the joints in order to give suppleness and stimulate vitality.” It was probably adopted from the Arabian physicians by the French, who have played a leading part in reviving this method of treatment, which has been practised from time immemorial, and by the most primitive people, but has from time to time fallen into disuse among Western nations. In theOdysseythe women are described as rubbing and kneading the heroes on their return from battle. In India, under the name “shampoo” (tshāmpuā), the same process has formed part of the native system of medicine from the most remote times; professional massers were employed there by Alexander the Great in 327B.C.In China the method is also of great antiquity, and practised by a professional class; the Swedish gymnastic system instituted by Pehr Henrik Ling is derived from the book of Cong-Fou, the bonze of Tao-Sse. Hippocrates describes and enjoins the use of manipulation, especially in cases of stiff joints, and he was followed by other Greek physicians. Oribasius gives an account of the application of friction with the bare hands, which exactly corresponds with the modern practice of massage. It is worthy of note that the treatment, after being held in high esteem by the leading Greek physicians, fell into disrepute with the profession, apparently on account of its association with vicious abuses. The same drawback has made itself felt in the present day, and can only be met by the most scrupulous care in the choice of agents and the manner of their employment. Among the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and later the Turks, massage came to be part of the ordinary procedure of the bath without any special therapeutic intention, and the usage has survived until to-day; but that mode of application was no doubt a refinement of civilized life. Medical rubbing is older and more elementary than bathing, as we see from its employment by savages. Probably it was evolved independently among different races from the natural instinct—shared by the lower animals—which teaches to rub, press or lick any part of the body in which uneasiness is felt, and is therefore the oldest of all therapeutic means.

According to Weiss, the therapeutic use of massage was revived in Europe by Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619), who applied it to stiff joints and similar conditions. Paracelsus in hisDe medicina Aegyptiorum(1591), gives a description of methodical massage as practised by the Egyptians quite on modern lines. Thereafter it appears to have been adopted here and there by individual practitioners, and various references are made to it, especially by French writers. The word “massage” occurs in an essay written by Pierre Adolphe Piorry (1794-1879) for a large encyclopaedia which appeared in 1818, but it was probably used before. The practice was gradually advocated by an increasing number of medical men. In Great Britain it was called “medical rubbing,” and at Edinburgh Beveridge had a staff of eight trained male rubbers. A book published by Estradère in 1863 attracted much attention, but the man who contributed most to the modern popularity of massage was Metzger of Amsterdam, who began to use it tentatively in 1853, and then proceeded to study and apply it methodically. He published an essay on the subject in 1868. The modern refinements of the treatment are chiefly due to him. At the same time, its application by Dr Silas Weir Mitchell to hysterical and other nervous conditions, in conjunction with the “rest cure,” has done much to make it known.

Massage, as now practised, includes several processes, some of which are passive and others active. The former are carried out by an operator, and consist of rubbing and kneading the skin and deeper tissues with the hands, and exercising the joints by bending the patient’s limbs. The active movements consist of a special form of gymnastics, designed to exercise particular muscles or groups of muscles. In what is called “Swedish massage” the operator moves the limbs while the patient resists, thus bringing the opposing muscles into play. Some writers insist on confining the word “massage” to the rubbing processes, and use the general term “manipulation”to cover all the movements mentioned; but this is a verbal subtlety of no importance. It is evident that alike among the Greeks, the Orientals, and savage races, the two processes have always been applied as part of the same treatment, and the definition quoted above from Littré goes to show that the word “massage” is properly applied to both.

