The Cathedral Church of St. Mary, Lincoln.

“Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth.”

FROM NORTH-EAST.

The cathedrals of Lincoln, York, and Southwell were ever served by secular canons and not by monks; but each cathedral has been styled a minster from time immemorial, as if it were or had been a monastic church (monasterium).

I. The history of the cathedral only commences in 1074, when the first Norman bishop, Remi or Remigius, made Lincoln the seat of the see instead of Dorchester on the Thames. As Canon Venables puts it: “He refused the tabernacle of Birinus, and chose not the tribe of the South Angles; but chose the tribe of Lindsey, even the hill of Lindum which he loved; and there he built his temple on high, and laid the foundation of it like the ground which hath been established for ever.” The blank wall which forms the centre of the west front is Remi’s work. So are the Ionic capitals, square-edged arches, and wide-jointed masonryin the ground story of the south-west tower,c.1075. The curious apsidal recesses in the west front may be paralleled in the façades of many of the early Romanesque churches of Lombardy.

WESTERN DOORWAY.

II.Late Norman.—This archaic façade was improvedc.1140 by the insertion of a more ornamental central doorway, and by the arcade, high up, of intersecting semicircular arches. Also curious plaques, in rather high relief, were stuck along the wall, as at St. Michael, Pavia. They are not in chronological sequence, and so may have been transferred from some other church. Moreover, two low western towers were carried up, with rich and beautiful gables; of which those to the north and south survive. The south-western tower should be ascended to see Remi’s eleventh-century work, the twelfth-century gables, the “elastic beam,” and especially the superb view of the interior of nave, choir, and presbytery. The font, too, like that of Winchester, probably belongs to this period.

III.Transitional.—The north and south doorways of the west front, clumsily restored, were probably insertedc.1150. Their capitals are reminiscences of Byzantine design. They may be compared with the large capitals of St. Hugh’s choir and Canterbury choir.

ST. HUGH’S CHOIR.

IV. In 1190 a Carthusian monk, Hugh of Avalon, near Grenoble, became bishop. Like Fitz-Jocelyn of Wells, and like the Lichfield builders, he determined not to try to improvethe Norman cathedral, but to sweep it away and build an entirely new one. The Wells and Lichfield people succeeded in getting rid altogether of the older building; but Remi’s successors had to leave a considerable amount of Norman work in the western façade and towers. Bishop Hugh commenced work in 1192: first building probably his central apse and eastern transept, and then the walls of his choir, before taking down the short Norman aisleless choir of two bays, outside which in all probability, as at Lichfield, the new walls were erected. It will be noticed that the foliated capitals of the aisle-walls of the choir are earlier in character than those of the pier-arcade. Then he pulled down the old choir, erected the pier-arcade, triforium, and clerestory of the new one, and built the south-east corner of the north transept and the north-east corner of the south transept, where it will be seen that his double arcade along the aisle-wall abruptly ceases. The whole of this work (1192-1200) is very advanced for its date, and is full of originality and eccentricity; the work of an architect (Geoffrey de Noyers) who was more of an artist than an engineer. Externally the design is one characterised by great elegance of proportions. It is remarkable, too, to find the windows grouped at this early date, even in the clerestory. The intermediate buttresses of the aisles are later additions, to resist the thrusts of thequinquepartite vault of the aisles. Internally, it is disappointing. Its proportions are bad, owing to the exceptional lowness of the vault; the vault itself is contorted and ugly; the trefoils and quatrefoils are of all shapes and sizes; the obtuse pier-arches are out of harmony with the acute Lancet windows. Unfortunately, also, the effect of all the piers, except the third piers from the west, has been injured by cutting away the vaulting-shafts, which formerly descended to the floor, but which were stopped by corbels when the stalls were erected.

The north-east transept is quite exceptional. Its northern bay forms an internal tower, formerly divided into stories by wooden floors. The lowest story may have been designed as a return-aisle for processions, as at Winchester, if the triforiums also had floors—there are none now. The upper stories were described in 1641 as “watching chambers”; used, no doubt, by those who remained all night in the cathedral to watch the shrines and treasures, and to guard against fire. It is quite possible that these towers—there was originally a similar tower in the south transept—were intended to be carried up externally; in which case Lincoln would have had a glorious coronal of five towers.

