I. GREEK COINS.§ INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.The following extract from the preface to the British Museum “Guide to the Coins of the Ancients”[5]will give some idea of the uses of Greek Numismatics.“The chief value of Greek coins lies in their being original works of art, not copies as are most of the extant sculptures in the round, and in their recording the successive phases and local varieties of Greek art, in which respect no other class of monuments, sculptures, bronzes, terracottas, fictile vases, or gems, can compete with them. From the seventh century before the Christian era downwards, and from the farthest east to the extreme west of the ancient civilized world, coins are still extant, in many cases as uninjured as when they first left the dies. The devices ortypeswhich they bear, if not by leading artists, certainly faithfully represent the style of the sculpture and even of the painting of the periods to which they belong. Thus in no other branch of Greek monuments can the student so readily and so thoroughly trace the growth, the maturity, and the decay of the plastic art as on coins chronologically arranged.“For the study of mythology they present the local conceptions of the gods and heroes worshipped in the Greek world, with their attributes and symbols.“The historian will find a gallery of portraits of sovereigns almost complete, as well as evidences of the history and of the political revolutions of innumerable autonomous states and cities in these all but imperishable records.“The student of palæography will find on coins examples of various ancient alphabets, such as Lycian and Cyprian, Phœnician, Greek, Latin, Iberian, etc., in various stages of development.“The metrologist, by comparing the weights of coins of different localities and periods, may gain an insight into the various systems of ancient metrology in its various standards, and obtain a just view of the relative values of the precious metals, and of the great lines of trade in the Greek and Roman world. For practical purposes the medallist and art workman will find in Greek coins the most profitable as well as the safest guide. The artist will not fail to perceive the suggestive value of designs which, on however small a scale, are essentially large in treatment.”No one whose means are at all limited should attempt to form a complete collection of Greek coins. Even the vast collection in the British Museum is far from perfect, and in many series is still lamentably deficient.Any one, however, by limiting his ambition to one particular branch, may hope in course of time to form a cabinet the value of which will increase rapidly in proportion as it approaches completion.This applies not only to Greek coins but to every class. Thus, for instance, there are collectors of English coins who confine their attention to the Anglo-Saxon period; others who will buy no coins later than the reign of Charles I.; and others, again, who only collect the copper money of the last two centuries.The young collector who would not drift into unprofitabledilettanteismshould therefore select some one series and keep to it, and it is chiefly with the view of assisting him to make his choice of a field to work upon that these pages have been written.It will be well to form some idea, in the first instance, of the numerous series which are included in the general term of “Greek coins.”Greek coins may be divided into three principal sections:—A.Autonomous,i.e.coins issued by cities governed by their own laws.B.Regal,i.e.coins struck in the names of kings.C.Imperial,i.e.coins of Greek cities struck in Roman Imperial times, and with the head of the Emperor on the obverse.And into eight chronological periods as follows:—I.B.C.700-480.Period of Archaic Art, ending with the Persian wars.II.B.C.480-430.Period of Transitional Art, between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars.III.B.C.430-400.Period of Early Fine Art, to the end of the Athenian supremacy.IV.B.C.400-336.Period of Finest Art.Age of the Spartan and Theban supremacies. Philip of Macedon.V.B.C.336-280.Period of Later Fine Art.Age of Alexander and his immediate successors.VI.B.C.280-197.Period of the Decline of Art.Age of the Epigoni or descendants of Alexander’s successors.VII.B.C.197-27.Period of Late Decline of Art.Age of the Attalids, Mithradates, and of the Roman supremacy.VIII.B.C.27—A.D.268.Period of Latest Decline of Art.The Empire. Augustus—Gallienus.§ OF THE METALS OF WHICH COINS ARE COMPOSED.The coins of the ancients were of various metals, of which the following need only be specified.1.Gold, distinguished in numismatic works by the abbreviation[AU](for aurum).2.Electrum, a compound of gold and silver. EL.3.Silver.AR (argentum).4.BillonandPotin, alloys of silver and bronze. Bil. and Pot.5.Bronze.Copper with a percentage of tin. Æ (æs).§ OF THE TERMS USED TO DEFINE THE VARIOUS PARTS OF A COIN.The front or face of a coin is called theobverse. Obv.The back is called thereverse. Rev.The principal device or object represented on a coin is called thetype.The area or space between the type and the circumference is called thefield.The lower portion of the area of a coin beneath the type and separated from the rest of the field by a horizontal line is called theexergue. Ex.Small objects represented either in the field or the exergue as adjuncts to the main type are calledsymbols.Portions of a coin which are sunk below the level of the surface are said to beincuse.§ OF THE TYPES OF GREEK COINS.The types of Greek coins were from the earliest times down to the age of the successors of Alexander almost exclusively religious. The reason for this is not far to seek. In an age of simple faith the head of a god upon the coin was the best of allguarantees for purity of metal and good weight. The gods were, so to speak, invoked by the State to vouch for the good quality of its currency, in the same way as State decrees often began with the formula “In the name of the gods.” There is, moreover, some reason to think that the earliest coins were struck within the sacred precincts of the Temple treasuries, as being holy places, secure from plunder and inviolable.In the most ancient period the principal or obverse type is generally some animal or object sacred to or emblematical of that god whose worship was prevalent in the city in which the coin was issued. Subsequently the head of the deity himself was usually placed upon the obverse of the coin, while the reverse side was occupied by the object emblematical of his worship. Frequently, too, the head of one principal deity appears upon the obverse, and, either the entire figure or the emblem of some other, generally local divinity, on the reverse.The chief exceptions to the above rule are the so-calledagonistic types, or types referring to the games such as the victorious quadriga on the money of various Sicilian cities. These types are commemorative in a general way of victories in the Olympian or other local games, but it is hardly ever possible to refer them to any particular victory.Victories in war and political revolutions are never directly referred to on Greek coins, although the unintentional records of such events may often be traced in a sudden change of coin-types. Thus, for instance, at Syracuse when the Corinthians succeeded in liberating that city from the tyranny of the Dionysian dynasty, the coinage of Syracuse is for a time assimilated to that of Corinth; a still clearer indication of restored freedom at the same time (B.C.345) being seen in the first introduction of the head of Zeus “the Liberator” upon the coins of Syracuse.All through the history of free and independent Greece, the original idea of the religious character of the coinage may be traced. The coinage was everywhere placed under the auspices of the gods, and gods, heroes, and their emblems, were alone considered worthy to be represented upon it. No tyrant, however despotic, not even the great Dionysius of Syracuse, would have dreamed of placing his own head upon the coinage of the State. Even Philip of Macedon, when he had united in his single hand the whole of Northern Greece, and when he reorganized the coinage of his empire on a new model, placed on his gold money the head of Apollo and on his silver that of Zeus.It was reserved for the successors of Alexander the Great, when the political centre of the Greek world was no longer to befound in Greece itself, but in the various capitals of the powerful semi-oriental monarchies which arose out of the ruins of the Persian empire—Alexandria, Antioch, etc.