LESSON LXVIII.

THE SENTENCE.

A complete thought expressed in words is called a sentence. In a single sentence every part should be subordinate to one principal assertion.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

Sentences are classified into Periodic, Loose, Balanced, Short and Long.

A sentence that is so constructed that the complete meaning is delayed till the close, is called aperiodic sentence; as,From many lands, comes the cry for help. Even on the driest day this vapor is never absent from our atmosphere.

A sentence that is so constructed that it may be stopped before the end, sometimes in several places, and still be complete in sense, is called aloose sentence; as,Those scenes, rude and humble as they are, have kindled beautiful emotions in his soul,|noble thoughts, and definite resolves;|and he speaks forth what is in him, not from any outward call of vanity or interest, but because his heart is too full to be silent.—Carlyle.

A sentence that is so constructed that the different elements are made to answer to each other and set each other off by similarity of form, is called abalanced sentence; as,In peace, children bury their parents; in war, parents bury their children. He defended him when living, amidst the clamors of his enemies; and praised him when dead, amidst the silence of his friends.

A short sentence is more easily understood and more animated than a long sentence.

A long sentence gives more scope than a short one, for the addition of particulars, and for the expansion of the main thought.

Note.—The loose sentence is adapted to ordinary composition, being simple and clear. The periodic sentence is suitable to compositions of a forcible nature; the balanced sentence to compositions in which characters or subjects are compared. Variety is secured by the due alternation of long and short sentences.

Emphatic places of the Sentence.The natural emphatic places of a sentence are the beginning and the end. If we wish to give special distinction to some particular word or phrase, it must occupy one of these positions. Since the beginning and the end of a sentence are the natural places for the subject and predicate respectively, the subject is made emphatic by placing it at the end, and the predicate by placing it at the beginning of the sentence; as,Flashedall their sabres bare.

THE PARAGRAPH.

A connected series of sentences dealing with a single topic is calleda paragraph. It is a whole composition and is complete in itself.

Note.—A paragraph begins on a new line and the opening word is withdrawn towards the middle of the line.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PARAGRAPH.

1. Every paragraph should possessunity, that is, it should have a definite subject or topic to which all parts of the structure are related, forming elements, in its development.

2. The sentences that compose a paragraph should follow one another in natural order, showing a logical progress of thought. This principle is calledcontinuity.

3. The connection of each sentence in the paragraph, with the preceding one, should be made clear, and also the connection between the paragraphs themselves.

This connection or explicit reference is secured in the following ways:—

EXERCISE.

He kept his course westward taking advantage of the trade wind which blows steadily from west to east between the tropics. (Topic sentence).With this favorable breeze(Explicit reference) they were wafted gently but speedily over a tranquil sea, so that for many days they did not shift a sail.

Nevertheless the situation of Columbus was daily becoming critical; his crews began to grow extremely uneasy at the length of the voyage; they were already beyond the reach of succor, and beheld themselves still borne onward over the boundless wastes of what appeared to them a mere watery desert. They were full of vague terrors, and harassed their commander by incessant murmurs, or fed each other’s discontents, gathering together in little knots, and stirring up a spirit of mutiny. There was great danger of their breaking forth into open rebellion, and compelling Columbus to turn back. In their secret conferences they exclaimed against him as a mad desperado, and even talked of throwing him into the sea.—Irving.

1. What is the topic sentence of the second paragraph?

2. How does the author make connection or attain explicit reference between the two paragraphs?

3. Show that the sentences of the second paragraph follow one another in a natural and logical order.

4. In the second paragraph, point out the means by which the author relates each sentence to the preceding one.

5. Is there any statement in this paragraph that does not bear on the topic?

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

The two great divisions of composition are prose and poetry. The grand distinction in form is metre or measure. The chiefobject of prose is to instruct, to convince, or to persuade; while the chief object of poetry is to give pleasure or inspiration. Both kinds of composition employfigurative or representative language to please, to adorn, to illustrate, or to explain.

1. An expressed comparison is called asimile; as,He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax.

2. An implied comparison is called ametaphor; as,She is an angel. This news was a dagger to his heart.

3. When the name of one object is put for some other, so related that one naturally suggests the other, the figure is calledmetonymy; as,The pen shall supersede the sword. No man reveres the crown more than I do.

