Gold-mining.—Gold-mining has been carried on regularly since 1897, and by 1900 the value of the ore extracted exceeded £100,000. Reports of rich discoveries attracted considerable attention in South Africa and Europe during 1904-1906, but experts, sent from the Transvaal, came to the conclusion that Madagascar would not become one of the rich goldfields of the world. The chief mining districts have been already indicated (see underGeology). Rich finds were reported from the north of the island during 1907, in which year the export of gold was £320,000. The mines afford a lucrative occupation for some thousands of persons, and many of the claim-holders are British. Decrees of 1902 and 1905 regulate the conditions under which mining is carried on. By decree of the 23rd of May 1907, the radius of the circle within which claims may be pegged is 2 kilometres (1¼ m.), and a tax of 5% is levied on the value of the gold extracted.Communications.—There is regular steamship communication between the chief ports and Marseilles, Zanzibar and India (via Mauritius and Ceylon); and a submarine cable to Mozambique places the island in telegraphic connexion with the rest of the world. The French have built carriage roads from the interior to the principal ports as well as to connect the principal towns. On these roads large use is made of bullock wagons, as well as carts drawn by men, and women also. Tamatàve and Antanànarìvo are joined by coast canals and lakes and by a railway service. Where other means are not available, goods are carried by canoes, or on the shoulders of bearers along the native footpaths.There is a well-organized postal service, and all the towns of note are linked by a telegraph system, which has a length of over 4000 miles.
Gold-mining.—Gold-mining has been carried on regularly since 1897, and by 1900 the value of the ore extracted exceeded £100,000. Reports of rich discoveries attracted considerable attention in South Africa and Europe during 1904-1906, but experts, sent from the Transvaal, came to the conclusion that Madagascar would not become one of the rich goldfields of the world. The chief mining districts have been already indicated (see underGeology). Rich finds were reported from the north of the island during 1907, in which year the export of gold was £320,000. The mines afford a lucrative occupation for some thousands of persons, and many of the claim-holders are British. Decrees of 1902 and 1905 regulate the conditions under which mining is carried on. By decree of the 23rd of May 1907, the radius of the circle within which claims may be pegged is 2 kilometres (1¼ m.), and a tax of 5% is levied on the value of the gold extracted.
Communications.—There is regular steamship communication between the chief ports and Marseilles, Zanzibar and India (via Mauritius and Ceylon); and a submarine cable to Mozambique places the island in telegraphic connexion with the rest of the world. The French have built carriage roads from the interior to the principal ports as well as to connect the principal towns. On these roads large use is made of bullock wagons, as well as carts drawn by men, and women also. Tamatàve and Antanànarìvo are joined by coast canals and lakes and by a railway service. Where other means are not available, goods are carried by canoes, or on the shoulders of bearers along the native footpaths.
There is a well-organized postal service, and all the towns of note are linked by a telegraph system, which has a length of over 4000 miles.
Government, Revenue, &c.—The colony is not represented in the French Chambers, nor has it self-government. At the head of the administration is a governor-general, who is assisted by a nominated council of administration which includes unofficial members. This council must be consulted on matters affecting the budget. In several towns there arechambres consultatives, composed of local merchants and planters. The island is divided intocircles, placed under military officers, andprovinces, presided over by a civilian. As far as possible in local affairs, each of the native races is granted autonomy, the dominion of the Hòva over the other tribes being abolished. Each province has its native governor and minor officials, the governor being generally selected by popular vote. Each village has an organization (theFòkon’ òlona) resembling that of a commune; at its head is a chief ormpiadidy, who serves for three years.
For Europeans and in suits between Europeans and natives the French judicial code is applicable; suits between natives are tried by native tribunals (established 1898) presided over by a European assisted by two native assessors. These tribunals judge according to native law and usages, except when such customs (e.g.polygamy and slavery) have been expressly abolished. Arbitration councils are available everywhere for the settlement of disputes between native workmen and their employers. The native laws respecting land tenure have been improved by the adoption of a method of registration based on the Torrens system.Revenue is derived from land, house and capitation taxes, from customs, posts and telegraphs, ferries, licences and other indirect imposts. The excess of expenditure over revenue is made good by subventions from France. A considerable portion of the revenue is expended on public works. Revenue and expenditure in 1905 were each just beneath £1,000,000. This is exclusive of the sums spent by France in the island on the army, and for the naval base at Diégo-Suarez. There is a public debt amounting (1907) to £4,055,600. As stated in the French senate (February 1909), everything is taxed in the island; and no sooner has any enterprise become fairly successful than it is so heavily taxed as to be no longer worth carrying on, and certain crops have therefore been destroyed by the colonists who had planted them. This has been the case with tobacco, sugar, rum, and also in butter-making, cattle-breeding and other things. Notwithstanding this taxation, from 1895 to 1908 £12,000,000 was required for Madagascar from the home government, and the demand is constantly increasing.
For Europeans and in suits between Europeans and natives the French judicial code is applicable; suits between natives are tried by native tribunals (established 1898) presided over by a European assisted by two native assessors. These tribunals judge according to native law and usages, except when such customs (e.g.polygamy and slavery) have been expressly abolished. Arbitration councils are available everywhere for the settlement of disputes between native workmen and their employers. The native laws respecting land tenure have been improved by the adoption of a method of registration based on the Torrens system.
Revenue is derived from land, house and capitation taxes, from customs, posts and telegraphs, ferries, licences and other indirect imposts. The excess of expenditure over revenue is made good by subventions from France. A considerable portion of the revenue is expended on public works. Revenue and expenditure in 1905 were each just beneath £1,000,000. This is exclusive of the sums spent by France in the island on the army, and for the naval base at Diégo-Suarez. There is a public debt amounting (1907) to £4,055,600. As stated in the French senate (February 1909), everything is taxed in the island; and no sooner has any enterprise become fairly successful than it is so heavily taxed as to be no longer worth carrying on, and certain crops have therefore been destroyed by the colonists who had planted them. This has been the case with tobacco, sugar, rum, and also in butter-making, cattle-breeding and other things. Notwithstanding this taxation, from 1895 to 1908 £12,000,000 was required for Madagascar from the home government, and the demand is constantly increasing.
History.—From the earliest accounts given of the people of Madagascar by European travellers, as well as from what may be inferred from their present condition, they seem for many centuries to have been divided into a number of tribes, often separated from one another by a wide extent of uninhabited country. Each of these was under its own chief, and was often at war with its neighbours. No one tribe seems to have gained any great ascendancy over the rest until about the middle of the 17th century, when a small but warlike people called Sàkalàva, in the south-west of Madagascar, advanced northward, conquered all the inhabitants of the western half of the island, as well as some northern and central tribes, and eventually founded two kingdoms which retained their supremacy until the close of the 18th century. About that time, the Hòva in the central province of Imèrina began to assert their own position under two warlike and energetic chieftains, Andrianimpòina and his son Radàma; they threw off the Sàkalàva authority, and after several wars obtained a nominal allegiance from them; they also conquered the surrounding tribes, and so made themselves virtual kings of Madagascar. From that time until 1895 Hòva authority was retained over a large part of the central and eastern provinces, but it was only nominal over much of the western side of the island, while in the south-west the people were quite independent and governed by their own chiefs.