—it was reserved for these self-constituted kings and their descendants to substitute their own heads for those of the gods.Such an innovation as this, such a complete upsetting of the ancient deeply rooted idea of the connection between the gods and the coinage could not be introduced all at once. It had to be effected by degrees. Alexander the Great even in his lifetime gave himself out as the son of Zeus Ammon, and after his death the idea of his divinity gained ground year by year. The first step towards the new fashion of placing the king’s head upon the coinage was made by Lysimachus of Thrace, who introduced on his money the portrait of the deified Alexander in the character of the son of Ammon with the ram’s horn over the ear.Ptolemy Soter, king of Egypt, the first of the dynasty which ruled Egypt for two centuries and a half after the death of Alexander, was the first monarch who placed his own head upon his coins. By slow degrees his example was followed, first in Asia and finally in Europe, where Philip V. of Macedon,B.C.220, was the first king whose portrait in the character of a mortal, and not disguised as a demi-god, appears upon the coinage.The influence of the old religious beliefs nevertheless maintained so firm a hold on men’s minds that the reverses of Greek coins continued to bear sacred types throughout the Roman Imperial period; and even on the money of the Byzantine emperors when Christianity had become the State religion, the figures of Christ and the Virgin, or the sign of the Cross, still bear witness that the same religious sanction in a new form continued to be invoked for the coin of the realm.§ THE GODS AS REPRESENTED ON THE COINAGE.Zeus(Jupiter). The head of this god is almost always bearded and crowned with laurel or olive(Fig. 1). The youthful head called Zeus Hellenios, on certain coins of Syracuse, is however beardless, and but for the inscription which in this case accompanies it, would be indistinguishable from a head of Apollo.Zeus Ammon(Fig. 2), frequent on coins of Cyrene, is distinguished by the ram’s horn behind the ear. This god is sometimes beardless.The head of the Zeus of Dodona is represented with a wreath of oak-leaves(Fig. 3).Fig. 1.Zeus (Jupiter).Fig. 2.Zeus (Ammon).Fig. 3. Zeus(Jupiter).The entire figure of Zeus appears in various attitudes, of which the following are of most frequent occurrence:—Zeus enthroned(Fig. 4), holding in one hand a sceptre, and in the other an eagle or a victory.Zeus standing, with eagle or victory.Zeus advancing, with ægis on his arm and hurling his thunderbolt.Zeus Labrandeuson coins of Caria stands full draped, with the double axe (Labrys) over his shoulder and a sceptre in his hand.Greek coinFig. 4.Zeus (Jupiter).Fig. 5.Apollo.Hades(Pluto), the king of the under world, resembles Zeus in type, but is usually accompanied by Cerberus.Serapis.The great Egyptian divinity of the Ptolemaic age is also very like Zeus, but his head is always surmounted by a lofty modius (a measure for corn), which is often richly ornamented.Apollo.The head of this god is more commonly met with on coins than that of any other divinity. He is represented in full youthful beauty, generally with flowing hair and almost always crowned with laurel (Figs.5,6, and 7).His full-length figure is variously delineated, usually naked, with bow or laurel branch in his hand, either standing or seated, often on the Delphian omphalos(Fig. 8), or else beside his sacred tripod. When he wears a long robe reaching to the feet, and carries a lyre, he is called Apollo Musegetes, the leader of the Muses.Greek coinsFig. 6.Apollo.Fig. 7.Apollo.Fig. 8.Apollo.Helios(Sol). The Sun god is known by the rays which encircle his head(Fig. 9). On coins of the Imperial period he is often seen driving the chariot of the Sun.Poseidon(Neptune). The head of this god much resembles that of Zeus, but may usually be distinguished from it by the absence of the laurel wreath, and by the heavy way in which the dank locks of his hair fall about his neck(Figs. 10 and 11). Poseidon is sometimes seated on rocks holding a trident and a dolphin or an aplustre(Fig. 12).Greek CoinsFig. 9.Fig. 10.Fig. 11.Helios (Sol).Poseidon (Neptune).Sometimes he stands resting on his trident, and sometimes he wields it on high as if about to strike. Occasionally heis seen on horseback armed with his trident. He is calledPoseidon Hippios(Fig. 13).Greek CoinsFig. 12.Fig. 13.Fig. 14.Poseidon (Neptune).Dionysos.Dionysos(Bacchus). The head of Dionysos is either youthful or bearded, and is encircled by a wreath of ivy (Figs.14,15, and 16). His full-length figure is usually naked, or with merely a fawn skin hanging from his shoulder. He holds a wine cup (kantharos), or a bunch of grapes or the Bacchic staff (thyrsus), surmounted by a pine cone.Sometimes he has bull’s horns growing from his forehead, and on coins of Neapolis he appears as a bull with a human head (Dionysos Hebon).Greek coinsFig. 15.Fig. 16.Fig. 17.Dionysos (Bacchus).Hermes (Mercury).Greek CoinFig. 18.Hermes (Mercury).Hermes(Mercury). The head of Hermes is youthful, and wears a hat called apetasus(Figs.17and18), close fitting, sometimes with a broad flapping brim and adorned with two wings.When his entire figure is represented, he is usually clad in a short cloak (chlamys), and has winged sandals (pedilia) on his feet.Greek coinFig. 19.Hephæstus (Vulcan).As the messenger of the gods and the conductor of the souls of the dead, he carries the winged staff (caduceus), and sometimes, as god of trade, a purse.Hephæstus(Vulcan). This god is sometimes young and sometimes bearded. He wears a conical hat (pilos),(Fig. 19). On coins of Lipara he is generally seated naked on a four-legged stool, holding a hammer in one hand and a cup (kantharos) in the other(Fig. 20). The tongs and the anvil are also emblems of the worship of Hephæstus.Greek coinsFig. 20.Fig. 21.Fig. 22.Hephæstus (Vulcan).Herakles (Hercules).Greek coinsFig. 23.Fig. 24.Fig. 25.Herakles (Hercules).Pan.Herakles(Hercules). The head of Herakles, youthful(Fig. 21), or bearded(Fig. 22), is usually covered with the skin of the Nemean Lion. Occasionally, however, he is simply laureate, and sometimes the club at his shoulder is added as a distinctive symbol. On reverses of coins, Herakles is represented performing his various labours, most frequently contending with the Nemean Lion(Fig. 23). Sometimes also he is seen at rest, either standing and leaning upon his club, or seated(Fig. 24). The infant Herakles strangling two serpents is a less frequent type.Pan.The head of Pan (Figs.25,26, and 27) has pointed ears, and is either youthful or bearded. Sometimes also he has goat’s horns. At his shoulder on many coins appears the shepherd’s crook (pedum).Ares(Mars). The head of Ares is of rare occurrence on coins. He is usually bearded and helmeted, but sometimes young and crowned with laurel like Apollo(Fig. 28), and when thus represented, as on the Mamertine coin here engraved, his name was added in order that there might be no mistake as to whose head was intended.Greek coinsFig. 26.Fig. 27.Fig. 28.Pan.Ares (Mars).Asklepios(Æsculapius). Representations of the god of healing belong to a comparatively late period of art. He is bearded, amply draped, and leans upon a staff, round which a serpent twines(Fig. 29).Greek coinsFig. 29.Fig. 30.Fig. 31.Asklepios (Æsculapius).River Gods.He is sometimes accompanied by his daughterHygieia, the goddess of health, or by a small figure enveloped in acloak and hood, who is calledTelesphorus, and is supposed to be the genius of convalescence.River Gods.Rivers are represented during the earlier and finer periods of art as rushing bulls or as bulls with human heads(Fig. 30), or again as young male figures with bull’s horns over the forehead(Fig. 31).In the later period the conventional River god is a bearded reclining figure, generally half-draped, resting upon an overturned vase from which a stream of water is flowing(Fig. 32). Less frequently the god is shown as actually swimming in the water.The Dioscuri(Castor and Pollux) wear conical hats, each surmounted by a star(Fig. 33a). Sometimes they are seen standing side by side with palm branches in their hands, but they are more often represented on horseback(Fig. 33b).Greek coinsFig. 32.A River God.(a)Fig. 33.(b)The Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux).Perseus.The head of the hero Perseus(Fig. 34), the slayer of the Gorgon Medusa(Fig. 35), wears a winged helmet, while at his shoulders is sometimes seen the short sword or knife with a hook at the back of the blade (harba).Greek coinsFig. 34.Perseus.Fig. 35.Gorgon-Head.Fig. 36.Hera (Juno).