The westward march of the twin towers of the mediæval cathedrals is curious. In the tenth-century churches, such as S. Ambrogio, Milan, and the later cathedral of S. Abbondio, Como, they flanked the choir; so they did at Canterbury, and in the twelfth-century choir of York; so they may have been meant to do at Lincoln. At Exeter they have marched on, and there occupy the ends of the transepts. Finally, they become the twin western towers which form such a characteristic feature of the façades of the mediæval churches of Northern Europe, but not of Lombardy.

FROM SOUTH-WEST.

On the west side of the north-east transept is a unique example of a cathedral dispensary, with triangular recesses in the walls for the drugs. Afterwards a floor was inserted dimway; and to light the darkened lower chambers, windowswere cut through the west wall. The shutters of these windows are original, as also the ironwork of the dispensary doorway. The choir ended to the east in a remarkable fashion in a three-sided aisled apse with radiating chapels. This may be due to Hugh’s foreign extraction, or it may be regarded as the legitimate development of such east ends as Gloucester and Tewkesbury. The apsidal termination is shown by incised lines in the pavement of the retro-choir and the south choir aisle. Across the openings of the eastern transepts beams were left from pier to pier, because the fosse of the Roman wall here crossed the choir. The whole choir is full of freaks; the apsidal termination of the choir, the double apses of the eastern transepts, the transeptal towers, the ribbing of the vault, the extraordinary crocketed piers at the entrance of the eastern transepts, the fluted hexagonal shafts, and in the clerestory the miniature arcades and pigeon-holes. The whole design has been claimed as French by M. Corroyer, but M. Viollet-le-Duc’s opinion is decisive on that point: “it is English in its method of construction, in its mouldings, in its ornament, and in execution.” But though English, it isgoing too far to call it “pure and undefiled Gothic.” The semicircular apses of the eastern transepts are not Gothic; and in Romanesque fashion, the triforium is spanned by transverse stone arches, regardless of the fact that the work they were supposed to do was done in reality by flying-buttresses outside.

ST. HUGH’S ARCADE.

V. The works were probably suspended but for a short time by the death of St. Hugh. He had planned, if not commenced, the apses of the eastern transepts, and left directions that he was to be buried in the north apse of the north-east transept—the chapel of St. John the Baptist. Probably work would be resumed at this point first. This chapel has a curious history. Soon afterwards pilgrims came in crowds to St. Hugh’s tomb, and a larger oblong chapel was built in place of the apse, to accommodate them. In later days this fell into ruin, and in 1769 Essex rebuilt the chapel in its original apsidal form. The work is contemporary with that of the great transept, which also has a string continuing the abaci. After the apsidal chapels were completed there followed the completion of the great transept, the erection of a central tower, and of so much of the western part of the nave as was necessary to give abutment to the tower on the west. It will be noticed that the arcading at the east end of the north aisle of the nave belongs to this period. All this may well have been designed by Geoffrey de Noyers, for the tower was badly built and collapsed in 1239; the west wall of the transept is full of blunders, and the vault of the north transept cuts offthe head of the circular window, the Dean’s Eye. But externally the design of this north end is superb. The vaulting, as in the eastern transepts, is sexpartite, with the addition of a new longitudinal rib, which wobbles up and down in a distressing manner. The vault is copied—wobbling included—in Southwell choir. Magnificent contemporary glass remains in the Dean’s Eye and the lancets below it.

VI. The next work was the completion of the first five eastern bays of the nave. Whoever the architect was, or the architects—for there may have been two of them, the arcading of the aisles and the height of the bases differing widely on the north and south sides of the nave—it was not Geoffrey de Noyers, but some one who was both a good artist and a good engineer—so good an engineer that in the interior he sacrificed art to engineering. The piers he set as far apart as possible, and made them as thin as possible; but they are beautifully built, and rest on foundations which are continuous underground from pier to pier. These obtuse arches, however, and attenuated piers are most unsatisfactory to the eye. The nave is practically an improved version of the choir—improved in the vaulting, the buttresses and pinnacles, and in height. To the vault he added intermediate ribs—an early example of their use. The northern exterior of the nave, with its knife-edge buttresses and tall gablets and strong base-courses, is one of the best designs in all Gothic; it is of almost Greek severity. The height of the nave he raised from 74 to 82 feet. A Frenchman would have given a nave so broad (42 feet) a height of 120 feet. However, he was thinking—as all the Lincoln architects were always thinking—of how it would look outside, how it would affect the sky-line of the cathedral to have a nave far higher than the choir. Never was an English cathedral built so much for external effect as Lincoln; in every part of it the exterior is finer than the interior.