While European intercourse with Madagascar is comparatively recent, the connexion of the Arabs with the island dates from a very remote epoch; and in very early times settlements were formed both on the north-west and south-eastArab Intercourse and Influence.coasts. In the latter locality there are still traces of their influence in the knowledge of Arabic possessed by a few of the people. But in these provinces they have become merged in the general mass of the people. It is different, however, in the north-west and west of the island. Here are several large Arab colonies, occupying the ports of Anòrontsànga, Mòjangà, Màrovoày and Mòrondàva, and retaining their distinct nationality. There is also in these districts a Hindu element in the population, for intercourse has also been maintained for some centuries between India and northern Madagascar, and in some towns the Banyan Indian element is as prominent as the Arab element. In the early times of their intercourse with Madagascar, the Arabs had a very powerful influence upon the Malagasy. This is seen in the number of words derived from the Arabic in the native language. Among these are the names of the months and the days of the week, those used in astrology and divination, some forms of salutation, words for dress and bedding, money, musical instruments, books and writings, together with a number of miscellaneous terms.
The island is mentioned by several of the early Arabic writers and geographers, but medieval maps show curious ignorance of its size and position. Marco Polo has a chapter upon it, and terms it “Madeigascar,” but his accounts areEuropean Intercourse.confused with those of the mainland of Africa. The first European voyager who saw Madagascar was a Portuguese named Diogo Diaz, captain of one of the ships of a fleet commanded by Pedro Cabral and bound for India. Separated from his companions by a storm near the Cape, he sighted the eastern coast of the island on the 10th of August 1500. That day being the feast of St Lawrence, Madagascar was named the “Isle of St Lawrence,” and retained that name on all maps and charts for a hundred years. The Portuguese gave names to most of the capes, but made no persistent attempts at colonization. After them the Dutch endeavoured, but with little success, to form colonies; and in the time of Charles I. proposals were made to form an English “plantation,” but these were never carried into effect, although for a short time there was a settlement formed on the south-west coast. In the latter part of the 17th and during most of the 18th century the French attempted to establish military positions on the east coast. For some time they held the extreme south-east point of the island at Fort Dauphin; but several of their commandants were so incapable and tyrannical that they were frequently involved in war with the people, and more than once their stations were destroyed and the French were massacred. Early in the 19th century all their positions on the mainland were relinquished, and they retained nothing but the island of Ste Marie on the east coast. In 1811 Tamatàve had been occupied by British troops, and the Treaty of Paris of 1814 recognized as British the “French settlements in Madagascar,” but as a matter of fact France had then no settlements on the mainland. The then governor of Mauritius, Sir Robert Farquhar, endeavoured to prosecute British claims and obtained a cession of Diégo-Suarez Bay. These claims were not backed up by the home government, and a little later the policy was adopted by Great Britain of supporting the Hòva authority.
The political history of Madagascar as a whole may be said to date from the reign of Radàma I. (1810-1828). He was a man much in advance of his age—shrewd, enterprising, and undeterred by difficulty—a kind of Peter the Great ofRadàma I.his time. He saw that it was necessary for his people to be educated and civilized if the country was to progress; and making a treaty with the governor of Mauritius to abolish the export of slaves, he received every year in compensation a subsidy of arms, ammunition, and uniforms, as well as English training for his troops. He was thus enabled to establish his authority over a large portion of the island. For some years a British agent, Mr Hastie, resided at Radàma’s court, and exercised a powerful influence over the king, doing much for the material advance ofIntroduction of Christianity.the country. At the same period (1820) Christian teaching was commenced in the capital by the London Missionary Society, and by its missionaries the language was reduced to a systematic written form, and the art of printing introduced; books were prepared, the Scriptures were translated, numerous schools were formed, and several Christian congregations were gathered together. The knowledge of many of the useful arts was also imparted, and many valuable natural productions were discovered. The power of superstition was greatly broken, a result partly due to the keen good sense of the king, but chiefly to the spread of knowledge and religious teaching.
The bright prospects thus opening up were clouded by the death of Radàma at the age of thirty-six, and the seizure of the royal authority by one of his wives, the Princess Rànavàlona. She looked with much suspicion uponRànavàlona I.the ideas then gaining power among many of her people, and determined to strike a decisive blow at the new teaching. In 1835 the profession of the Christian religion was declared illegal; all worship was to cease, and all religious books were ordered to be given up. By the middle of 1836 all the English missionaries were obliged to leave the island, and for twenty-five years the most strenuous efforts were made bythe queen and her government to suppress all opposition to her commands. This, however, only served to show in a very remarkable manner the courage and faith of the Christian Malagasy, of whom about two hundred suffered death in various cruel forms, while many hundreds were punished more or less severely by fine, degradation, imprisonment and slavery. During the queen’s reign the political condition of the country was deplorable; there were frequent rebellions, many of the distant provinces were desolated by barbarous wars; and for some years all Europeans were excluded, and foreign commerce almost ceased. This last circumstance was partly owing to an ill-managed attack upon Tamatàve in 1846 by a combined British and French force, made to redress the wrongs inflicted upon the foreign traders of that port. But for the leaven of Christianity and education which had been introduced into the country it would have reverted to a state of barbarism.
This reign of terror was brought to a close in 1861 by the death of the queen and the accession of her son Radàma II. The island was reopened to European trade, and missionary efforts were recommenced. A determinedRadàma II.attempt was made by some Frenchmen to gain for their country an overwhelming influence by means of a treaty which they induced the king to sign. But this act, as well as the vices and insane follies into which he was led by worthless foreign and native favourites, soon brought his reign and his life to an end. He was put to death in his palace (1863) and his wife was placed on the throne. The new sovereign and her government refused to ratify the agreement which had been illegally obtained, choosing rather to pay a million francs as compensation to the French company. During the five years’ reign of Queen Rasohérina, quiet and steady advances were made in civilization and education, and treaties were concluded with the British, French and American governments.
At the death of Rasohérina in 1868, she was succeeded by her cousin, Rànavàlona II. One of the first acts of the new queen was the public recognition of Christianity; and very soon afterwards she and her husband, the primeRànavàlona II.minister, were baptized, and the erection of a chapel royal was commenced in the palace yard. These acts were followed in the succeeding year by the burning of the royal idols, and immediately afterwards by the destruction of the idols throughout the central provinces, the people generally putting themselves under Christian instruction. From that time education and enlightenment made great progress, chiefly through the labours of missionaries of various societies.