§ THE GODDESSES AS REPRESENTED ON THE COINAGE.Hera(Juno). The head of Hera on coins usually wears a lofty circular crown (stephanos) adorned with floral or other patterns (Figs.36,37). She also wears sometimes a crescent-shaped crown and a veil, and has often a sceptre at her shoulder.Pallas Athene(Minerva). The head of this goddess is helmeted. Sometimes the helmet is of the Corinthian pattern(Fig. 38)and sometimes of the Athenian(Fig. 39), often richly ornamented.Greek coinFig. 37.Fig. 38.Fig. 39.Hera (Juno).Pallas Athene.She is often seen in a fighting attitude, asPallas Promachos(Fig. 40), wielding a spear and holding before her a shield or ægis. She is also very frequently seated with a victory in her hand and her shield beside her. The shield of Pallas is usually distinguished by the Gorgon’s head inthe centre. The attributes of this goddess are the owl and the olive.Greek coinFig. 40.Pallas Athene.Fig. 41.Demeter.Fig. 42.Persephone (Proserpine).Demeter (Ceres) and Persephone (Proserpine).These two goddesses are known by the corn wreath which they both wear. Demeter, the mother(Fig. 41), is generally veiled; the daughter, Persephone, seldom (Figs.42,43). The beautiful head on the well-known Syracusan medallions (seeFrontispiece), crowned with corn leaves, is that of Persephone. This goddess often has a poppy either in her hair or at her breast. The torch is a frequent emblem, especially of Demeter.Greek coinFig. 43.Fig. 44.Fig. 45.Persephone (Proserpine).Artemis (Diana).Artemis(Diana). As the goddess of Nature in her wilder aspects, Artemis carries a bow, and at her shoulder a quiver of arrows (Figs.44, 45). She is often accompanied by a dog or a stag. As the Moon goddess,Selene, the crescent is her symbol. On late coins of Ephesus she appears under a totally different aspect, viz., as the embodiment of the nourishing, life-giving forces of nature, symbolised by her many breasts.Greek coin(a)Fig. 46.(b)Aphrodite (Venus).Aphrodite(Venus). On the coins of Eryx, in Sicily, the goddess of love is seated fully draped, with Eros (Cupid) as a youth (not a child, as in Roman art) standing before her, and with a dove in her hand. On Imperial coins of Cnidu, the famous naked Aphrodite by Praxiteles was represented. As the goddess of heaven (Aphrodite Urania), she sits upon the globe(Fig. 46a), her head surmounted by the morning star, and holding in her hand a sceptre. On the reverse of the same coin(Fig. 46b)are seen the sun, the moon, and the five planets.Cybele.“The mother of the gods” wears a turreted crown. Sometimes she rides upon a lion, at other times she is seated on a throne between two lions. The rabbit is also symbolical of her worship, as an earth goddess.Isis.This Egyptian goddess is recognised by her peculiar head-dress, consisting of a globe or disc flanked by two cow’s horns and surmounted by two ostrich feathers. In her hand she often holds the sistrum (a musical instrument). As Isis Pharia (a sea goddess) she holds a sail.Greek coinFig. 47.Fig. 48.Nike (Victory).Nike(Victory). (Figs.47, 48). This divinity is almost always winged, and often flying (seeFrontispiece). She usually carries a wreath; and on coins of Alexander the Great a sort of mast with a cross-yard (the stand for a trophy of arms). Sometimes she is nailing armour to a trophy(Fig. 48).§ SYMBOLS.In addition to the principal type, whether of the obverse or of the reverse, there is generally to be seen on the coins of Greek states a subordinate adjunct device, which occupies some vacant space in the field of the coin. These additions to the main type are of two kinds:—(1) Symbols connected more or less directly with the main type: such as the sacred olive branch on the coins of Athens, and the club and bow onFig. 24.(2) Symbols having no connection whatever with the principal type; such as the small animal onFig. 7.The symbols of the 1st class are naturally limited in number and more or less constant accompaniments of the main type, to which they were intended to give greater precision and definiteness of meaning. Those of the 2nd class, on the other hand, might be varied very frequently on coins of one and the same series. There can be no doubt that such symbols were the distinctive badges or signets of one of the magistrates or moneyers under whose authority the coinage was issued. The frequency with which these personal symbols were varied corresponds with the duration of the term of office of the magistrate in question, whether annual or other.On the regal coinages from the time of Philip of Macedon onwards, in cases where a uniform coinage was issued at many mints, an adjunct symbol was very generally placed in the field of the coin as a mint-mark designating the place of issue (e.g.the Trident onFig. 4). It is frequently impossible to distinguish such local mint-marks from the personal signets of the officer entrusted by the king with the supervision of the currency.§ INSCRIPTIONS.The inscriptions on Greek coins may be divided into the following principal classes:—(i) The name of the people or state.(ii) The name of the chief of the state, whether tyrant or king.(iii) The name of a magistrate.(iv) The name of the engraver of the die.(v) A legend referring to the type.The above are written sometimes at full length and sometimes in an abbreviated form, or in the form of a more or less complicated monogram.Those of class i., when written in full, are usually in the genitive plural,e.g.ΣΤΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ(Frontispiece).Those of class ii. are also in the genitive,e.g., ΒΑΣΙΛΑΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ(Fig. 8).Those of class iii. are either in the nominative (as ΠΟΛΥΚΡΑΤΗΣ,Fig. 45) or the genitive; in the latter case frequently preceded by ΕΗΙ(Fig. 12), and often also accompanied by the title of the office as ἑφι Λυσιστῥατου ἁρχοντος, ἑφι στραθηγου Διονυσἱου.Among the magistrates most frequently mentioned on Greek Imperial coins are the following:—The Archon, the Strategos (Prætor), the Grammateus (Secretary), the Prytanis, the Tamias (Treasurer), the Archiereus and Hiereus (High Priest and Priest), the Asiarch, the Hypatos (Consul), and the Anthypatos (Proconsul), etc., etc.Those of class iv. are in the genitive, except when accompanied by the verb (e.g.ΘΕΟΔΟΤΟΣ ΕΠΟΕΙ, for ἑποἱει). This class of inscriptions is usually in very minute characters.Those of class v. are in the nominative, as ΖΕΥΣ ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΟΣ(Fig. 1), or genitive, as ΑΡΕΟΣ(Fig. 28).The names of kings, even when unaccompanied by the title ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ, hold so conspicuous a position on the reverse of the coins, that it is easy to distinguish them from the names of less important monetary magistrates.The names of eponymous magistrates, such as archons, etc., also occupy a very prominent place on the money of certain cities; such as Ephesus, for example.The names of less important functionaries are written in an abbreviated form or even in monogram(Fig. 40), in which latter case it is almost always impossible to say what name was intended.On coins of the later and especially of the Imperial period, the inscriptions are much more lengthy than on those of an earlier date.§ OF THE METHOD OF DATING COINS.Dates are not found on Greek coins before the age of Alexander the Great, and even after his time they are of rare occurrence, except on certain Asiatic series and on the money of Egypt. They are usually placed either in the field or the exergue of the coin.UnitsA.B.Γ.Δ.E.ς.Ζ.H.Θ.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.Tens.I.Κ.Λ.Μ.Ν.Ξ.Ο.Π.κοππα10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.90.Hundreds.P.Σ.Τ.Υ.Φ.Χ.Ψ.Ω.σαμπι100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.900.They are sometimes preceded by the word ΕΤΟΥΣ, thus, ΕΤΟΥΣ ΡΚΔ =Anno124. On the coinage of Egypt, both under the Ptolemies and under the Roman Emperors, the character [L] is used instead of the word ΕΤΟΥΣ, thus, ΛΓ =Anno33. This character was probably an ancient Egyptian symbol meaningyear, adopted into the Greek system of numeration for the sake of brevity.The following are a few of the many epochs orærasaccording to which coins are dated:—The Seleucid æra begins B.C. 312.The Pompeian " B.C. 63.The Cæsarian " B.C. 48 or 47.The Augustan or Actian æra begins B.C. 31.