4. When life and mind are attributed to inanimate objects, the figure is calledpersonification; as,The mountains looked on Marathon, and Marathon looked on the sea. The smiling spring comes round once more.

5. When two unlike things are contrasted, that each may appear more striking, the figure is calledantithesis; as,Go or stay, whichever you will. Success wins attention; failure wins neglect.

6. When the mind is aroused by a contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really intended, the figure is called anepigram; as,The favorite has no friend. Genius is an immense capacity for taking trouble.

7. When something absent is addressed as if present, the figure is calledapostrophe; as,O, death, where is thy sting?

8. When the language expresses the contrary of what is meant, the figure is calledirony; as,No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you.—Job.

EXERCISE.

Name the figures in the following passages, and state what is gained by the use of each:—

STYLE.

The skilful adaptation of expression to thought is calledstyle. The essential qualities of style in composition areclearness,force, andbeauty.

Some of the means by whichclearnessis secured are:—(1) by discrimination in the choice of words; (2) by explicit reference; (3) by contrast; (4) by the orderly arrangement of phrases and sentences.

The quality offorceis gained by means of—(1) brevity; (2) suggestive words; (3) illustrations and comparisons; (4) the use of interrogation and exclamation; (5) the employment of contrast; (6) the repetition of words; (7) the order of words; (8) the use of the particular instead of the general term.

The quality ofbeautyis secured by means of—(1) good taste in the use of words; (2) alliteration; (3) happy phrases; (4) balanced structure; (5) rhythm. The composition must possess elevation of thought withal.

Other qualities of style sometimes present in good writing are:—simplicity,pathos,picturesqueness,humour,satire, andharmony.

MODEL.

TRAILING ARBUTUS.

. . . The ground was white in spots with half-melted snow. A few whirls of snow had come down in the night, and the air was too cold to change to rain. Some green leaves, in sheltered nooks, had accepted the advances of the sun and were preparing for the summer. But that which I came to search after was trailing arbutus, one of the most exquisite of all Nature’s fondlings.

I did not seek in vain. The hills were covered with it. Its gay whorls of buds peeped forth from ruffles of snow in the most charming beauty. Many blossoms, too, quite expanded, did I find; some pure white, and a few more deliciously suffused with pink. For nearly an hour I wandered up and down, in pleasant fancies, searching, plucking, and arranging these most beautiful of all early blossoms.

Who would suspect by the leaf what rare delicacy was to be in the blossom? Like some people of plain and hard exterior, but of sweet disposition, it was all the more pleasant from the surprise of contrast. All winter long the little thing must have slumbered with dreams, at least, of spring. It has waited forno pioneer or guide, but started of its own self and led the way for all the flowers on the hillside.

Its little viny stem creeps close to the ground, humble, faithful, and showing how the purest white may lay its cheek in the very dirt without soil or taint.

The odor of the arbutus is exquisite, and as delicate as the plant is modest. Some flowers seem determined to make an impression on you. They stare at you. They dazzle your eyes. If you smell them, they overfill your sense with their fragrance. They leave nothing for your gentleness and generosity, but do everything themselves.

But this sweet nestler of the spring hills is so secluded, half-covered with russet leaves, that you would not suspect its graces, did you not stoop to uncover the vine, to lift it up, and then you espy its secluded beauty.

If you smell it, at first it seems hardly to have an odor. But there steals out of it at length the finest, rarest scent, that rather cites desire than satisfies your sense. It is coy, without designing to be so, and its reserve plays upon the imagination far more than could a more positive way.

Without doubt there are intrinsic beauties in plants and flowers, and yet very much of pleasure depends upon their relations to the seasons, to the places where they grow, and to our own moods. No midsummer flower can produce the thrill that the earliest blossoms bring, which tell us that winter is gone, that growing days have come!—Henry Ward Beecher.

EXERCISE.

1. Are all the essential or cardinal qualities of style illustrated in the foregoing extract? By what means does the author secure each of the qualities found in this composition?