The native Malagasy government, though theoretically despotic, was limited in various ways. Radàma I. and Rànavàlona I. were much more absolute sovereigns than those before or after them, but even they wereNative Government.largely restrained by public opinion. New laws were announced at large assemblies of the people, whose consent was asked, and always given through the headmen of the different divisions of native society; this custom was no doubt a survival from a time when the popular assent was not a merely formal act. The large disciplined army formed by Radàma I. aided much in changing what was formerly a somewhat limited monarchy into an absolute one. The Hòva queen’s authority was maintained over the central and eastern portions of Madagascar, and at almost all the ports, by governors appointed by the queen, and supported by small garrisons of Hòva troops. At the same time the chiefs of the various tribes were left in possession of a good deal of their former honours and influence. Rànavàlona II., her predecessor and her successor were successively married to the prime minister, Ràinilaiàrivòny, a man of great ability and sagacity, who, by his position as husband and chief adviser of the sovereign, became virtual ruler of the country. Chiefly owing to his influence, many measures tending to improve the administration were introduced. The Hòva army was estimated at from 30,000 to 40,000 men, several English non-commissioned officers and, latterly, others of higher rank being engaged to train them in European methods. Revenue was derived from customs duties, firstfruits, fines and confiscation of offenders’ property, and a money offering calledhàsina, presented on a great variety of occasions both to the sovereign in person and to her representatives; and these were supplemented by “benevolences” (in the medieval sense of the word) levied upon the people for occasional state necessities. The government also claimed the unpaid service of all classes of the community for every kind of public work.
The Hòva government aspired to have Madagascar recognized as an independent civilized state, and consuls appointed by the British, French and American governments were accredited to the Malagasy sovereign, the queenForeign Relations.having a consul in England, and a consular agent at Mauritius. The treaty with Great Britain, concluded in 1865, gave the consuls of that nation jurisdiction over the British subjects in the island. At this period, on the initiative of the 4th earl of Clarendon, then foreign secretary, an understanding was come to between the British and French governments by which it was agreed that each power should respect the independence of Madagascar; and the future of the country appeared to be bound up in the gradual consolidation of the central Hòva authority over the whole island. While this prospect would have satisfied the British interests in the island, it was otherwise with the French. The tradition of their former settlements in and influence over the island was strong; in 1840 they had taken under their protection the Sàkalàva ruler of the small island of Nossi-bé, off the north-west coast, and in virtue of that act claimed a vague protectorate over the adjacent shores of the mainland. A treaty, concluded in 1868, while establishing French consular jurisdiction in Madagascar, recognized Rànavàlona II. as queen of Madagascar, and under the Second Empire attempts to establish French political influence were discouraged, and even as late as 1872 the subsidy enjoyed by the Jesuit missionaries was withdrawn. In 1878 the French consul, Laborde, died, and a dispute arose as to the disposal of his property. This dispute was the occasion of further intervention on the part of the French, for the Paris government supported the claims of Laborde’s heirs, and revived their claim to a protectorate over the Sàkalàva of the north-west coast, as based on their agreement with them in 1840, ceding Nossi-bé to France. A policy of colonial expansion generally, and in Africa in particular at this time, was manifest in France, as in other European countries, and the French claims on the Hòva were pressed with vigour.
Towards the middle of 1882 the relations between the native government and that of France became much strained, and to settle, if possible, these causes of dispute, two Hòva officers of high rank were sent to France asFranco-Malagasy War of 1883-85.ambassadors, but as they were not authorized to concede any territory, their visit accomplished very little. Treaties had been concluded with Great Britain, Germany and America, giving improved facilities for trade with Madagascar, but before the return of the envoys matters had come to a crisis in the island. In May 1883 an ultimatum was sent to the Malagasy queen, requiring immediate compliance with the demands of France; and as these were refused by the Hòva government, Tamatàve was bombarded by a French squadron and then occupied by the marines. The war continued in a desultory fashion for many months; but no serious attempt was made to invade the interior; and in 1885 terms of peace were agreed to. By a treaty signed on the 17th of December it was agreed that the foreign relations of Madagascar should be directed by France; that a resident should live at the capital, with a small guard of French soldiers; and that the Bay of Diégo-Suarez, together with surrounding territory, should be ceded to France. The word “protectorate” was carefully excluded from the treaty, although doubtless the French envoys intended that this should be its practical issue. It was at the same time agreed that there should be no foreign interference with the internal government of the country, and that the queen should retain her former position, with all its honours and dignity. It should be here noticed that the queen, Rànavàlona II., died just at the beginning of the war, on the13th of July 1883, and was succeeded by her niece, Princess Razàfindrahèty, under the title of Rànavàlona III., who maintained the same policy as her predecessor, and was much belovedFrench Protectorate, 1885-1894.by her people and respected by all. Several French residents successively represented France at Antanànarìvo; but these found themselves unable to obtain that influence which the home authorities thought they had a right to demand. Although the British government, in return for concessions in Zanzibar, had consented, in 1890, to recognize a French protectorate over Madagascar, the Malagasy prime minister, Ràinilaiàrivòny, was not disposed to give any advantage to France and continued to arm and train, by the help of British officers, a large body of native soldiers. This state of tension and irritation could not last, and at length, towards the close of 1894, the French government sent an ultimatum to the Malagasy sovereign, demanding such powers as would have made French authority supreme in the island. These demands were refused by the native government, and other conditions were offered; but the French envoy, togetherFrench Invasion and Conquest, 1895.with the resident’s escort, left the capital, as also did the French traders and others, including the large Jesuit mission. As soon as these had left the island, the chief ports were occupied by French troops, and an expeditionary force under General Duchesne was afterwards landed on the north-west coast at Mòjangà—commonly, but incorrectly, written Majunga—with the object of breaking the Hòva authority. Owing to the necessity of making a road for the passage of artillery and military stores, many months were spent on the march into the interior, and there was considerable loss of life by fever and other disease among the invading troops. But no effectual resistance was made by the Malagasy, and at length, on the 30th of September 1895, the French forces appeared on the heights north and east of Antanànarìvo, bombarded the city, which surrendered in the afternoon, and on the evening of the same day the French entered the capital.
The result was that the protectorate of France was re-established in the central provinces, but the queen was allowed to retain her position. Early in 1896, however, a seriousRebellion of 1896, and Gradual Subjection of the Malagasy.rebellion broke out in several parts of Imèrina. This movement was not only anti-French and anti-foreign, but also distinctly anti-Christian. The French troops gradually broke up the power of the rebellion in the central provinces, but as there appeared to be considerable unrest in many other parts of the island, General Gallieni, an officer with a reputation for vigour and ability in the Sudan and Tongking campaigns, was sent out to relieve the then resident-general.