SOUTH TRANSEPT.

VII. From 1235 to 1253 the see was occupied by a man of the highest vigour and ability—Bishop Grosstête—who signalised his rule by many great works. Luckily St. Hugh hadbeen canonised in 1220, and money, no doubt, flowed in abundantly from the pilgrims. But in 1239 the central tower fell. It seems to have fallen to the south-east, and to have damaged seriously the adjacent parts of the transept and choir, and in particular the south side of the choir and the south-east transept. Everything else had to be laid aside toget the mischief repaired. The repairs seem to have been executed with the greatest haste and carelessness. The new mouldings on the western side of the westernmost arches of the choir did not fit the old, and a ring of stone was worked to hide the awkward junction. Every arch in the south triforium is out of centre, and the trefoils and quatrefoils are cut most clumsily. In the end bays of the triforium of the choir and transept the central stalks “were replaced by ugly moulded blocks resembling nothing so much as a pound of candles.” The reconstructed arches may be recognised by having hood-moulds. The canons wanted to get back into their choir as soon as possible, and may well have regarded the whole affair as merely a makeshift till the nave should be finished, and they could transfer their services to it, and then pull down and rebuild St. Hugh’s choir more stably and in greater height. In the south-east transept the inner wall of the tower was taken down, and the upper part of the end wall was rebuilt. This work was done more carefully, there being no need to hurry over it, as it did not interfere with the use of the choir.

ANGEL TRIFORIUM.

The canons could now resume their work in the nave. But their resources had been heavily taxed by the unexpected demands made on them by the fall of the central tower. They took counsel, unfortunately, with economy. The original design had been, probably, to make the nave very much longer than it is now, and then to build a brand-new west front, as at Wells and Lichfield. The nave needs much greater length, being of the exceptional breadth of forty-two feet. Now it was decided not to sweep away, but to utilise the Norman west front and western towers as far as possible, and to curtail the nave accordingly. Unfortunately, the new cathedral had not been built at right angles to the Norman façade. The axis, therefore, of the remaining bays of the nave had to deviate so as to strike the façade as centrally as possible. Moreover, the western vault of the nave was too lofty for the façade, so it was suddenly dropped two feet at the end of the five eastern bays; and the distance between the completed bays and the façade being insufficient for two arches of the span of the eastern ones, the two western bays had to be built narrower than the rest. A different vault, too, was built in the aisles of these two bays.

All this is regrettable; but though Lincoln minster is shorter than it should be, its vast spaces, dimly lighted with scanty beams filtering through narrow lancets, are wonderfully impressive; the distances, yet further enhanced by the interposition of organ and screen, seem really infinite. It is not, like Ely, a study in contrasts, but in harmonies. The design of the nave leads without a break to that of the transepts; the design of the transepts to that of the choir; the design of the choir, aided by the rich stalls and screens, to the splendour of the presbytery, where the light breaks forth at length to irradiate the loveliness of moulding and foliage and sculptured imagery.

Though the length of the nave was now curtailed in the altered design, some compensation was found in throwing out a flanking chapel on either side of the two westernmost bays.The position of these chapels may be founded on those of Ely; it was repeated by Wren in St. Paul’s. In all three cathedrals it gives a noble air of spaciousness on entering by the western doors. The vault of the northern chapel is supported, as if it were a chapter-house, by a beautiful central pier. This pier consists of eight shafts of Purbeck marble, very acutely pointed, once so highly polished, like the rest of the Purbeck shafts, says a mediæval versifier, that they positively dazzled the eyes.

FROM NORTH-WEST.

Then came the west front. We may not like it; but given the conditions—the retention of an enormous oblong area of Norman wall with two Norman towers behind—it is not easy to see how anything better could have been done. Its vast height and breadth are astonishingly impressive from the little narrow courtyard which coops it in.

To the same bishop, Grosstête, are to be attributed the beautiful Galilee porch, attached to the south transept as a state-entrance for the bishop from his palace over the way; the sacristy; and the chapter-house—the first polygonal chapter-house after that of Abbey Dore. “The strong flying-buttresses, like colossal arms stretched out to bear up the huge fabric,” were added later.