2. What other qualities of style do you find in this selection? Give examples of each.

LESSON LXXII.

PROSE.

The chief varieties of prose composition are Letters, Narrations, Descriptions, and Expositions.

LETTERS.

Letters are of two kinds,familiar lettersorletters of friendship, andbusiness letters.

Note.—In letter-writing of all kinds, the style should be simple, and the manner of expression natural. Neatness and correctness are essential.

THE PARTS OF A LETTER.

The parts of a letter are theheading, theaddress, thesalutation, thebody, theconclusion, and thesignature.

Theheadingshould show where and when the letter was written. It should include theaddress of the writer in full, and thedate.

Every important part of theheadingshould begin with a capital letter. Every abbreviated word should be followed by a period, and the parts of the heading should be separated by commas. A period should be placed at the close of the heading.

Theheadingshould be placed about an inch and a half from the top of the page, and should begin about the middle of the sheet. It may occupy a part of a line, or of two lines.

Theaddressshows to whom the letter is written and his place of residence. It may be placed at the beginning or at the close of a letter. In business letters the best place is at the beginning, and in familiar letters at the close. The address, when placed at the beginning of a letter, should begin near the left margin of the sheet and one inch below the last line of the heading. It should not occupy more than two lines.

Thesalutationis the greeting with which we begin the letter. There is a variety of forms in keeping with our different relations.The most formal salutation is “Sir.” If our relations are somewhat familiar, we use “Dear Sir,” “My dear Sir,” “Dear Mr. Williams,” etc. In addressing a business firm the salutation is “Gentlemen.”

Thebodyof a letter begins one space below the salutation, and just where the salutation closes. A margin of one-half inch, at least, should be left on the left-hand side of the sheet. Each succeeding paragraph should begin in line with the first word of the first paragraph.

Theconclusionconsists of the complimentary close and follows the body of the letter. It depends upon the relation of the persons. The closing words in business letters are:—Yours truly,Yours respectfully,Very truly yours, etc. The closing words in letters of friendship are:—Yours sincerely,Your loving friend,Your affectionate niece, etc.

Thesignaturefollows the complimentary close, in the next space and to the right. It should end at the right-hand side of the sheet.

A FAMILIAR OR SOCIAL LETTER.

Note.—In social letters theaddressis omitted.

INVITATION.

Note.—Invitations are usually written in the third person.

ACCEPTANCE.

REGRET.

APPLICATION FOR A SITUATION.

LETTER ORDERING GOODS.

Note.—Fold aletter-sheetfrom the bottom forward, bringing the lower edge to the top, and then break the fold. Next fold twice the other way, beginning at the left edge. Measure these folds so as to fit the envelope. Fold anote-sheettwice, from the bottom forward. If the envelope is nearly square, a single fold of the note-sheet is sufficient.

ENVELOPE ADDRESSES.

Note.—In social correspondence, the envelopes and paper should be white and plain. Always use black ink.

EXERCISE.

1. Write a social letter to a friend, describing a holiday that you have had.

2. You are clerking for a bookseller. Write a letter to a publisher, ordering a stock of books.

3. Write an invitation to a friend to attend your birthday party.

4. You have been absent from school for some days. Write your teacher a note of explanation.

NARRATION.

A detailed account of incidents, real or imaginary, is callednarration.

Narrations of fact includehistory,biography, andtravels. Narrations of imaginary incidents are calledfictionorstories.

THE LEADING PRINCIPLES OF NARRATION.

1. The order in which the events occurred must be followed.

2. Every event must grow out of a preceding one.

3. When possible, the whole narration should centre in one principal event.

4. When there is more than one important event, one is brought up to a certain point, then dropped until the others reach this particular place in the narrative.

5. The scene and the actors should seldom change, and never without intimation.

6. Only the prominent points are related, the reader will infer the rest.

MODELS.

Personal Incidents.

I. JAMES BARRY AND EDMUND BURKE.

The father of James Barry, the Irish painter, was a sailor, who was disgusted with his idle, dreamy, good-for-nothing son. His mother perceived his natural ability, but tried to dissuade him from study for the sake of his health. He had therefore to prosecute his art studies in the face of the greatest difficulties. At length, while yet a boy, he ventured to send to a public exhibition in Dublin his first matured production—“St. Patrick’s Arrival on the Coast of Cashel.”