Rubbing has been subdivided into several processes, namely (1) stroking, (2) kneading, (3) rubbing, and (4) tapping, and some practitioners attach great importance to the application of a particular process in a particular way. As a rule, oils and other lubricants are not used. But, however it may be applied, the treatment acts essentially by increasing circulation and improving nutrition. It has been shown by Lauder Brunton that more blood actually flows through the tissues during and after rubbing. The number of red corpuscles, and, to some extent, their haemoglobin value, are also said to be increased (Mitchell). At the same time the movement of the lymph stream is accelerated. In order to assist the flow of blood and lymph, stroking is applied centripetally, that is to say, upwards along the limbs and the lower part of the body, downwards from the head. The effects of the increased physiological activity set up are numerous. Functional ability is restored to exhausted muscles by the removal of fatigue products and the induction of a fresh blood supply; congestion is relieved; collections of serous fluid are dispersed; secretion and excretion are stimulated; local and general nutrition are improved. These effects indicate the conditions in which massage may be usefully applied. Such are various forms of paralysis and muscular wasting, chronic and subacute affections of the joints, muscular rheumatism, sciatica and other neuralgias, local congestions, sprains, contractions, insomnia and some forms of headache, in which downward stroking from the head relieves cerebral congestion. It has also been used in anaemia, hysteria and “neurasthenia,” disorders of the female organs, melancholia and other forms of insanity, morphinism, obesity, constipation, inflammatory and other affections of the eye, including even cataract. General massage is sometimes applied, as a form of passive exercise, to indolent persons whose tissues are overloaded with the products of incomplete metabolism.As with other methods of treatment, there has been a tendency on the part of some practitioners to exalt it into a cure-all, and of others to ignore it altogether. Of its therapeutic value, when judiciously used, there is no doubt, but it is for the physician or surgeon to say when and how it should be applied. Affections to which it is not applicable are fevers, pregnancy, collections of pus, acute inflammation of the joints, inflamed veins, fragile arteries, wounds of the skin and, generally speaking, those conditions in which it is not desirable to increase the circulation, or in which the patient cannot bear handling. In such conditions it may have a very injurious and even dangerous effect, and therefore should not be used in a haphazard manner without competent advice.The revival of massage in Europe and America has called into existence a considerable number of professional operators, both male and female, who may be regarded as forming a branch of the nursing profession. Some of these are trained in hospitals or other institutions, some by private practitioners and some not at all. Similarly some are attached to organized societies or institutions while others pursue their calling independently. Several things are required for a good operator. One is physical strength. Deep massage is very laborious work, and cannot be carried on for an hour, or even half an hour, without unusual muscular power. Feeble persons cannot practise it effectively at all. The duration of a sitting may vary from five or ten minutes to an hour. For general massage at least half an hour is required. A masser should have strength enough to do the work without too obvious exhaustion, which gives the patient an unpleasant impression. A second requirement is tactile and muscular sensibility. A person not endowed with a fine sense of touch and resistance is liable to exert too great or too little pressure; the one hurts the patient, the other is ineffective. Then skill and knowledge, which can only be acquired by a course of instruction, are necessary. Finally, some guarantee of cleanliness and character is almost indispensable. Independent massers may possess all these qualifications in a higher degree than those connected with an institution, but they may also be totally devoid of them, whereas connexion with a recognized hospital or society is a guarantee for a certain standard of efficiency. In London there are several such institutions, which train and send out both male and female massers. The fee is 5s. an hour, or from two to four guineas a week. On the European continent, where trained massers are much employed by some practitioners, the fee is considerably lower; in the United States it is higher. For reasons mentioned above, it is most desirable that patients should be attended by operators of their own sex. If this is not insisted upon, a valuable therapeutic means will be in danger of falling into disrepute both with the medical profession and the general public.

As with other methods of treatment, there has been a tendency on the part of some practitioners to exalt it into a cure-all, and of others to ignore it altogether. Of its therapeutic value, when judiciously used, there is no doubt, but it is for the physician or surgeon to say when and how it should be applied. Affections to which it is not applicable are fevers, pregnancy, collections of pus, acute inflammation of the joints, inflamed veins, fragile arteries, wounds of the skin and, generally speaking, those conditions in which it is not desirable to increase the circulation, or in which the patient cannot bear handling. In such conditions it may have a very injurious and even dangerous effect, and therefore should not be used in a haphazard manner without competent advice.

The revival of massage in Europe and America has called into existence a considerable number of professional operators, both male and female, who may be regarded as forming a branch of the nursing profession. Some of these are trained in hospitals or other institutions, some by private practitioners and some not at all. Similarly some are attached to organized societies or institutions while others pursue their calling independently. Several things are required for a good operator. One is physical strength. Deep massage is very laborious work, and cannot be carried on for an hour, or even half an hour, without unusual muscular power. Feeble persons cannot practise it effectively at all. The duration of a sitting may vary from five or ten minutes to an hour. For general massage at least half an hour is required. A masser should have strength enough to do the work without too obvious exhaustion, which gives the patient an unpleasant impression. A second requirement is tactile and muscular sensibility. A person not endowed with a fine sense of touch and resistance is liable to exert too great or too little pressure; the one hurts the patient, the other is ineffective. Then skill and knowledge, which can only be acquired by a course of instruction, are necessary. Finally, some guarantee of cleanliness and character is almost indispensable. Independent massers may possess all these qualifications in a higher degree than those connected with an institution, but they may also be totally devoid of them, whereas connexion with a recognized hospital or society is a guarantee for a certain standard of efficiency. In London there are several such institutions, which train and send out both male and female massers. The fee is 5s. an hour, or from two to four guineas a week. On the European continent, where trained massers are much employed by some practitioners, the fee is considerably lower; in the United States it is higher. For reasons mentioned above, it is most desirable that patients should be attended by operators of their own sex. If this is not insisted upon, a valuable therapeutic means will be in danger of falling into disrepute both with the medical profession and the general public.