§ OF THE DENOMINATIONS OF GREEK COINS.The unit of account in Greece was thedrachm. The weight of the drachm was not everywhere identical. It ranged, as a rule, between about 55 and 95 grs. troy. For purposes of calculation it may be taken in a general way as the ancient equivalent of our modern shilling or franc.Of the various standards of weight which prevailed in different parts of the Greek world, theAttic standardwas the most widely diffused. The weights of the various denominations, according to this standard, are as follows:—TheTalent = 405,000 grs. troy } not coined{= 6,000 drachms."Mina (1/60 of the Talent }= 6,750 grs. troy) }{{= 100 drachms."Tetradrachm= 270grs. troy = 4 drachms."Didrachm= 135" "= 2""Drachm= 67·5" "= 1""Tetrobol= 45" "= 4 obols."Triobol= 33·75" "= ½ drachm or 3 obols."Diobol= 22·5" "= 2 obols."Trihemiobol= 16·8" "= 1½ obols."Obol= 11·25" "= 1 obol."Hemiobol= 5·62" "= ½ ""Tetartemorion= 2·81" "= ¼ "The other standards are theÆginetic(drachm 97 grs.); thePhœnician(drachm 56 grs.); theRhodian(drachm 60 grs.); thePersian(drachm 88 grs.). The other denominations of the above standards may be easily got at by multiplying or dividing the drachms as in the Attic standard.Larger denominations than the tetradrachm are rare, but octadrachms, decadrachms, etc., etc., occur at some towns. The unit in copper was called thechalkous; but its weight does not appear to have been definitely fixed like that of the silver drachm.The Attic gold money was regulated according to the same standard of weight as the silver. The gold unit of account was, however, not the drachm, but thestater, as it was called, equivalentin weight to the didrachm, and in value to 20 drachms of silver.As a rule, the denomination of a Greek coin can only be determined by weighing it. Marks of value occur, however, on the copper of Italy, Sicily, etc.; but these coins follow a system foreign to Greece proper (see below).§ OF THE ARRANGEMENT OF A CABINET OF GREEK COINS.Greek coins are classified in all great collections in geographical order, as follows:—The towns under each province should be arranged alphabetically, for convenience of reference. We have only space here to mention a few of the principal cities:—EUROPE.Provinces.Cities,Islands,Tribes,Kings,etc.Spain.LusitaniaEmerita.BæticaCartiea, Gades.TarraconensisEmporiæ, Osca, Rhoda, etc.Gaul.AquitaniaArverni.NarbonensisMassilia, Nemausus.LugdunensisLugdunum.BelgicaBritain.Atrebates, etc., Camulodunum.Italia.EtruriaPopulonia.UmbriaTuder.PicenumHatria.VestiniLatiumRoma.SamniumBeneventum.FrentaniLarinum.CampaniaCapua, Cumæ, Neapolis, Nola.ApuliaArpi, Cælia, Teate, Venusia.CalabriaBrundusium, Tarentum.LucaniaMetapotum, Posidonia, Thurium, Velia.BruttiiCroton, Locri, Rhegium, Terina.Sicily.Agrigentum, Camarina, Gela, Himera, Leontini, Messana, Naxos, Segesta, Selinus, and Syracuse.Kings, etc., ofAgathocles, Hicetas, Hiero II., Philistis, Gelo, Hieronymus.Siculo-PunicSolus, Motya, Panormus.Islands of SicilyLipara, Sardinia.Tauric ChersonesePanticapæum.SarmatiaOlbia, Tyra.Dacia.Mœsia SuperiorViminacium.Mœsia InferiorIstrus, Marcianopolis, Nicopolis, Tomi.ThraceAbdera, Ænus, Byzantium, Maronea, Perinthus, Philippopolis.Thracian ChersoneseCardia, Cœla, Lysimachia.Kings of ThraceSeuthes, etc., Rhœmetalces, etc.Islands of ThraceImbros, Lemnos, Samothrace, Thasos.Pæonia,KingsLycceius, Patraus, Audoleon.Macedon,CitiesAcanthus, Amphipolis, Chalcidice, Lete, Neapolis, Pella, Philippi, Pydna, Thessalonica.TribesBisaltæ, Orrescii.Kings ofAlexander I., Perdiccas II., Archelaus I., Amyntas III., Philip II., Alexander the Great, Philip III., Cassander, Lysimachus, Demetrius I., Antigonus I. and II., Philip V., Perseus.ThessalyÆnianes, Crannon, Larissa, Pharsalus, Pheræ.IllyricumApollonia, Dyrrachium.EpirusCassope, Damastium, Nicopolis.Island ofCorcyra.Kings ofAlexander I., Pyrrhus.AcarnaniaŒiadæ, Thyrreum.Island ofLeucas.ÆtoliaFederal coins.LocrisOpus, Amphissa.PhocisDelphi.BœotiaCoronea, Haliartus, Orchomenus, Tanagra, Thebes, Thespiæ.AtticaAthens, Eleusis.Islands ofEubœa (with its towns, Chalcis, Carystus, Eretria, Histiæa), Salamis.Megara.Ægina.AchæaÆgium, etc., Corinth, Patræ, Phlius, Sicyon.ElisElis.Islands of ElisCephallenia, Zacynthus.MesseniaMessene.LaconiaLacedæmon.ArgolisArgos, Epidaurus, Trœzen.ArcadiaHeræa, Megalopolis, Pheneus, Stymphalus.CreteCnossus, Gortyna, Hierapytna, Phæstus.Ægean IslandsCeos, Naxos, Siphnos, Syros, Tenos, etc.ASIA.Provinces.Cities,Islands,Tribes,Kings,etc.BosporusPhanagoria.ColchisDioscurias.PontusAmisus, Amasia, Trapezus.Kings of Pontus and BosporusMithradates IV., Pharnaces I., Mithradates VI. the Great, etc.PaphlagoniaAmastris, Sinope.BithyniaChalcedon, Cius, Heraclea (Timotheus, Dionysius, Amastris).Kings ofNicomedes I., II., and III., Prusias I., II.MysiaCyzicus, Lampsacus, Pergamus.Kings of PergamusPhiletaerus, the Attalids.TroasAbydos, Alexandria, Troas, Ilium, Scepsis.Island of TroasTenedos.ÆolisCyme, Myrina, Temnos.Islands of ÆolisLesbos (Methymna, Mytilene).IoniaClazomenæ, Colophon, Ephesus, Erythræ, Magnesia, Miletus, Smyrna.Islands of IoniaChios, Samos.CariaCnidus, Halicarnassus, Stratonicæa.Kings of CariaHecatomnus, Mausolus, Hidrieus, Pixodarus.Islands of CariaCalymna, Cos, Rhodes Ialysus, Camirus, Lindus.LyciaCragus, Myra, Patara, Phaselis, etc.PamphyliaAspendus, Perga, Side.PisidiaAntiochia, Sagalassus, Selge.Isauria and LycaoniaIconium, etc.CiliciaCelenderis, Mallus, Soli, Tarsus, etc.CyprusPaphos, Salamis.Kings of CyprusBaalmelek, Azbaal, Evagoras, Nicocles, etc.LydiaSardes, Tralles, etc.PhrygiaApamea, Cibyra, etc.GalatiaAncyra, Pessinus, etc.Kings of GalatiaAmyntas, etc.CappadociaCæsarea, etc.Kings of CappadociaAriarathes, Ariobarzanes, etc.Armenia,Kings ofTigranes, Artavazdes, etc.Syria,Kings ofSeleucus I. (Nicator), Antiochus I. (Soter), Antiochus III. (the Great), etc., etc.CommageneSamosata, Zeugma.CyrrhesticaBerœa, Hierapolis.ChalcideneChalcis.Seleucisand PieriaAntioch.Cœle-SyriaDamascus, Heliopolis, Laodicea ad Libanum.TrachonitiswithIturæaCæsarea-Paneas.DecapolisCanatha, Gadara, Philadelphia, etc.PhœniceByblus, Marathus, Sidon, Tyre.Island ofAradus.GalilæaAce (Ptolemais), Sepphoris (Diocæsarea), Tiberias.SamariaCæsarea, Joppa, Sebaste.JudæaÆlia Capitolina (Jerusalem), Ascalon, etc.Judæa, Kings ofSimon Maccabæus, Alexander Jannæus, Herod the Great, Agrippa, etc., etc.ArabiaBostra, Philippopolis.MesopotamiaCarrhæ, Edessa (Kings—Mannus, Abgarus, etc.)Babylonia,King ofTimarchus.AssyriaNiniva (Claudiopolis).Parthia,Kings ofArsaces I. and his Successors.Persia,Kings ofDarius, the son of Hystaspes, Xerxes, Artaxerxes, etc.BactrianaandIndiaKings ofSophytes, Diodotus, Euthydemus.Demetrius, Eucratides, Heliocles, Euthydemus II., Pantaleon, Agathocles, Antimachus, etc., etc.Characene,Kings ofTiræus, Artabazes, Attambilus, etc.AFRICA.Provinces.Cities,Islands,Tribes,Kings,etc.Egypt,The Ptolemaic Kings of.Ptolemy I. (Soter),—Ptolemy XIII. and, Cleopatra.Alexandria, ImperialM. Antony,—Galerius.The Nomes.CyrenaicaCyrene, Barca.SyrticaLeptis Magna, Oea.ByzaceneHadrumetum, etc.ZeugitanaCarthage, Utica, etc.Numidia,Kings ofJugurtha, etc.MauretaniaBocchus I., Juba II., etc.The above list, although an outline of the barest description, may serve to give some idea of the ground which is covered by a collection of Greek and cognate coins.It will also serve to warn the young collector against buying in a miscellaneous manner.Let him take up some particular province; say, for example, Sicily, in which there were some fifty towns which struck coins. He will soon find that the numismatics of these fifty towns will be a field for study which will amply reward him for the labour he bestows upon it.§ OF THE PRICES OF GREEK COINS.The prices which Greek coins fetch at sales depend upon their rarity, their state of preservation, and their size, not much upon the artistic or the historical interest, or upon the metal of which they are composed. Thus, a gold coin of Alexander the Great, being common, may be obtained almost at metal value, while a rare copper coin of some obscure town in the heart of Phrygia may cost almost as many pounds as the gold coin of Alexander does shillings.
The following extract from the preface to the British Museum “Guide to the Coins of the Ancients”[5]will give some idea of the uses of Greek Numismatics.
“The chief value of Greek coins lies in their being original works of art, not copies as are most of the extant sculptures in the round, and in their recording the successive phases and local varieties of Greek art, in which respect no other class of monuments, sculptures, bronzes, terracottas, fictile vases, or gems, can compete with them. From the seventh century before the Christian era downwards, and from the farthest east to the extreme west of the ancient civilized world, coins are still extant, in many cases as uninjured as when they first left the dies. The devices ortypeswhich they bear, if not by leading artists, certainly faithfully represent the style of the sculpture and even of the painting of the periods to which they belong. Thus in no other branch of Greek monuments can the student so readily and so thoroughly trace the growth, the maturity, and the decay of the plastic art as on coins chronologically arranged.