When the exhibition opened, Barry with beating heart entered it with the crowd. To his infinite delight, it quickly gathered around his picture, and murmurs of approval arose on every side. Suddenly the throng made way for one whose judgment none might dispute—the orator, statesman, and philosopher, Edmund Burke. Having examined the composition closely, he praised it warmly, ungrudgingly. “Whois the painter?” he asked; “Whereis he?”

Then the unknown stranger, the ill-dressed, pallid little boy, could contain his fierce delight no longer. “I am the painter!” he exclaimed from amid the crowd. “You, a boy; impossible!” was the reply from many lips. But when Edmund Burke advanced to congratulate him, he was overpowered. He burst into a sudden gush of tears, covered his face with his hands, and rushed from the room.—Royal School Series.

II. JENNY LIND AND THE QUEEN.

There is a pretty story told of Queen Victoria and Jenny Lind. It belongs to the year 1848, and shows how the modesty of two women—the Queen of England, and the Queen of song—made a momentary awkwardness which the gentle tact of the singer overcame.

It was on a night when Jenny Lind was to sing at her Majesty’s Theatre that the Queen made her first appearance after the memorable Chartist day. For the great artist, too, this was a first appearance, for it was the beginning of her season at a place where the year before she had won unparalleled fame.

It happened that the Queen entered the royal box at the same moment that the prima donna stepped upon the stage. Instantly a tumult of acclamation burst from every corner of the theatre. Jenny Lind modestly retired to the back of the stage, waiting till the demonstration of loyalty to the sovereign should subside.

The Queen, refusing to appropriate to herself that which she imagined to be intended for the artist, made no acknowledgment. The cheering continued, increased, grew overwhelming, and still there was no acknowledgment, either from the stage or the royal box.

At length, when the situation became embarrassing, Jenny Lind, with ready tact, ran forward to the footlights and sang “God Save the Queen,” which was caught up at the end of the solo by the orchestra, chorus and audience. The Queen then came to the front of her box and bowed, and the opera was resumed.—Youth’s Companion.

EXERCISE I.

Examine carefully the construction of the foregoing incidents. How far do they illustrate the principles of narration?

EXERCISE II.

Write a composition of about six paragraphs on one of the following subjects:—

Note.—Before writing, make an analysis of your subject, and draw up a plan showing the chief topics of your composition, arranged in natural order.

A plan for the first subject:—

OUR SUNDAY SCHOOL PICNIC.

Historical Narratives.

I. THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS.

It was on Friday morning, the 12th of October, that Columbus first beheld the new world. As the day dawned he saw before him a level island, several leagues in extent, and covered with trees like a continuous orchard. Though apparently uncultivated, it was populous; for the inhabitants were seen issuing from all parts of the woods and running to the shore. As they stood gazing at the ships, they seemed by their attitudes and gestures to be lost in astonishment. Columbus made signal for the ships to cast anchor, and the boats to be manned and armed. He entered his own boat, richly attired in scarlet, and holding the royal standard; two other boats followed with the captains and other officers, each with a banner of the enterprise emblazonedwith a green cross, having on either side the letters F. and Y., the initials of the Castilian monarchs Ferdinand and Ysabel, surmounted by crowns.

As he approached the shore, Columbus, who was disposed for all kinds of agreeable impressions, was delighted with the purity and suavity of the atmosphere, the crystal transparency of the sea, and the extraordinary beauty of the vegetation. He beheld, also, fruits of an unknown kind upon the trees which overhung the shores. On landing, he threw himself on his knees, kissed the earth, and returned thanks to God with tears of joy. His example was followed by the rest, whose hearts, indeed, over-flowed with the same feelings of gratitude. Columbus then rising, drew his sword, displayed the royal standard, and assembling around him the two captains, with the rest who had landed, he took solemn possession in the name of the Castilian sovereigns, giving the island the name of San Salvador.—Washington Irving.