(A. Sl.)

MASSAGETAE,an ancient warlike people described by Herodotus (i. 203-216; iv. 22, 172) as dwelling beyond the Araxes (i.e.the Oxus) in what is now Balkh and Bokhara. It was against their queen Tomyris that Cyrus undertook the expedition in which according to one story he met his end. In their usages some tribes were nomads like the people of Scythia (q.v.), others with their community of wives and habit of killing and eating their parents recalled the Issedones (q.v.); while the dwellers in the islands of the river were fish-eating savages. Probably the name denoted no ethnic unity, but included all the barbarous north-eastern neighbours of the Persians. Herodotus says they only used gold and copper (or bronze), not silver or iron. Their lavish use of gold has caused certain massive ornaments from southern Siberia, now in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, to be referred to the Massagetae.

(E. H. M.)

MASSA MARITTIMA,a town and episcopal see of the province of Grosseto, Tuscany, Italy, 24 m. N.N.W. of Grosseto direct and 16 m. by rail N.E. of Follonica (which is 28 m. N.W. of Grosseto on the main coast railway), 1444 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), (town) 9219; (commune) 17,519. It has a cathedral of the 13th century containing a Romanesque font (1267 with a cover of 1447) and a Gothic reliquary (1324) of the saint Cerbone, to whom the cathedral is dedicated. The battlemented municipal palace of the 13th century is picturesque. There are mineral springs, mines of iron, mercury, lignite and copper, with foundries, ironworks and olive-oil mills. At Follonica on the coast, but in this commune, are the furnaces in which are smelted the iron ore of Elba.

MASSAWA,orMassowah, a fortified town on the African coast of the Red Sea, chief port of the Italian colony of Eritrea, in 15° 36′ N. and 39° 28′ E. Pop. about 10,000. The town stands at the north end of the bay of Massawa and is built partly on a coral island of the same name—where was the original settlement—and partly on the islets of Tautlub and Sheik Said, and the neighbouring mainland. Massawa Island is from 20 to 25 ft. above the sea, its length does not exceed ½ m. and its breadth is about ¼ m. The harbour is formed by the channel between the island and the mainland. It affords good anchorage in from 5 to 9 fathoms. The town possesses several good public buildings, chiefly built of coral, as are the houses of the principal European and Arab merchants. Landward the town is guarded by forts erected by the Italians since 1885. Water was formerly scarce; but in 1872 an ancient aqueduct from Mokullu (5 m. distant westward) was restored and continued by an embankment to the town. A railway connects Massawa with Asmara, the capital of the colony. Besides the Abyssinians, who speak a Tigré dialect corrupted with Arabic, the inhabitants comprise Italian officials and traders, Greeks, Indians, Arabs from Yemen and Hadramut, Gallas and Somalis. Massawa is the natural port for northern Abyssinia but commerce is undeveloped owing to the lack of rapid means of communication. The trade done consists mainly in exporting hides, butter, Abyssinian coffee and civet, and importing European and Indian cotton goods and silks. It increased in value from about £65,000 per annum in 1865 (the last year of Turkish control) to from £240,000 to £280,000 between 1879 and 1881, when under the administration of Egypt. Under the Italians trade greatly developed. The returns for the five years 1901-1905 showed an average annual value of £1,800,000, about two-thirds being imports.

The island of Massawa has probably been inhabited from a very early date. It appears to have formed part of the Abyssinian dominions for many centuries. It was at Massawa (Matzua, as it is called by the Portuguese chroniclers) that Christopher da Gama and his comrades landed in July 1541 on their way to aid the Abyssinians against the Moslem invaders. Captured by the Turks in 1557, the island remained a Turkish possession over two hundred years. A military colony of Bosnians settled at Arkiko (a port on the bay 4 m. south of Massawa Island) was appointed not only to defend it in case of attack from the mainland, but to keep it supplied with water in return for $1400 per month from the town’s customs. For some time at the close of the 18th century Massawa was held by the sherif of Mecca, and it afterwards passed to Mehemet Aliof Egypt. The Turks were reinstated about 1850, but in 1865 they handed the island back to Egypt for an annual tribute of 2½ million piastres. In February 1885 Massawa was occupied by an Italian force, the Egyptian garrison stationed there being withdrawn in the November following (seeEgypt;Italy;Abyssinia). The port was the capital of the Italian colony until 1900 when the seat of administration was removed to Asmara (seeEritrea).

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