General Gallieni had a difficult task in establishing the authority of France throughout the island among numbers of tribes who had never submitted to any control from others. Among the first steps he took were to put the countryAdministration of General Gallieni.under martial law, to abolish royalty and all semblance of Hòva government, and to declare Madagascar to be henceforth a colony of France. Queen Rànavàlona III. was exiled to Réunion, and subsequently to Algeria. Meanwhile carriage roads were commenced to connect all the chief centres, and the military posts were gradually extended so as to consolidate French rule over all the outlying tribes. French residents and numerous other officials were placed at every important town, and various projects were started for the civilization of the Malagasy in accordance with French ideas. At the close of 1899, General Gallieni was able to report that only portions of the west and south-west remained to be brought into submission. Not long afterwards the authority of France was recognized throughout the island. General Gallieni, whose firm and vigorous administration, and desire to treat the Malagasy justly and kindly, made him liked by the people, retired in 1905, and was succeeded in that office by M. Victor Augagneur, late mayor of Lyons. Since the French occupation the Malagasy have conformed pretty readily to the new order of things, although many of the most intelligent Hòva deeply regret that their country did not retain its independence. Justice is administered, on the whole, with fairness and impartiality; but the taxation seems too heavy for the means of the people, indeed it is affirmed by trustworthy natives that the well-to-do classes are being gradually drained of their property. To an outsider it also appears that the staff of officials is very largely in excess of any real needs of administration; several monopolies, which interfere with the habits of the people, tend to produce discontent; and the taking of their land and houses for public works, roads, &c., while but a mere fraction of their real value is allowed as compensation, does not help to increase their acquiescence in foreign control. But the most serious cause for dislike to government action was the interference by the governor-general, in 1907, with their religious customs, by the suppression of hundreds of their congregational schools, and the closing of numbers of their churches. In July 1910 M. Augagneur was replaced as governor-general by N. Picquié, a prominent official of the Colonial Department, who had previously served with acceptance as deputy governor-general of French Indo-China, and who had a reputation for tact and impartiality.
Christian Missions and Education.—As already noticed, the Malagasy owe to missionaries of the London Missionary Society their first school system and their first literature, in 1820 and subsequent years;8and for fifteen years all educational work was carried on by them, some 10,000 to 12,000 children having been instructed in their schools. On the reopening of the country to Europeans in 1862, the L.M.S. mission was resumed and was carried on with vigour for several years, stations being formed in several parts of Imèrina, in the Bétsiléo and Antsihànaka provinces, and at the ports of Tamatàve, Majunga and Fàrafangàna (south-east coast). In 1890 the number of their churches was 1220; adherents, 248,000; and scholars, 68,000; so that for long the greater part of the educational work was in their hands, carried on not only in primary schools, but also in high schools and colleges. In 1863 the Church of England began work in the island through the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Church Missionary Society. After some time, however, the latter society withdrew, leaving the field to the S.P.G. A bishop is stationed in the capital, with a theological college in its neighbourhood, but the chief work of the Anglican mission is on the east coast. In 1866 the Norwegian Lutheran Society began work in Madagascar, and was joined in 1888 by an American Lutheran Society. With a representative church at the capital, the chief work of these missions is in the Vàkinankàratra district (south-west of Imèrina), in the Bétsiléo province, and on the south-east and south-west coasts; in these places they have a large number of converts and (until lately) schools. In 1867 a mission was begun by the Society of Friends, who gave great attention to education and literary work, and afterwards took up as their field of labour the western and south-western parts of Imèrina, where they have a large and well-organized mission. Immediately after the island became a French possession the French Protestant Churches began (in 1896) to take part in the evangelizing of their new colony, and about half the area for long occupied by the London Missionary Society was transferred to the Paris Society. The bulk of the Malagasy Christians are Protestants, probably three-fourths or four-fifths of those professing Christianity. A Roman Catholic (Jesuit) mission was begun in 1861, and a large force of priests with a bishop and lay brethren and sisters engaged in education, have been at work in the island since then, except during the two Franco-Malagasy wars.9Since the French conquest, the north of the island has been occupied by a mission of priests of the Saint Esprit, and the southern portion by the Lazarist mission, each with a bishop at its head. The following table gives the statistics of the various Protestant missions at the close of 1906:—MissionMissionariesChurchesAdherentsMembersScholarsLond. Miss. Soc.25630120,00032,00027,000Soc. Prop. Gospel.1512113,0004,0947,655Norweg. Luth.6089284,00071,50038,000Am. Luth.14????Soc. of Friends.2717815,0002,5407,122French Prot. Miss.29491110,66010,50018,200Since 1897 high schools, and medical and technical schools, and a few primary schools, have been formed by the French government; and all other schools have been placed under regulations issued by an educational department, the scholars being required to learn the French language; but until the end of 1906 the bulk of the educational work was carried on by the various missions. At that date the anti-clerical movement in France began to affect Madagascar. In all the missions the churches had, in the vast majority of cases, been used as school-houses, but in November 1906 it was strictly forbidden to use churches for educational purposes after two months from that date; and the effect of the decree, with other provisions, was to close hundreds of schools, probably three-fourths of the whole number.For many years (1862-1896), all medical aid to the sick, the formation of hospitals and dispensaries, the training of native doctors, midwives and nurses, and the production of medical literature was entirely due to the Protestant missionaries, viz. the London Missionary Society, the Friends and the Norwegians. Numbers of young men received a full course of medical and surgical training, and were awarded diplomas after passing strict examinations. This work is now mostly in charge of a government department, and mission medical work is much restricted; but for thirty-five years the Malagasy owed all such help to the benevolence of European Christians. Besides care for the sick in ordinary diseases, asylums for lepers were for many years carried on; two by the London Missionary Society, one, a large one, with 800 or 900 inmates, by the Norwegian Society, and another by the Roman Catholic mission. This last, with one of those of the L.M.S., is now taken over by the government.Authorities.