“For the study of mythology they present the local conceptions of the gods and heroes worshipped in the Greek world, with their attributes and symbols.
“The historian will find a gallery of portraits of sovereigns almost complete, as well as evidences of the history and of the political revolutions of innumerable autonomous states and cities in these all but imperishable records.
“The student of palæography will find on coins examples of various ancient alphabets, such as Lycian and Cyprian, Phœnician, Greek, Latin, Iberian, etc., in various stages of development.
“The metrologist, by comparing the weights of coins of different localities and periods, may gain an insight into the various systems of ancient metrology in its various standards, and obtain a just view of the relative values of the precious metals, and of the great lines of trade in the Greek and Roman world. For practical purposes the medallist and art workman will find in Greek coins the most profitable as well as the safest guide. The artist will not fail to perceive the suggestive value of designs which, on however small a scale, are essentially large in treatment.”
No one whose means are at all limited should attempt to form a complete collection of Greek coins. Even the vast collection in the British Museum is far from perfect, and in many series is still lamentably deficient.
Any one, however, by limiting his ambition to one particular branch, may hope in course of time to form a cabinet the value of which will increase rapidly in proportion as it approaches completion.
This applies not only to Greek coins but to every class. Thus, for instance, there are collectors of English coins who confine their attention to the Anglo-Saxon period; others who will buy no coins later than the reign of Charles I.; and others, again, who only collect the copper money of the last two centuries.
The young collector who would not drift into unprofitabledilettanteismshould therefore select some one series and keep to it, and it is chiefly with the view of assisting him to make his choice of a field to work upon that these pages have been written.
It will be well to form some idea, in the first instance, of the numerous series which are included in the general term of “Greek coins.”
Greek coins may be divided into three principal sections:—
A.Autonomous,i.e.coins issued by cities governed by their own laws.
B.Regal,i.e.coins struck in the names of kings.
C.Imperial,i.e.coins of Greek cities struck in Roman Imperial times, and with the head of the Emperor on the obverse.
And into eight chronological periods as follows:—
I.B.C.700-480.Period of Archaic Art, ending with the Persian wars.
II.B.C.480-430.Period of Transitional Art, between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars.
III.B.C.430-400.Period of Early Fine Art, to the end of the Athenian supremacy.IV.B.C.400-336.Period of Finest Art.Age of the Spartan and Theban supremacies. Philip of Macedon.
V.B.C.336-280.Period of Later Fine Art.Age of Alexander and his immediate successors.
VI.B.C.280-197.Period of the Decline of Art.Age of the Epigoni or descendants of Alexander’s successors.
VII.B.C.197-27.Period of Late Decline of Art.Age of the Attalids, Mithradates, and of the Roman supremacy.
VIII.B.C.27—A.D.268.Period of Latest Decline of Art.The Empire. Augustus—Gallienus.
The coins of the ancients were of various metals, of which the following need only be specified.
1.Gold, distinguished in numismatic works by the abbreviation[AU](for aurum).
2.Electrum, a compound of gold and silver. EL.
3.Silver.AR (argentum).
4.BillonandPotin, alloys of silver and bronze. Bil. and Pot.
5.Bronze.Copper with a percentage of tin. Æ (æs).
The front or face of a coin is called theobverse. Obv.
The back is called thereverse. Rev.
The principal device or object represented on a coin is called thetype.
The area or space between the type and the circumference is called thefield.
The lower portion of the area of a coin beneath the type and separated from the rest of the field by a horizontal line is called theexergue. Ex.
Small objects represented either in the field or the exergue as adjuncts to the main type are calledsymbols.
Portions of a coin which are sunk below the level of the surface are said to beincuse.
The types of Greek coins were from the earliest times down to the age of the successors of Alexander almost exclusively religious. The reason for this is not far to seek. In an age of simple faith the head of a god upon the coin was the best of allguarantees for purity of metal and good weight. The gods were, so to speak, invoked by the State to vouch for the good quality of its currency, in the same way as State decrees often began with the formula “In the name of the gods.” There is, moreover, some reason to think that the earliest coins were struck within the sacred precincts of the Temple treasuries, as being holy places, secure from plunder and inviolable.
In the most ancient period the principal or obverse type is generally some animal or object sacred to or emblematical of that god whose worship was prevalent in the city in which the coin was issued. Subsequently the head of the deity himself was usually placed upon the obverse of the coin, while the reverse side was occupied by the object emblematical of his worship. Frequently, too, the head of one principal deity appears upon the obverse, and, either the entire figure or the emblem of some other, generally local divinity, on the reverse.
The chief exceptions to the above rule are the so-calledagonistic types, or types referring to the games such as the victorious quadriga on the money of various Sicilian cities. These types are commemorative in a general way of victories in the Olympian or other local games, but it is hardly ever possible to refer them to any particular victory.
Victories in war and political revolutions are never directly referred to on Greek coins, although the unintentional records of such events may often be traced in a sudden change of coin-types. Thus, for instance, at Syracuse when the Corinthians succeeded in liberating that city from the tyranny of the Dionysian dynasty, the coinage of Syracuse is for a time assimilated to that of Corinth; a still clearer indication of restored freedom at the same time (B.C.345) being seen in the first introduction of the head of Zeus “the Liberator” upon the coins of Syracuse.
All through the history of free and independent Greece, the original idea of the religious character of the coinage may be traced. The coinage was everywhere placed under the auspices of the gods, and gods, heroes, and their emblems, were alone considered worthy to be represented upon it. No tyrant, however despotic, not even the great Dionysius of Syracuse, would have dreamed of placing his own head upon the coinage of the State. Even Philip of Macedon, when he had united in his single hand the whole of Northern Greece, and when he reorganized the coinage of his empire on a new model, placed on his gold money the head of Apollo and on his silver that of Zeus.
It was reserved for the successors of Alexander the Great, when the political centre of the Greek world was no longer to befound in Greece itself, but in the various capitals of the powerful semi-oriental monarchies which arose out of the ruins of the Persian empire—Alexandria, Antioch, etc.—it was reserved for these self-constituted kings and their descendants to substitute their own heads for those of the gods.
Such an innovation as this, such a complete upsetting of the ancient deeply rooted idea of the connection between the gods and the coinage could not be introduced all at once. It had to be effected by degrees. Alexander the Great even in his lifetime gave himself out as the son of Zeus Ammon, and after his death the idea of his divinity gained ground year by year. The first step towards the new fashion of placing the king’s head upon the coinage was made by Lysimachus of Thrace, who introduced on his money the portrait of the deified Alexander in the character of the son of Ammon with the ram’s horn over the ear.
Ptolemy Soter, king of Egypt, the first of the dynasty which ruled Egypt for two centuries and a half after the death of Alexander, was the first monarch who placed his own head upon his coins. By slow degrees his example was followed, first in Asia and finally in Europe, where Philip V. of Macedon,B.C.220, was the first king whose portrait in the character of a mortal, and not disguised as a demi-god, appears upon the coinage.
The influence of the old religious beliefs nevertheless maintained so firm a hold on men’s minds that the reverses of Greek coins continued to bear sacred types throughout the Roman Imperial period; and even on the money of the Byzantine emperors when Christianity had become the State religion, the figures of Christ and the Virgin, or the sign of the Cross, still bear witness that the same religious sanction in a new form continued to be invoked for the coin of the realm.
Zeus(Jupiter). The head of this god is almost always bearded and crowned with laurel or olive(Fig. 1). The youthful head called Zeus Hellenios, on certain coins of Syracuse, is however beardless, and but for the inscription which in this case accompanies it, would be indistinguishable from a head of Apollo.
Zeus Ammon(Fig. 2), frequent on coins of Cyrene, is distinguished by the ram’s horn behind the ear. This god is sometimes beardless.
The head of the Zeus of Dodona is represented with a wreath of oak-leaves(Fig. 3).
Fig. 1.Zeus (Jupiter).Fig. 2.Zeus (Ammon).Fig. 3. Zeus(Jupiter).
Fig. 1.Zeus (Jupiter).Fig. 2.Zeus (Ammon).Fig. 3. Zeus(Jupiter).
The entire figure of Zeus appears in various attitudes, of which the following are of most frequent occurrence:—
Zeus enthroned(Fig. 4), holding in one hand a sceptre, and in the other an eagle or a victory.