II. THE TAKING OF EDINBURGH CASTLE.

While Robert Bruce was gradually getting possession of the country, and driving out the English, Edinburgh, the principal town of Scotland, remained with its strong castle in possession of the invaders. Sir Thomas Randolph, a nephew of Bruce, and one of his best supporters, was extremely desirous to obtain this important place; but, as you well know, the castle is situated on a very steep and lofty rock, so that it is difficult, or almost impossible, even to get up to the foot of the walls, much more to climb over them. So, while Randolph was considering what was to be done, there came to him a Scottish gentleman named Francis, who had joined Bruce’s standard, and asked to speak with him in private. He then told Randolph that, in his youth he had lived in the Castle of Edinburgh, and that his father had then been keeper of the fortress. It happened at that time thatFrancis was much in love with a lady who lived in a part of the town below the castle, which is called the Grassmarket. Now, as he could not get out of the castle by day to see the lady, he had practised a way of clambering by night down the castle crag on the south side, and returning up at his pleasure; when he came to the foot of the wall he made use of a ladder to get over it, as it was not very high on that point, those who built it having trusted to the steepness of the crag. Francis had come and gone so frequently in this dangerous manner that, though it was now long ago, he told Randolph that he knew the road so well that he would undertake to guide a small party of men by night to the bottom of the wall, and as they might bring ladders with them, there would be no difficulty in scaling it. The great risk was that of being discovered by the watchmen while in the act of ascending the cliff, in which case every man of them must have perished.

Nevertheless, Randolph did not hesitate to attempt the adventure. He took with him only thirty men (you may be sure they were chosen for activity and courage), and came one dark night to the foot of the crag, which they began to ascend under the guidance of Francis, who went before them on his hands and feet, up one cliff, down another, and round another, where there was scarce room to support themselves. All the while these thirty men were obliged to follow in a line, one after the other, by a path that was fitter for a cat than a man. The noise of a stone falling, or a word spoken from one to another, would have alarmed the watchman. They were obliged, therefore, to move with the greatest precaution. When they were far up the crag, and near the foundation of the wall, they heard the guards going their rounds to see that all was safe in and about the castle. Randolph and his party had nothing for it but to lie close and quiet, each man under the crag as he happened to be placed, and trust that the guards would pass by without noticing them. And while they were waiting in breathless alarm, they got a newcause of fright. One of the soldiers of the castle, wishing to startle his comrade, suddenly threw a stone from the wall and cried out, “Aha, I see you well!” The stone came thundering down over the heads of Randolph and his men, who naturally thought themselves discovered. If they had stirred or made the slightest noise they would have been entirely destroyed, for the soldiers above might have killed every man of them merely by rolling down stones. But being courageous and chosen men, they remained quiet, and the English soldiers, who thought their comrade was merely playing them a trick (as, indeed, he was), passed on without further examination.

Then Randolph and his men got up, and came in haste to the foot of the wall, which was not above twice a man’s height in that place. They planted the ladders they had brought, and Francis mounted first to show them the way. Sir Andrew Grey, a brave knight followed him, and Randolph himself was the third man who got over. Then the rest followed. When once they were within the walls there was not much to do, for the garrison were asleep and unarmed, excepting the watch, who were speedily destroyed. Thus was Edinburgh Castle taken in the year 1313.—Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather.

EXERCISE I.

Make an analysis of the foregoing extracts. What principles of narration are illustrated in each?

EXERCISE II.

Write a composition of five or six paragraphs on one of the following subjects:—

A plan for the first subject:—

Stories.

I. CORNELIA’S JEWELS.

It was a bright morning in the old city of Rome many hundred years ago. In a vine-covered summer-house in a beautiful garden, two boys were standing. They were looking at their mother and her friend, who were walking among the flowers and trees.

“Did you ever see so handsome a lady as our mother’s friend?” asked the younger boy, holding his tall brother’s hand. “She looks like a queen.”

“Yet she is not so beautiful as our mother,” said the elder boy. “She has a fine dress, it is true; but her face is not noble and kind. It is our mother who is like a queen.”

“That is true,” said the other. “There is no woman in Rome so much like a queen as our own dear mother.”