—As regards the scientific aspects of the country, almost everything of value in previous books and papers is included in the magnificent work (1882 et seq.), in 28 4to vols., by Alfred Grandidier, entitledHistoire naturelle, physique, et politique de Madagascar. Many of the volumes consist of coloured lithograph plates illustrating the natural history of the country, as well as atlases of maps from the earliest period.General: Étienne de Flacourt,Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar(Paris, 1658);Madagascar, or Robert Drury’s Journal during Fifteen Years’ Captivity on that Island(London, 1729; new ed., 1890);Voyages et mémoires de Maurice Auguste, comte de Benyowski(Paris, 1791); Froberville,Histoire de Madagascar(Isle de France, 1809); Ellis,History of Madagascar(London, 1838); Guillain,Documents sur ... la partie occidentale de Madagascar(Paris, 1845); Macé Descartes,Histoire et géographie de Madagascar(Paris, 1846); Ellis,Three Visits to Madagascar(London, 1859); J. Sibree,Madagascar and its People(London, 1870);Tantara ny Andrìana eto Madagascar: Histoire des rois d’Imérina d’après les manuscrits malgaches(Antanànarìvo, 1875); Mullens,Twelve Months in Madagascar(London, 1875); Blanchard,L’Île de Madagascar(Paris, 1875); Dahle,Madagaskar og dets Beboere(Christiania, 1876-1878); Sibree and Baron (eds.),The Antanànarìvo Annual, Nos. i-xxiv. (1875-1900, pp. 3115);Notes, reconnaissances, et explorations, revue mensuelle(Antanànarìvo, 5 vols., 1897-1899, pp. 3041); Sibree,A Madagascar Bibliography(Antanànarìvo, 1885); Vaissière,Histoire de Madagascar(Paris, 1884),Vingt ans à Madagascar(Paris, 1885); Oliver,Madagascar: an Historical and Descriptive Account(2 vols., London, 1886); Cousins,Madagascar of To-day(London, 1895);Bulletin du comité de Madagascar(monthly) (Paris, 1895, et seq.); Sibree,Madagascar before the Conquest(London, 1896); Catat,Voyage à Madagascar(Paris, 1895);Annuaire de Madagascar(Antanànarìvo, 1898, et seq.); J. S. Gallieni;Rapport d’ensemble sur la situation générale de Madagascar(2 vols., Paris, 1899);Revue de Madagascar, mensuelle, illustrée(1895, et seq.);Guide de l’immigrant à Madagascar(3 vols., with atlas, Paris, 1899);Collection des anciens ouvrages relatifs à Madagascar, par les soins du comité de Madagascar(a collection and translation of all works relating to the island from 1500 to 1800, in 10 vols.), (Paris, 1899 et seq.);Bulletin trimestriel de l’académie de Malgache(quarterly) (Antanànarìvo, 1902 et seq.); G, Grandidier et autres,Madagascar au début du xxesiècle(Paris, 1902); G. Grandidier,Bibliographie de Madagascar(2 vols., Paris, 1905 and 1907).Political: Sibree, “What are ‘French Claims’ on Madagascar?”Madagascar Tracts(1882); Oliver,True Story of the French Dispute in Madagascar(London, 1885); Shaw,Madagascar and France(London, 1885); Saillens,Nos droits sur Madagascar(Paris, 1885); K. Blind “The Fictitious French Claim to Madagascar,”Contemp. Rev.(1894); Martineau,Étude de politique contemporaine. Madagascar(Paris, 1894); Rentier,Les droits de la France sur Madagascar(1895); Corlay,Notre campagne à Madagascar(Paris, 1896); Knight,Madagascar in War-time(London, 1896); Carol,Chez les Hovas(Paris, 1898); Gallieni,Neuf ans à Madagascar(Paris, 1908).Philology: Houtman,Spraak ende woord boek in de Maleische ende Madagaskarsche talen(Amsterdam, 1603);Voyage de C. van Heemskerk; vocabulaire de la langue parlée dans l’Île Saint-Laurent(Amsterdam, 1603) Megiser,Beschreibung der Mechtigen und Weitberhümbten Insul Madagascar, with dictionary and dialogues (Altenburg, 1609); Arthus,Colloquia latino-maleyica et madagascarica(Frankfort, 1613); Challand,Vocabulaire français-malgache et malgache-français(Île de France, 1773); Froberville,Dictionnaire français-madécasse(3 vols., Île de France, 1809); Freeman and Johns,Dictionary of the Malagasy Language(Eng.-Mal. and Mal.-Eng.), (Antanànarìvo, 1835); Dalmond,Vocabulaire et grammaire pour les langues malgaches, Sàkalàva et Bétsimisàra(Bourbon, 1842); R. C. Missionaries’Dictionnaire français-malgache(Réunion, 1853); andDictionnaire malgache-français(Réunion, 1855); Van der Tunk, “Outlines of a Grammar of the Malagasy Language,”Jour. Roy. Asiat. Soc.(1860); Ailloud,Grammaire malgache-hòva(Antanànarìvo, 1872); W. E. Cousins,Concise Introduction to the Study of the Malagasy Language as spoken in Imèrina(Antanànarìvo, 1873); Marre de Marin,Grammaire malgache(Paris, 1876); id.,Essai sur le malgache, ou Étude comparée des langues javanaise, malgache, et malayse(Paris, 1876); id.,Le Jardin des racines océaniennes(Paris, 1876); Dahle,Specimens of Malagasy Folk-lore(Antanànarìvo, 1877); and W. E. Cousins, “The Malagasy Language,” inTrans. Phil. Soc.(1878). Besides these there are several valuable papers by Dahle in the yearly numbers of TheAntanànarìvo Annual(ante) (1876-1877); Richardson,A New Malagasy-English Dictionary(Antanànarìvo, 1885); Cousins and Barrett,Malagasy Proverbs(Antanànarìvo, 1885); Caussèque,Grammaire malgache(Antanànarìvo, 1886); Abinal et Malzac,Dictionnaire malgache-français(Antanànarìvo, 1889); Brandstetter, “Die Beziehungen des Malagasy zum Malaiischen,”Malaio-polynesische Forschungen, pt. 2 (Lucerne, 1893).Missions and Religious History:Freeman and Johns,Narrative of the Persecutions of the Christians in Madagascar(London, 1840); Prout,Madagascar, its Missions and its Martyrs(London, 1863); Ellis,Madagascar Revisited(London, 1867); id.,The Martyr Church(London, 1869); “Religion in Madagascar,”Ch. Quar. Rev.(1878); Briggs,The Madagascar Mission(L.M.S. 1879); id.,Ten Years’ Review of Mission Work in Madagascar(L.M.S. 1870-1880, 1881); Johnson,Review of Work of the Friends’ Foreign Mission Association in Madagascar, 1867-1880 (Antanànarìvo, 1880); Vaissière,Histoire de Madagascar, ses habitants et ses missionaires(Paris, 1884);The Church in Madagascar(S.P.G.,15 years’ progress, 1874-1889, 1889);La Liberté religieuse à Madagascar(Paris, 1897); Matthews,Thirty Years in Madagascar(London, 1904); Sibree,The L.M.S. Mission in Madagascar(L.M.S. Mission Hand Books, London, 1907); id., “Christian Missions in Madagascar and French Colonial Policy,”The East and the West(Jan. 1909); and General Gallieni’s “Neuf ans à Madagascar”,Journal of the African Society(April 1909).