VIII. The cathedral was now completed from east to west. But the canons had at once to start again. St. John the Baptist’s chapel, though enlarged, was all too small for thepilgrims who crowded to Lincoln, attracted by the miracles wrought at St. Hugh’s shrine. The apse of his choir was therefore pulled down, and in its stead was built an eastern presbytery of five bays (1256-1280). This is the famous Angel choir, really the memorial chapel and tomb-house of St. Hugh. His shrine was solemnly translated to it in 1280. A little too crowded with ornament, it is yet the most lovely work of the age—one of the masterpieces of English Gothic. To the same period, probably, belong the superb arches inserted at the west end of the choir aisles with the idea of buttressing the eastern piers of the new tower; also the north, south and east screens of the choir, parts of which are old, the rest built by Essex in 1769.

IX. About 1290 were built the Easter Sepulchre and so-called tomb of Remigius, on the north side of the choir, with naturalistic foliage of oak, fig, and vine. Here the consecrated Host was watched from Maundy Thursday to Easter Sunday. Still finer Easter sepulchres may be seen at Hawton and Heckington. The upper stage of the central tower was erected in 1307. The tower is 271 feet high; and anxious, as usual, for external effect, the canons actually added a timber spire, raising it to the vast height of 525 feet, a height which exceeds even that of the new spires of Cologne cathedral. The effective cut battlements are by Essex. The tower is not built solid, but, to save weight, is “constructed of two thin walls, tied at intervals, with a vacuum between them” (cf. Hereford and Wells). It is gathered in 2½ inches near the top, so as not to look top-heavy. The remains of the shrine of Little St. Hugh (in the south choir aisle) seem to bec.1310. In the cloisters, builtc.1296, is a great curiosity—an incised slab with a portrait of a Gothic architect, Richard of Gainsborough, the builder of the Angel choir. A replica has been made of it.

X.Curvilinear.—In 1320 died good Bishop Dalderby. He was worshipped as a saint, though Rome refused his canonisation. His remains were placed in a silver shrine on thewest side of the south transept: some of the pedestals of it may be seen there still. Miracles were wrought at his shrine; and from the offerings the gable of this transept was in all probability reconstructed, including the “Bishop’s Eye,” which is as strong constructionally as it is beautiful. The lovely pierced parapet of this transept should be noticed, and the fine window in the gable. The parapet was carried westward all along the south side of the nave and across the west front; and handsome pinnacles were erected, with niches once peopled with statues.

FROM SOUTH-EAST.

Now also was erected the choir-screen, of charming design, very similar to that of the west side of Southwell screen.

A little later are the screen of the choir boys’ vestry in the south choir aisle, diapered with lilies; and in the north-east of the Angel choir, St. Catharine’s shrine, and the Burghersh monuments. The period closes with the charming ogee doorways and arcading at the west end of the nave.

XI. ThePerpendicularperiod commences with the choir-stalls, so much eulogised by Pugin; and, but little later, the miserable statues of English kings over the west door, and the west windows of the nave and its aisles. The western towers were also raised to their present height, and all three towers were vaulted. All this work belongs to the last forty years of the fourteenth century.

The west front now consists of an oblong area of Early Norman work, which is decorated above by a Late Norman arcade of semicircular intersecting arches, and midway by a row of Late Norman sculptured plaques, and by the Perpendicular niches with the kings: the windows are also Perpendicular; but the central doorway is Late Norman and the side doorways Transitional. The central arch of the Early Norman work has been replaced by a pointed one; and the whole of the Early Norman work is surrounded by Lancet work, which in turn is crested with a Curvilinear parapet. The lower stages of the towers are Late Norman; the upper stages Early Perpendicular. The west front has been constantly censured for hiding the western towers, “like prisoners looking over the bars of their cage.” But any one who has seen the western towers of St. Stephen’s, Caen, will recognise that, but for the west front, the Lincoln towers would look top-heavy.

FROM THE SOUTH.

XII. To the fifteenth century belong the battlemented parapet of the Galilee porch; Bishop Fleming’s chantry; thescreens of the chapels in the north and south transept; and Bishop Russell’s chantry.

XIII. InTudordays was built Bishop Longland’s chantry (1521-1547), the niches of which have Renaissance detail. The three chantries are so low that they do not interfere with the main lines of the cathedral; and, being low, give scale to it.

XIV. The date of the brass Eagle is 1667. In 1674 Wren built the Library in the Cloister. The brass chandelier is of 1698. The supporting arches of the western towers were inserted in 1727.

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