Soon Cornelia, their mother, came down the walk to speak with them. She was simply dressed in a plain white robe. Her arms and feet were bare, as was the custom in those days; and no rings nor chains glittered about her hands and neck. For her only crown, long braids of soft brown hair were coiled about her head; and a tender smile lit up her noble face as she looked into her sons’ proud eyes.

“Boys,” she said, “I have something to tell you.”

They bowed before her, as Roman lads were taught to do, and said, “What is it, mother?”

“You are to dine with us to-day, here in the garden; and then our friend is going to show us that wonderful casket of jewels of which you have heard so much.”

The brothers looked slyly at their mother’s friend. Was it possible that she had still other rings besides those on her fingers? Could she have other gems besides those which sparkled in the chains about her neck?

When the simple outdoor meal was over a servant brought the casket from the house. The lady opened it. Ah, how those jewels dazzled the eyes of the wondering boys! There were ropes of pearls, white as milk, and smooth as satin; heaps of shining rubies, red as the glowing coals; sapphires as blue as the sky that summer day; and diamonds that flashed and sparkled like the sunlight.

The brothers looked long at the gems.

“Ah!” whispered the younger, “if our mother could only have such beautiful things!”

At last, however, the casket was closed and carried carefully away.

“Is it true, Cornelia, that you have no jewels?” asked her friend. “Is it true, as I have heard it whispered, that you are poor?”

“No, I am not poor,” answered Cornelia, and as she spoke she drew her two boys to her side; “for here are my jewels. They are worth more than all your gems.”

I am sure that the boys never forgot their mother’s pride and love and care; and in after years, when they had become great men at Rome, they often thought of this scene in the garden. And the world still likes to hear the story of Cornelia’s jewels.—Fifty Famous Stories.

II. NEW YEAR’S EVE.

It was New Year’s Eve. An aged man was standing by a window. He raised his mournful eyes towards the deep blue sky, where the stars were floating like white lilies on the surface of a clear calm lake. Then he cast them on the earth where few more hopeless beings than himself now moved towards their certain goal—the tomb.

Already he had passed sixty of the stages which lead to it, and had brought from his journey nothing but errors and remorse. His health was destroyed, his mind vacant, his heart sorrowful, and his old age devoid of comfort.

The days of his youth rose up in a vision before him, and he recalled the solemn moment when his father had placed him at the entrance of two roads—one leading into a peaceful, sunny land, covered with a fertile harvest, and resounding with soft, sweet songs;the otherleading the wanderer into a deep, dark cave, whence there was no issue, where poison flowed instead of water, and where serpents hissed and crawled.

He looked toward the sky, and cried out in his agony:—“O youth, return! O, my father, place me once more at the entrance to life, that I may choose the better way!” But the days of his youth, and his father, had both passed away.

He saw wandering lights float away over dark marshes and then disappear. These were like the days of his wasted life. He saw a star fall from heaven and vanish in darkness. This was an emblem of himself; and the sharp arrows of unavailing remorse struck home to his heart. Then he remembered his early companions who entered on life with him, but who, having trod the paths of virtue and of labor, were now honored and happy on this New Year’s Eve.

In the midst of these thoughts, there sounded suddenly from the church-tower the music of the New Year, like distant holy hymnings. The tones falling on his ear recalled his parents’early love for him, their erring son; the lessons they had taught him; the prayers they had offered up on his behalf. Over-whelmed with shame and grief he dared no longer look toward that heaven where his father dwelt; his darkened eyes dropped tears, and with one despairing effort he cried aloud, “Come back, my early days, come back!”

And his youthdidreturn, for all this was but a dream which visited his slumbers on New Year’s Eve. He was still young, his faults alone were real. He thanked God fervently that time was still his own, that he had not yet entered the deep, dark cavern, but that he was free to tread the road leading to the peaceful land where sunny harvests wave.

Ye who still are young, lingering on the threshold of life doubting which fate to choose, remember that when years are passed and your feet stumble on the dark mountains, you will cry bitterly, but cry in vain, “O youth, return! O, give me back my early days!”—Jean Paul Richter.

EXERCISE I.

Make an outline for a story which you have heard and reproduce it.

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