Christian Missions and Education.—As already noticed, the Malagasy owe to missionaries of the London Missionary Society their first school system and their first literature, in 1820 and subsequent years;8and for fifteen years all educational work was carried on by them, some 10,000 to 12,000 children having been instructed in their schools. On the reopening of the country to Europeans in 1862, the L.M.S. mission was resumed and was carried on with vigour for several years, stations being formed in several parts of Imèrina, in the Bétsiléo and Antsihànaka provinces, and at the ports of Tamatàve, Majunga and Fàrafangàna (south-east coast). In 1890 the number of their churches was 1220; adherents, 248,000; and scholars, 68,000; so that for long the greater part of the educational work was in their hands, carried on not only in primary schools, but also in high schools and colleges. In 1863 the Church of England began work in the island through the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and the Church Missionary Society. After some time, however, the latter society withdrew, leaving the field to the S.P.G. A bishop is stationed in the capital, with a theological college in its neighbourhood, but the chief work of the Anglican mission is on the east coast. In 1866 the Norwegian Lutheran Society began work in Madagascar, and was joined in 1888 by an American Lutheran Society. With a representative church at the capital, the chief work of these missions is in the Vàkinankàratra district (south-west of Imèrina), in the Bétsiléo province, and on the south-east and south-west coasts; in these places they have a large number of converts and (until lately) schools. In 1867 a mission was begun by the Society of Friends, who gave great attention to education and literary work, and afterwards took up as their field of labour the western and south-western parts of Imèrina, where they have a large and well-organized mission. Immediately after the island became a French possession the French Protestant Churches began (in 1896) to take part in the evangelizing of their new colony, and about half the area for long occupied by the London Missionary Society was transferred to the Paris Society. The bulk of the Malagasy Christians are Protestants, probably three-fourths or four-fifths of those professing Christianity. A Roman Catholic (Jesuit) mission was begun in 1861, and a large force of priests with a bishop and lay brethren and sisters engaged in education, have been at work in the island since then, except during the two Franco-Malagasy wars.9Since the French conquest, the north of the island has been occupied by a mission of priests of the Saint Esprit, and the southern portion by the Lazarist mission, each with a bishop at its head. The following table gives the statistics of the various Protestant missions at the close of 1906:—
Since 1897 high schools, and medical and technical schools, and a few primary schools, have been formed by the French government; and all other schools have been placed under regulations issued by an educational department, the scholars being required to learn the French language; but until the end of 1906 the bulk of the educational work was carried on by the various missions. At that date the anti-clerical movement in France began to affect Madagascar. In all the missions the churches had, in the vast majority of cases, been used as school-houses, but in November 1906 it was strictly forbidden to use churches for educational purposes after two months from that date; and the effect of the decree, with other provisions, was to close hundreds of schools, probably three-fourths of the whole number.
For many years (1862-1896), all medical aid to the sick, the formation of hospitals and dispensaries, the training of native doctors, midwives and nurses, and the production of medical literature was entirely due to the Protestant missionaries, viz. the London Missionary Society, the Friends and the Norwegians. Numbers of young men received a full course of medical and surgical training, and were awarded diplomas after passing strict examinations. This work is now mostly in charge of a government department, and mission medical work is much restricted; but for thirty-five years the Malagasy owed all such help to the benevolence of European Christians. Besides care for the sick in ordinary diseases, asylums for lepers were for many years carried on; two by the London Missionary Society, one, a large one, with 800 or 900 inmates, by the Norwegian Society, and another by the Roman Catholic mission. This last, with one of those of the L.M.S., is now taken over by the government.
Authorities.—As regards the scientific aspects of the country, almost everything of value in previous books and papers is included in the magnificent work (1882 et seq.), in 28 4to vols., by Alfred Grandidier, entitledHistoire naturelle, physique, et politique de Madagascar. Many of the volumes consist of coloured lithograph plates illustrating the natural history of the country, as well as atlases of maps from the earliest period.
General: Étienne de Flacourt,Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar(Paris, 1658);Madagascar, or Robert Drury’s Journal during Fifteen Years’ Captivity on that Island(London, 1729; new ed., 1890);Voyages et mémoires de Maurice Auguste, comte de Benyowski(Paris, 1791); Froberville,Histoire de Madagascar(Isle de France, 1809); Ellis,History of Madagascar(London, 1838); Guillain,Documents sur ... la partie occidentale de Madagascar(Paris, 1845); Macé Descartes,Histoire et géographie de Madagascar(Paris, 1846); Ellis,Three Visits to Madagascar(London, 1859); J. Sibree,Madagascar and its People(London, 1870);Tantara ny Andrìana eto Madagascar: Histoire des rois d’Imérina d’après les manuscrits malgaches(Antanànarìvo, 1875); Mullens,Twelve Months in Madagascar(London, 1875); Blanchard,L’Île de Madagascar(Paris, 1875); Dahle,Madagaskar og dets Beboere(Christiania, 1876-1878); Sibree and Baron (eds.),The Antanànarìvo Annual, Nos. i-xxiv. (1875-1900, pp. 3115);Notes, reconnaissances, et explorations, revue mensuelle(Antanànarìvo, 5 vols., 1897-1899, pp. 3041); Sibree,A Madagascar Bibliography(Antanànarìvo, 1885); Vaissière,Histoire de Madagascar(Paris, 1884),Vingt ans à Madagascar(Paris, 1885); Oliver,Madagascar: an Historical and Descriptive Account(2 vols., London, 1886); Cousins,Madagascar of To-day(London, 1895);Bulletin du comité de Madagascar(monthly) (Paris, 1895, et seq.); Sibree,Madagascar before the Conquest(London, 1896); Catat,Voyage à Madagascar(Paris, 1895);Annuaire de Madagascar(Antanànarìvo, 1898, et seq.); J. S. Gallieni;Rapport d’ensemble sur la situation générale de Madagascar(2 vols., Paris, 1899);Revue de Madagascar, mensuelle, illustrée(1895, et seq.);Guide de l’immigrant à Madagascar(3 vols., with atlas, Paris, 1899);Collection des anciens ouvrages relatifs à Madagascar, par les soins du comité de Madagascar(a collection and translation of all works relating to the island from 1500 to 1800, in 10 vols.), (Paris, 1899 et seq.);Bulletin trimestriel de l’académie de Malgache(quarterly) (Antanànarìvo, 1902 et seq.); G, Grandidier et autres,Madagascar au début du xxesiècle(Paris, 1902); G. Grandidier,Bibliographie de Madagascar(2 vols., Paris, 1905 and 1907).
Political: Sibree, “What are ‘French Claims’ on Madagascar?”Madagascar Tracts(1882); Oliver,True Story of the French Dispute in Madagascar(London, 1885); Shaw,Madagascar and France(London, 1885); Saillens,Nos droits sur Madagascar(Paris, 1885); K. Blind “The Fictitious French Claim to Madagascar,”Contemp. Rev.(1894); Martineau,Étude de politique contemporaine. Madagascar(Paris, 1894); Rentier,Les droits de la France sur Madagascar(1895); Corlay,Notre campagne à Madagascar(Paris, 1896); Knight,Madagascar in War-time(London, 1896); Carol,Chez les Hovas(Paris, 1898); Gallieni,Neuf ans à Madagascar(Paris, 1908).