Zeus standing, with eagle or victory.
Zeus advancing, with ægis on his arm and hurling his thunderbolt.
Zeus Labrandeuson coins of Caria stands full draped, with the double axe (Labrys) over his shoulder and a sceptre in his hand.
Greek coinFig. 4.Zeus (Jupiter).Fig. 5.Apollo.
Fig. 4.Zeus (Jupiter).Fig. 5.Apollo.
Hades(Pluto), the king of the under world, resembles Zeus in type, but is usually accompanied by Cerberus.
Serapis.The great Egyptian divinity of the Ptolemaic age is also very like Zeus, but his head is always surmounted by a lofty modius (a measure for corn), which is often richly ornamented.
Apollo.The head of this god is more commonly met with on coins than that of any other divinity. He is represented in full youthful beauty, generally with flowing hair and almost always crowned with laurel (Figs.5,6, and 7).
His full-length figure is variously delineated, usually naked, with bow or laurel branch in his hand, either standing or seated, often on the Delphian omphalos(Fig. 8), or else beside his sacred tripod. When he wears a long robe reaching to the feet, and carries a lyre, he is called Apollo Musegetes, the leader of the Muses.
Greek coinsFig. 6.Apollo.Fig. 7.Apollo.Fig. 8.Apollo.
Fig. 6.Apollo.Fig. 7.Apollo.Fig. 8.Apollo.
Helios(Sol). The Sun god is known by the rays which encircle his head(Fig. 9). On coins of the Imperial period he is often seen driving the chariot of the Sun.
Poseidon(Neptune). The head of this god much resembles that of Zeus, but may usually be distinguished from it by the absence of the laurel wreath, and by the heavy way in which the dank locks of his hair fall about his neck(Figs. 10 and 11). Poseidon is sometimes seated on rocks holding a trident and a dolphin or an aplustre(Fig. 12).
Greek CoinsFig. 9.Fig. 10.Fig. 11.Helios (Sol).Poseidon (Neptune).
Fig. 9.Fig. 10.Fig. 11.Helios (Sol).Poseidon (Neptune).
Sometimes he stands resting on his trident, and sometimes he wields it on high as if about to strike. Occasionally heis seen on horseback armed with his trident. He is calledPoseidon Hippios(Fig. 13).
Greek CoinsFig. 12.Fig. 13.Fig. 14.Poseidon (Neptune).Dionysos.
Fig. 12.Fig. 13.Fig. 14.Poseidon (Neptune).Dionysos.
Dionysos(Bacchus). The head of Dionysos is either youthful or bearded, and is encircled by a wreath of ivy (Figs.14,15, and 16). His full-length figure is usually naked, or with merely a fawn skin hanging from his shoulder. He holds a wine cup (kantharos), or a bunch of grapes or the Bacchic staff (thyrsus), surmounted by a pine cone.
Sometimes he has bull’s horns growing from his forehead, and on coins of Neapolis he appears as a bull with a human head (Dionysos Hebon).
Greek coinsFig. 15.Fig. 16.Fig. 17.Dionysos (Bacchus).Hermes (Mercury).
Fig. 15.Fig. 16.Fig. 17.Dionysos (Bacchus).Hermes (Mercury).
Greek CoinFig. 18.Hermes (Mercury).
Fig. 18.Hermes (Mercury).
Hermes(Mercury). The head of Hermes is youthful, and wears a hat called apetasus(Figs.17and18), close fitting, sometimes with a broad flapping brim and adorned with two wings.
When his entire figure is represented, he is usually clad in a short cloak (chlamys), and has winged sandals (pedilia) on his feet.
Greek coinFig. 19.Hephæstus (Vulcan).
Fig. 19.Hephæstus (Vulcan).
As the messenger of the gods and the conductor of the souls of the dead, he carries the winged staff (caduceus), and sometimes, as god of trade, a purse.Hephæstus(Vulcan). This god is sometimes young and sometimes bearded. He wears a conical hat (pilos),(Fig. 19). On coins of Lipara he is generally seated naked on a four-legged stool, holding a hammer in one hand and a cup (kantharos) in the other(Fig. 20). The tongs and the anvil are also emblems of the worship of Hephæstus.
Greek coinsFig. 20.Fig. 21.Fig. 22.Hephæstus (Vulcan).Herakles (Hercules).
Fig. 20.Fig. 21.Fig. 22.Hephæstus (Vulcan).Herakles (Hercules).
Greek coinsFig. 23.Fig. 24.Fig. 25.Herakles (Hercules).Pan.
Fig. 23.Fig. 24.Fig. 25.Herakles (Hercules).Pan.
Herakles(Hercules). The head of Herakles, youthful(Fig. 21), or bearded(Fig. 22), is usually covered with the skin of the Nemean Lion. Occasionally, however, he is simply laureate, and sometimes the club at his shoulder is added as a distinctive symbol. On reverses of coins, Herakles is represented performing his various labours, most frequently contending with the Nemean Lion(Fig. 23). Sometimes also he is seen at rest, either standing and leaning upon his club, or seated(Fig. 24). The infant Herakles strangling two serpents is a less frequent type.
Pan.The head of Pan (Figs.25,26, and 27) has pointed ears, and is either youthful or bearded. Sometimes also he has goat’s horns. At his shoulder on many coins appears the shepherd’s crook (pedum).
Ares(Mars). The head of Ares is of rare occurrence on coins. He is usually bearded and helmeted, but sometimes young and crowned with laurel like Apollo(Fig. 28), and when thus represented, as on the Mamertine coin here engraved, his name was added in order that there might be no mistake as to whose head was intended.
Greek coinsFig. 26.Fig. 27.Fig. 28.Pan.Ares (Mars).
Fig. 26.Fig. 27.Fig. 28.Pan.Ares (Mars).
Asklepios(Æsculapius). Representations of the god of healing belong to a comparatively late period of art. He is bearded, amply draped, and leans upon a staff, round which a serpent twines(Fig. 29).
Greek coinsFig. 29.Fig. 30.Fig. 31.Asklepios (Æsculapius).River Gods.
Fig. 29.Fig. 30.Fig. 31.Asklepios (Æsculapius).River Gods.
He is sometimes accompanied by his daughterHygieia, the goddess of health, or by a small figure enveloped in acloak and hood, who is calledTelesphorus, and is supposed to be the genius of convalescence.
River Gods.Rivers are represented during the earlier and finer periods of art as rushing bulls or as bulls with human heads(Fig. 30), or again as young male figures with bull’s horns over the forehead(Fig. 31).
In the later period the conventional River god is a bearded reclining figure, generally half-draped, resting upon an overturned vase from which a stream of water is flowing(Fig. 32). Less frequently the god is shown as actually swimming in the water.
The Dioscuri(Castor and Pollux) wear conical hats, each surmounted by a star(Fig. 33a). Sometimes they are seen standing side by side with palm branches in their hands, but they are more often represented on horseback(Fig. 33b).
Greek coinsFig. 32.A River God.(a)Fig. 33.(b)The Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux).
Fig. 32.A River God.(a)Fig. 33.(b)The Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux).
Perseus.The head of the hero Perseus(Fig. 34), the slayer of the Gorgon Medusa(Fig. 35), wears a winged helmet, while at his shoulders is sometimes seen the short sword or knife with a hook at the back of the blade (harba).
Greek coinsFig. 34.Perseus.Fig. 35.Gorgon-Head.Fig. 36.Hera (Juno).
Fig. 34.Perseus.Fig. 35.Gorgon-Head.Fig. 36.Hera (Juno).
Hera(Juno). The head of Hera on coins usually wears a lofty circular crown (stephanos) adorned with floral or other patterns (Figs.36,37). She also wears sometimes a crescent-shaped crown and a veil, and has often a sceptre at her shoulder.
Pallas Athene(Minerva). The head of this goddess is helmeted. Sometimes the helmet is of the Corinthian pattern(Fig. 38)and sometimes of the Athenian(Fig. 39), often richly ornamented.
Greek coinFig. 37.Fig. 38.Fig. 39.Hera (Juno).Pallas Athene.
Fig. 37.Fig. 38.Fig. 39.Hera (Juno).Pallas Athene.
She is often seen in a fighting attitude, asPallas Promachos(Fig. 40), wielding a spear and holding before her a shield or ægis. She is also very frequently seated with a victory in her hand and her shield beside her. The shield of Pallas is usually distinguished by the Gorgon’s head inthe centre. The attributes of this goddess are the owl and the olive.
Greek coinFig. 40.Pallas Athene.Fig. 41.Demeter.Fig. 42.Persephone (Proserpine).