Philology: Houtman,Spraak ende woord boek in de Maleische ende Madagaskarsche talen(Amsterdam, 1603);Voyage de C. van Heemskerk; vocabulaire de la langue parlée dans l’Île Saint-Laurent(Amsterdam, 1603) Megiser,Beschreibung der Mechtigen und Weitberhümbten Insul Madagascar, with dictionary and dialogues (Altenburg, 1609); Arthus,Colloquia latino-maleyica et madagascarica(Frankfort, 1613); Challand,Vocabulaire français-malgache et malgache-français(Île de France, 1773); Froberville,Dictionnaire français-madécasse(3 vols., Île de France, 1809); Freeman and Johns,Dictionary of the Malagasy Language(Eng.-Mal. and Mal.-Eng.), (Antanànarìvo, 1835); Dalmond,Vocabulaire et grammaire pour les langues malgaches, Sàkalàva et Bétsimisàra(Bourbon, 1842); R. C. Missionaries’Dictionnaire français-malgache(Réunion, 1853); andDictionnaire malgache-français(Réunion, 1855); Van der Tunk, “Outlines of a Grammar of the Malagasy Language,”Jour. Roy. Asiat. Soc.(1860); Ailloud,Grammaire malgache-hòva(Antanànarìvo, 1872); W. E. Cousins,Concise Introduction to the Study of the Malagasy Language as spoken in Imèrina(Antanànarìvo, 1873); Marre de Marin,Grammaire malgache(Paris, 1876); id.,Essai sur le malgache, ou Étude comparée des langues javanaise, malgache, et malayse(Paris, 1876); id.,Le Jardin des racines océaniennes(Paris, 1876); Dahle,Specimens of Malagasy Folk-lore(Antanànarìvo, 1877); and W. E. Cousins, “The Malagasy Language,” inTrans. Phil. Soc.(1878). Besides these there are several valuable papers by Dahle in the yearly numbers of TheAntanànarìvo Annual(ante) (1876-1877); Richardson,A New Malagasy-English Dictionary(Antanànarìvo, 1885); Cousins and Barrett,Malagasy Proverbs(Antanànarìvo, 1885); Caussèque,Grammaire malgache(Antanànarìvo, 1886); Abinal et Malzac,Dictionnaire malgache-français(Antanànarìvo, 1889); Brandstetter, “Die Beziehungen des Malagasy zum Malaiischen,”Malaio-polynesische Forschungen, pt. 2 (Lucerne, 1893).
Missions and Religious History:Freeman and Johns,Narrative of the Persecutions of the Christians in Madagascar(London, 1840); Prout,Madagascar, its Missions and its Martyrs(London, 1863); Ellis,Madagascar Revisited(London, 1867); id.,The Martyr Church(London, 1869); “Religion in Madagascar,”Ch. Quar. Rev.(1878); Briggs,The Madagascar Mission(L.M.S. 1879); id.,Ten Years’ Review of Mission Work in Madagascar(L.M.S. 1870-1880, 1881); Johnson,Review of Work of the Friends’ Foreign Mission Association in Madagascar, 1867-1880 (Antanànarìvo, 1880); Vaissière,Histoire de Madagascar, ses habitants et ses missionaires(Paris, 1884);The Church in Madagascar(S.P.G.,15 years’ progress, 1874-1889, 1889);La Liberté religieuse à Madagascar(Paris, 1897); Matthews,Thirty Years in Madagascar(London, 1904); Sibree,The L.M.S. Mission in Madagascar(L.M.S. Mission Hand Books, London, 1907); id., “Christian Missions in Madagascar and French Colonial Policy,”The East and the West(Jan. 1909); and General Gallieni’s “Neuf ans à Madagascar”,Journal of the African Society(April 1909).
(J. Si.*)
1In the apparent absence of any Cambrian formation above them, there is little doubt that these rocks are Archean, although this cannot be absolutely proved.2For most of the information here given on the geology the writer is indebted to Captain Mouneyres, chef de services des mines, and the Rev. R. Baron, F.G.S., F.L.S.3See “On a Collection of Fossils from Madagascar,” by R. B. Newton,Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.(Feb. 1895).4The following are figures of mean temperature, kindly supplied by the Rev. E. Colin, S. J., director of the observatory: Diégo-Suarez, N., 79°; Fàrafangàna, S.E. coast, 75°; Màrovoày, W. intr., 81°; Mòrondàva, W. coast, 77°; Tullēar, S.W. coast, 78°.5The words in parentheses are the native Malagasy names.6The census taken in 1905 gives 2,664,000 as the total population, but it is probably a little over that amount, as some localities are still imperfectly known.7This is a special and restricted use of the word, Hòva in its widest sense being a tribal name, including all ranks of people in Imèrina.8It is true that 200 years earlier than this, persistent efforts were made for nineteen years (1600-1619) by Portuguese Roman Catholic missionaries to propagate their faith among the south-east coast tribes. But although much zeal and self-denial were shown by these men, their efforts were abortive, and the mission was at length abandoned, leaving no fruit of their labours in a single church or convert. Half a dozen small books of devotion are all that remain to show their presence in Madagascar.9The work of the “Frères chrétiens” was, however, almost broken up by the anti-clerical policy of the French government.
1In the apparent absence of any Cambrian formation above them, there is little doubt that these rocks are Archean, although this cannot be absolutely proved.
2For most of the information here given on the geology the writer is indebted to Captain Mouneyres, chef de services des mines, and the Rev. R. Baron, F.G.S., F.L.S.
3See “On a Collection of Fossils from Madagascar,” by R. B. Newton,Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.(Feb. 1895).
4The following are figures of mean temperature, kindly supplied by the Rev. E. Colin, S. J., director of the observatory: Diégo-Suarez, N., 79°; Fàrafangàna, S.E. coast, 75°; Màrovoày, W. intr., 81°; Mòrondàva, W. coast, 77°; Tullēar, S.W. coast, 78°.
5The words in parentheses are the native Malagasy names.
6The census taken in 1905 gives 2,664,000 as the total population, but it is probably a little over that amount, as some localities are still imperfectly known.
7This is a special and restricted use of the word, Hòva in its widest sense being a tribal name, including all ranks of people in Imèrina.
8It is true that 200 years earlier than this, persistent efforts were made for nineteen years (1600-1619) by Portuguese Roman Catholic missionaries to propagate their faith among the south-east coast tribes. But although much zeal and self-denial were shown by these men, their efforts were abortive, and the mission was at length abandoned, leaving no fruit of their labours in a single church or convert. Half a dozen small books of devotion are all that remain to show their presence in Madagascar.