Fig. 40.Pallas Athene.Fig. 41.Demeter.Fig. 42.Persephone (Proserpine).
Demeter (Ceres) and Persephone (Proserpine).These two goddesses are known by the corn wreath which they both wear. Demeter, the mother(Fig. 41), is generally veiled; the daughter, Persephone, seldom (Figs.42,43). The beautiful head on the well-known Syracusan medallions (seeFrontispiece), crowned with corn leaves, is that of Persephone. This goddess often has a poppy either in her hair or at her breast. The torch is a frequent emblem, especially of Demeter.
Greek coinFig. 43.Fig. 44.Fig. 45.Persephone (Proserpine).Artemis (Diana).
Fig. 43.Fig. 44.Fig. 45.Persephone (Proserpine).Artemis (Diana).
Artemis(Diana). As the goddess of Nature in her wilder aspects, Artemis carries a bow, and at her shoulder a quiver of arrows (Figs.44, 45). She is often accompanied by a dog or a stag. As the Moon goddess,Selene, the crescent is her symbol. On late coins of Ephesus she appears under a totally different aspect, viz., as the embodiment of the nourishing, life-giving forces of nature, symbolised by her many breasts.
Greek coin(a)Fig. 46.(b)Aphrodite (Venus).
(a)Fig. 46.(b)Aphrodite (Venus).
Aphrodite(Venus). On the coins of Eryx, in Sicily, the goddess of love is seated fully draped, with Eros (Cupid) as a youth (not a child, as in Roman art) standing before her, and with a dove in her hand. On Imperial coins of Cnidu, the famous naked Aphrodite by Praxiteles was represented. As the goddess of heaven (Aphrodite Urania), she sits upon the globe(Fig. 46a), her head surmounted by the morning star, and holding in her hand a sceptre. On the reverse of the same coin(Fig. 46b)are seen the sun, the moon, and the five planets.
Cybele.“The mother of the gods” wears a turreted crown. Sometimes she rides upon a lion, at other times she is seated on a throne between two lions. The rabbit is also symbolical of her worship, as an earth goddess.
Isis.This Egyptian goddess is recognised by her peculiar head-dress, consisting of a globe or disc flanked by two cow’s horns and surmounted by two ostrich feathers. In her hand she often holds the sistrum (a musical instrument). As Isis Pharia (a sea goddess) she holds a sail.
Greek coinFig. 47.Fig. 48.Nike (Victory).
Fig. 47.Fig. 48.Nike (Victory).
Nike(Victory). (Figs.47, 48). This divinity is almost always winged, and often flying (seeFrontispiece). She usually carries a wreath; and on coins of Alexander the Great a sort of mast with a cross-yard (the stand for a trophy of arms). Sometimes she is nailing armour to a trophy(Fig. 48).
In addition to the principal type, whether of the obverse or of the reverse, there is generally to be seen on the coins of Greek states a subordinate adjunct device, which occupies some vacant space in the field of the coin. These additions to the main type are of two kinds:—
(1) Symbols connected more or less directly with the main type: such as the sacred olive branch on the coins of Athens, and the club and bow onFig. 24.(2) Symbols having no connection whatever with the principal type; such as the small animal onFig. 7.
The symbols of the 1st class are naturally limited in number and more or less constant accompaniments of the main type, to which they were intended to give greater precision and definiteness of meaning. Those of the 2nd class, on the other hand, might be varied very frequently on coins of one and the same series. There can be no doubt that such symbols were the distinctive badges or signets of one of the magistrates or moneyers under whose authority the coinage was issued. The frequency with which these personal symbols were varied corresponds with the duration of the term of office of the magistrate in question, whether annual or other.
On the regal coinages from the time of Philip of Macedon onwards, in cases where a uniform coinage was issued at many mints, an adjunct symbol was very generally placed in the field of the coin as a mint-mark designating the place of issue (e.g.the Trident onFig. 4). It is frequently impossible to distinguish such local mint-marks from the personal signets of the officer entrusted by the king with the supervision of the currency.
The inscriptions on Greek coins may be divided into the following principal classes:—
The above are written sometimes at full length and sometimes in an abbreviated form, or in the form of a more or less complicated monogram.
Those of class i., when written in full, are usually in the genitive plural,e.g.ΣΤΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ(Frontispiece).
Those of class ii. are also in the genitive,e.g., ΒΑΣΙΛΑΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ(Fig. 8).
Those of class iii. are either in the nominative (as ΠΟΛΥΚΡΑΤΗΣ,Fig. 45) or the genitive; in the latter case frequently preceded by ΕΗΙ(Fig. 12), and often also accompanied by the title of the office as ἑφι Λυσιστῥατου ἁρχοντος, ἑφι στραθηγου Διονυσἱου.
Among the magistrates most frequently mentioned on Greek Imperial coins are the following:—The Archon, the Strategos (Prætor), the Grammateus (Secretary), the Prytanis, the Tamias (Treasurer), the Archiereus and Hiereus (High Priest and Priest), the Asiarch, the Hypatos (Consul), and the Anthypatos (Proconsul), etc., etc.
Those of class iv. are in the genitive, except when accompanied by the verb (e.g.ΘΕΟΔΟΤΟΣ ΕΠΟΕΙ, for ἑποἱει). This class of inscriptions is usually in very minute characters.
Those of class v. are in the nominative, as ΖΕΥΣ ΕΛΕΥΘΕΡΙΟΣ(Fig. 1), or genitive, as ΑΡΕΟΣ(Fig. 28).
The names of kings, even when unaccompanied by the title ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ, hold so conspicuous a position on the reverse of the coins, that it is easy to distinguish them from the names of less important monetary magistrates.
The names of eponymous magistrates, such as archons, etc., also occupy a very prominent place on the money of certain cities; such as Ephesus, for example.
The names of less important functionaries are written in an abbreviated form or even in monogram(Fig. 40), in which latter case it is almost always impossible to say what name was intended.
On coins of the later and especially of the Imperial period, the inscriptions are much more lengthy than on those of an earlier date.
Dates are not found on Greek coins before the age of Alexander the Great, and even after his time they are of rare occurrence, except on certain Asiatic series and on the money of Egypt. They are usually placed either in the field or the exergue of the coin.
UnitsA.B.Γ.Δ.E.ς.Ζ.H.Θ.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.Tens.I.Κ.Λ.Μ.Ν.Ξ.Ο.Π.κοππα10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.90.Hundreds.P.Σ.Τ.Υ.Φ.Χ.Ψ.Ω.σαμπι100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.900.
They are sometimes preceded by the word ΕΤΟΥΣ, thus, ΕΤΟΥΣ ΡΚΔ =Anno124. On the coinage of Egypt, both under the Ptolemies and under the Roman Emperors, the character [L] is used instead of the word ΕΤΟΥΣ, thus, ΛΓ =Anno33. This character was probably an ancient Egyptian symbol meaningyear, adopted into the Greek system of numeration for the sake of brevity.The following are a few of the many epochs orærasaccording to which coins are dated:—
The unit of account in Greece was thedrachm. The weight of the drachm was not everywhere identical. It ranged, as a rule, between about 55 and 95 grs. troy. For purposes of calculation it may be taken in a general way as the ancient equivalent of our modern shilling or franc.
Of the various standards of weight which prevailed in different parts of the Greek world, theAttic standardwas the most widely diffused. The weights of the various denominations, according to this standard, are as follows:—
TheTalent = 405,000 grs. troy } not coined{= 6,000 drachms."Mina (1/60 of the Talent }= 6,750 grs. troy) }{{= 100 drachms."Tetradrachm= 270grs. troy = 4 drachms."Didrachm= 135" "= 2""Drachm= 67·5" "= 1""Tetrobol= 45" "= 4 obols."Triobol= 33·75" "= ½ drachm or 3 obols."Diobol= 22·5" "= 2 obols."Trihemiobol= 16·8" "= 1½ obols."Obol= 11·25" "= 1 obol."Hemiobol= 5·62" "= ½ ""Tetartemorion= 2·81" "= ¼ "
The other standards are theÆginetic(drachm 97 grs.); thePhœnician(drachm 56 grs.); theRhodian(drachm 60 grs.); thePersian(drachm 88 grs.). The other denominations of the above standards may be easily got at by multiplying or dividing the drachms as in the Attic standard.
Larger denominations than the tetradrachm are rare, but octadrachms, decadrachms, etc., etc., occur at some towns. The unit in copper was called thechalkous; but its weight does not appear to have been definitely fixed like that of the silver drachm.