9The work of the “Frères chrétiens” was, however, almost broken up by the anti-clerical policy of the French government.
MADAN, MARTIN(1726-1790), English writer, was educated at Westminster School, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1746. In 1748 he was called to the bar, and for some time lived a very gay life, until he was persuaded to change his ways on hearing a sermon by John Wesley. He took holy orders, and was appointed chaplain to the Lock Hospital, London. He was closely connected with the Calvinistic Methodist movement supported by the countess of Huntingdon, and from time to time acted as an itinerant preacher. He was a first cousin of William Cowper, with whom he had some correspondence on religious matters. In 1767 much adverse comment was aroused by his support of his friend Thomas Haweis in a controversy arising out of the latter’s possession of the living of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire (seeMonthly Review, xxxvii. 382, 390, 465). In 1780 Madan raised more serious storm of opposition by the publication of hisThelyphthora, or A Treatise on Female Ruin, in which he advocated polygamy as the remedy for the evils he deplored. The author was no doubt sincere in his arguments, which he based chiefly on scriptural authority; but his book called forth many angry replies. Nineteen attacks on it are catalogued by Falconer Madan inDict. Nat. Biog.Madan resigned his chaplainship and retired to Epsom, where he produced, among other works,A New and Literal Translation of Juvenal and Persius(1789). He died on the 2nd of May 1790.
MADDALONI,a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, about 3½ m. S.E. of Caserta, with stations on the railways from Caserta to Benevento and from Caserta to Avellino, 200 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 19,778 (town); 21,270 (commune). It is prettily situated at the base of one of the Tifata hills, the towers of its medieval castle and the church of San Michele crowning the heights above. The fine old palace of the Caraffa family, once dukes of Maddaloni, the old college now named after Giordano Bruno, and the institute for the sons of soldiers are the chief points of interest. About 2½ m. east of Valle di Maddaloni, the Ponte della Valle, an aqueduct built by the orders of Charles III. of Naples and his son to convey the water of the Tiburno to Caserta (19 m.), is carried across the valley between Monte Longano and Monte Gargano by a threefold series of noble arches rising to a height of 210 ft. The work wasdesigned by Lodovico Vanvitelli, and constructed between 1753 and 1759.
MADDEN, SIR FREDERIC(1801-1873), English palaeographer, the son of an officer of Irish extraction, was born at Portsmouth on the 16th of February 1801. From his earliest years he displayed a strong bent to linguistic and antiquarian studies. In 1826 he was engaged by the British Museum to assist in the preparation of the classified catalogue of printed books then contemplated, and in 1828 he became assistant keeper of manuscripts. In 1833 he was knighted, and in 1837 succeeded Josiah Forshall as keeper of manuscripts. He was not entirely successful in this office, partly owing to want of harmony with his colleagues; he retired in 1866. He edited for the Roxburghe ClubHavelok the Dane(1828), discovered by himself among the Laudian MSS. in the Bodleian,William and the Werwolf(1832) and the old English versions of theGesta Romanorum(1838). In 1839 he edited the ancient metrical romances ofSyr Gawaynefor the Bannatyne Club, and in 1847 Layamon’sBrut, with a prose translation, for the Society of Antiquaries. In 1850 the magnificent edition, in parallel columns, of what are known as the “Wycliffite” versions of the Bible, from the original MSS., upon which he and his coadjutor, Forshall, had been engaged for twenty years, was published by the university of Oxford. In 1866-1869 he edited theHistoria Minorof Matthew Paris for the Rolls Series. In 1833 he wrote the text of Henry Shaw’sIlluminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages; and in 1850 edited the English translation of Silvestre’sPaléographie universelle. He died on the 8th of March 1873, bequeathing his journals and other private papers to the Bodleian Library, where they were to remain unopened until 1920.
Madden was perhaps the first palaeographer of his day. He was an acute as well as a laborious antiquary, but his ignorance of German prevented his ranking high as a philologist, although he paid much attention to the early dialectical forms of French and English. His minor contributions to antiquarian research were exceedingly numerous: the best known, perhaps, was his dissertation on the orthography of Shakespeare’s name, which, mainly on the strength of the Florio autograph, he contended should be “Shakspere.”
Madden was perhaps the first palaeographer of his day. He was an acute as well as a laborious antiquary, but his ignorance of German prevented his ranking high as a philologist, although he paid much attention to the early dialectical forms of French and English. His minor contributions to antiquarian research were exceedingly numerous: the best known, perhaps, was his dissertation on the orthography of Shakespeare’s name, which, mainly on the strength of the Florio autograph, he contended should be “Shakspere.”
MADDER,orDyers’ Madder, the root ofRubia tinctorumand perhaps also ofR. peregrina, both European,R. cordifolia, a native of the hilly districts of India and of north-east Asia and Java, supplying the Indian madder ormanjit.Rubiais a genus of about thirty-five species of the tribeGalieaeof the order Rubiaceae, and much resembles the familiarGaliums,e.g.lady’s bedstraw (G. verum) and the cleavers (G. aparine) of English hedges, having similarly whorled leaves, but the parts of the flowers are in fives and not fours, while the fruit is somewhat fleshy. The only British species isR. peregrina, which is found in Wales, the south and west of England, and in east and south Ireland. The use of madder appears to have been known from the earliest times, as cloth dyed with it has been found on the Egyptian mummies. It was theἐρευθέδανονused for dyeing the cloaks of the Libyan women in the days of Herodotus (Herod. iv. 189). It is theἐρυθρόδανονof Dioscorides, who speaks of its cultivation in Caria (iii. 160), and of Hippocrates (De morb. mul.i.), and theRubiaof Pliny (xix. 17).R. tinctorum, a native of western Europe, &c., has been extensively cultivated in south Europe, France, where it is calledgarance, and Holland, and to a small extent in the United States. Large quantities have been imported into England from Smyrna, Trieste, Leghorn, &c. The cultivation, however, decreased after alizarin, the red colouring principle of madder, was made artificially. Madder was employed medicinally by the ancients and in the middle ages. Gerard, in 1597, speaks of it as having been cultivated in many gardens in his day, and describes its supposed many virtues (Herball, p. 960); but any pharmacological or therapeutic action which madder may possess is unrecognizable. Its most remarkable physiological effect is that of colouring red the bones of animals fed upon it, as also the claws and beaks of birds. This appears to be due to the chemical affinity of phosphate of lime for the colouring matter (Pereira,Mat. med., vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 52). This property has been of much use in enabling physiologists to ascertain the manner in which bones develop, and the functions of the various types of cells found in growing bone.R. chilensishas been used for dyeing red from time immemorial. The chay-root, which furnishes a red dye in Coromandel and other parts of India, is the root-bark ofOldenlandia umbellata, a low-growing plant of the same family as madder.