The Attic gold money was regulated according to the same standard of weight as the silver. The gold unit of account was, however, not the drachm, but thestater, as it was called, equivalentin weight to the didrachm, and in value to 20 drachms of silver.
As a rule, the denomination of a Greek coin can only be determined by weighing it. Marks of value occur, however, on the copper of Italy, Sicily, etc.; but these coins follow a system foreign to Greece proper (see below).
Greek coins are classified in all great collections in geographical order, as follows:—The towns under each province should be arranged alphabetically, for convenience of reference. We have only space here to mention a few of the principal cities:—
EUROPE.Provinces.Cities,Islands,Tribes,Kings,etc.Spain.LusitaniaEmerita.BæticaCartiea, Gades.TarraconensisEmporiæ, Osca, Rhoda, etc.Gaul.AquitaniaArverni.NarbonensisMassilia, Nemausus.LugdunensisLugdunum.BelgicaBritain.Atrebates, etc., Camulodunum.Italia.EtruriaPopulonia.UmbriaTuder.PicenumHatria.VestiniLatiumRoma.SamniumBeneventum.FrentaniLarinum.CampaniaCapua, Cumæ, Neapolis, Nola.ApuliaArpi, Cælia, Teate, Venusia.CalabriaBrundusium, Tarentum.LucaniaMetapotum, Posidonia, Thurium, Velia.BruttiiCroton, Locri, Rhegium, Terina.Sicily.Agrigentum, Camarina, Gela, Himera, Leontini, Messana, Naxos, Segesta, Selinus, and Syracuse.Kings, etc., ofAgathocles, Hicetas, Hiero II., Philistis, Gelo, Hieronymus.Siculo-PunicSolus, Motya, Panormus.Islands of SicilyLipara, Sardinia.Tauric ChersonesePanticapæum.SarmatiaOlbia, Tyra.Dacia.Mœsia SuperiorViminacium.Mœsia InferiorIstrus, Marcianopolis, Nicopolis, Tomi.ThraceAbdera, Ænus, Byzantium, Maronea, Perinthus, Philippopolis.Thracian ChersoneseCardia, Cœla, Lysimachia.Kings of ThraceSeuthes, etc., Rhœmetalces, etc.Islands of ThraceImbros, Lemnos, Samothrace, Thasos.Pæonia,KingsLycceius, Patraus, Audoleon.Macedon,CitiesAcanthus, Amphipolis, Chalcidice, Lete, Neapolis, Pella, Philippi, Pydna, Thessalonica.TribesBisaltæ, Orrescii.Kings ofAlexander I., Perdiccas II., Archelaus I., Amyntas III., Philip II., Alexander the Great, Philip III., Cassander, Lysimachus, Demetrius I., Antigonus I. and II., Philip V., Perseus.ThessalyÆnianes, Crannon, Larissa, Pharsalus, Pheræ.IllyricumApollonia, Dyrrachium.EpirusCassope, Damastium, Nicopolis.Island ofCorcyra.Kings ofAlexander I., Pyrrhus.AcarnaniaŒiadæ, Thyrreum.Island ofLeucas.ÆtoliaFederal coins.LocrisOpus, Amphissa.PhocisDelphi.BœotiaCoronea, Haliartus, Orchomenus, Tanagra, Thebes, Thespiæ.AtticaAthens, Eleusis.Islands ofEubœa (with its towns, Chalcis, Carystus, Eretria, Histiæa), Salamis.Megara.Ægina.AchæaÆgium, etc., Corinth, Patræ, Phlius, Sicyon.ElisElis.Islands of ElisCephallenia, Zacynthus.MesseniaMessene.LaconiaLacedæmon.ArgolisArgos, Epidaurus, Trœzen.ArcadiaHeræa, Megalopolis, Pheneus, Stymphalus.CreteCnossus, Gortyna, Hierapytna, Phæstus.Ægean IslandsCeos, Naxos, Siphnos, Syros, Tenos, etc.ASIA.Provinces.Cities,Islands,Tribes,Kings,etc.BosporusPhanagoria.ColchisDioscurias.PontusAmisus, Amasia, Trapezus.Kings of Pontus and BosporusMithradates IV., Pharnaces I., Mithradates VI. the Great, etc.PaphlagoniaAmastris, Sinope.BithyniaChalcedon, Cius, Heraclea (Timotheus, Dionysius, Amastris).Kings ofNicomedes I., II., and III., Prusias I., II.MysiaCyzicus, Lampsacus, Pergamus.Kings of PergamusPhiletaerus, the Attalids.TroasAbydos, Alexandria, Troas, Ilium, Scepsis.Island of TroasTenedos.ÆolisCyme, Myrina, Temnos.Islands of ÆolisLesbos (Methymna, Mytilene).IoniaClazomenæ, Colophon, Ephesus, Erythræ, Magnesia, Miletus, Smyrna.Islands of IoniaChios, Samos.CariaCnidus, Halicarnassus, Stratonicæa.Kings of CariaHecatomnus, Mausolus, Hidrieus, Pixodarus.Islands of CariaCalymna, Cos, Rhodes Ialysus, Camirus, Lindus.LyciaCragus, Myra, Patara, Phaselis, etc.PamphyliaAspendus, Perga, Side.PisidiaAntiochia, Sagalassus, Selge.Isauria and LycaoniaIconium, etc.CiliciaCelenderis, Mallus, Soli, Tarsus, etc.CyprusPaphos, Salamis.Kings of CyprusBaalmelek, Azbaal, Evagoras, Nicocles, etc.LydiaSardes, Tralles, etc.PhrygiaApamea, Cibyra, etc.GalatiaAncyra, Pessinus, etc.Kings of GalatiaAmyntas, etc.CappadociaCæsarea, etc.Kings of CappadociaAriarathes, Ariobarzanes, etc.Armenia,Kings ofTigranes, Artavazdes, etc.Syria,Kings ofSeleucus I. (Nicator), Antiochus I. (Soter), Antiochus III. (the Great), etc., etc.CommageneSamosata, Zeugma.CyrrhesticaBerœa, Hierapolis.ChalcideneChalcis.Seleucisand PieriaAntioch.Cœle-SyriaDamascus, Heliopolis, Laodicea ad Libanum.TrachonitiswithIturæaCæsarea-Paneas.DecapolisCanatha, Gadara, Philadelphia, etc.PhœniceByblus, Marathus, Sidon, Tyre.Island ofAradus.GalilæaAce (Ptolemais), Sepphoris (Diocæsarea), Tiberias.SamariaCæsarea, Joppa, Sebaste.JudæaÆlia Capitolina (Jerusalem), Ascalon, etc.Judæa, Kings ofSimon Maccabæus, Alexander Jannæus, Herod the Great, Agrippa, etc., etc.ArabiaBostra, Philippopolis.MesopotamiaCarrhæ, Edessa (Kings—Mannus, Abgarus, etc.)Babylonia,King ofTimarchus.AssyriaNiniva (Claudiopolis).Parthia,Kings ofArsaces I. and his Successors.Persia,Kings ofDarius, the son of Hystaspes, Xerxes, Artaxerxes, etc.BactrianaandIndiaKings ofSophytes, Diodotus, Euthydemus.Demetrius, Eucratides, Heliocles, Euthydemus II., Pantaleon, Agathocles, Antimachus, etc., etc.Characene,Kings ofTiræus, Artabazes, Attambilus, etc.AFRICA.Provinces.Cities,Islands,Tribes,Kings,etc.Egypt,The Ptolemaic Kings of.Ptolemy I. (Soter),—Ptolemy XIII. and, Cleopatra.Alexandria, ImperialM. Antony,—Galerius.The Nomes.CyrenaicaCyrene, Barca.SyrticaLeptis Magna, Oea.ByzaceneHadrumetum, etc.ZeugitanaCarthage, Utica, etc.Numidia,Kings ofJugurtha, etc.MauretaniaBocchus I., Juba II., etc.
The above list, although an outline of the barest description, may serve to give some idea of the ground which is covered by a collection of Greek and cognate coins.
It will also serve to warn the young collector against buying in a miscellaneous manner.
Let him take up some particular province; say, for example, Sicily, in which there were some fifty towns which struck coins. He will soon find that the numismatics of these fifty towns will be a field for study which will amply reward him for the labour he bestows upon it.
The prices which Greek coins fetch at sales depend upon their rarity, their state of preservation, and their size, not much upon the artistic or the historical interest, or upon the metal of which they are composed. Thus, a gold coin of Alexander the Great, being common, may be obtained almost at metal value, while a rare copper coin of some obscure town in the heart of Phrygia may cost almost as many pounds as the gold coin of Alexander does shillings.