Whatis generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent tothat which; as, "This iswhatI wanted;" that is,that which, or,the thing whichI wanted.
Whatis generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent tothat which; as, "This iswhatI wanted;" that is,that which, or,the thing whichI wanted.
Whatis compounded ofwhich that. These words have been contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still retained:what—wh[ich—t]hat; (which-that.) Anciently it appeared in the varying forms,tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat, and finally,what.
Whatmay be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection. When it is equivalent tothat which, the thing which, orthose things which, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the antecedent and the relative; as, "I will trywhat(that which) can be found in female delicacy;Whatyou recollect with most pleasure, are the virtuous actions of your past life;" that is,those things whichyou recollect, &c.
Whenwhatis a compound relative, you must always parse it as two words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give it a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples,that, the antecedent part ofwhat, is in the obj. case, governed by the verb "will try;"which, the relative part, is in the nom. case to "can be found." "I have heardwhat(i.e.that which, orthe thing which) has been alleged."
Whoeverandwhosoeverare also compound relatives, and should be parsed like the compoundwhat; as, "Whoevertakes that oath, is bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence,whoeveris equivalent tohe who, or,the man who; thus, "He whotakes that oath, is bound," &c.
Who, which, andwhat, when used in asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as,"Whois he?Whichis the person?Whatare you doing?"
Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the word or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as, "Whomdid you see? Thepreceptor. Whathave you done?Nothing." Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent means following, or coming after.What, when used as an interrogative, is never compound.
What, which, andthat, when joined to nouns, are specifying adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or indefinite kind; as, "Untowhichpromise our twelve tribes hope to come;" "Whatmisery the vicious endure!Whathavock hast thou made, foul monster, sin!"
Whatandwhich, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "What manis that?Which roaddid he take?"
What, whatever, andwhatsoever, which, whichever, andwhichsoever, in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but not compound relatives; as, "Inwhatcharacter Butler was admitted, is unknown; Give himwhatname you choose; Nature's care largely endowswhateverhappy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him takewhichcourse, or,whichevercourse he will." These sentences may be rendered thus; "Thatcharacter, or,thecharacter inwhichButler was admitted, is unknown; Give himthatname, or,thenamewhichyou choose; Nature's care endowsthathappy manwhowill deign, &c.; Let him takethatcourse, orthecoursewhichhe will." A compound relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. These compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part of each word being the articlethe, or the adjective pronoun,that; therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives.—With regard to the wordeverannexed to these pronouns, it is a singular fact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined,everis entirely excluded from the sentence.
Whatis sometimes used as an interjection; as, "Butwhat!is thy servant a dog, that he should do this?What!rob us of our right of suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"
You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science; but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very important one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five times over before you proceed to commit the following order. Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you please.
The order of parsing aRELATIVE PRONOUN, is—a pronoun, and why?—relative, and why?—gender, person, and number, and why?—RULE:—case, and why?—RULE.—Decline it.
The order of parsing aRELATIVE PRONOUN, is—a pronoun, and why?—relative, and why?—gender, person, and number, and why?—RULE:—case, and why?—RULE.—Decline it.
"This is the manwhomwe saw."
Whomis a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to "man" for its antecedent—mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to
RULE 14.Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number. Whomis in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by it, agreeably to
RULE 16.When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its own member of the sentence.
Whom, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and declinewho.)
"Fromwhatis recorded, he appears," &c.
Whatis a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent tothat which, or thething which—Thing, the antecedent part ofwhat, is a noun, the name of a thing—com. the name of a species—neuter gender, it has no sex—third person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from," and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which I refer.)Which, the relative part ofwhat, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to "thing" for its antecedent—neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14.Rel pron. &c.Whichis in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded," agreeably to
RULE 15.The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb.
"Whathave you learned? Nothing."
Whatis a pron. a word used, &c.—relative of the interrogative kind, because it is used in asking a question—it refers to the word "nothing" for itssubsequent, according to
RULE 17.When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. Whatis of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent "nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14.Rel. pron. agree, &c.—It is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16.When a nom. &c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.
NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative when the answer to the question isnotexpressed.
NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative when the answer to the question isnotexpressed.
Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded according to their true character, they would be found to be very simple, and,doubtless, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved.
Of the words called "relatives,"who, only, is a pronoun; and this is strictlypersonal; more so, indeed, if we exceptIandwe, than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns.I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you, andthey, relateto antecedents, as well aswho. Which, that, andwhat, are always adjectives. They neverstand for, but alwaysbelongto nouns, either expressed or implied. Theyspecify, like many other adjectives, andconnectsentences.
Whosupplies the place ofwhichorwhatand itspersonal noun.Whocame? i.e.what man, what woman, what person;—which man, woman, orperson, came? "They heardwhatI said"—they heardthat(thing)which(thing) I said. "Takewhat(orwhichever) course you please;"—takethatcoursewhich(course) you please to take. "Whathave you done?" i.e.what thing, act, ordeedhave you done? "Which thingI also did at Jerusalem." "Whichwill you take?"—which book, hat, or something else? "This is the treewhich(tree) produces no fruit." "Hethat(man, orwhichman) acts wisely, deserves praise."
They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty to adopt it, and parse accordingly.
The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities. That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifies it. What doest[5]thou? Nothing. What book have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry. Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take? Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the world, is the enemy of God.
NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and the objective case, before the verb that governs it.Whom, in every sentence except one,house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, the thirdwhatandwhich, the relative part of the firsttwo whats, are all in theobjectivecase, and governed by the several verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1.Treeis nom. after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part ofwhatever, is nom. to "fortifies;"which, the relative part, is nom. to "purifies."Nothingis governed bydo, andpoem, byhave, understood.Henryis nominative todoes, understood.WhoseandJohn'sare governed according to RULE 12.I, thou, you, him, &c. represent nouns understood.Him, in the last sentence but five, is governed bydeclare, andIis nominative todeclare. GeorgeandElizaare in the nominative case independent: Rule 5. "Whateverscience," &c. is equivalent to,thatsciencewhichsuits your taste;—"whicheverpattern;" i.e.thatpatternwhichpleases you best.Whoeveris a compound relative;he, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will behold."Takeagrees withyouunderstood.Forsakeis in the infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.Whichsometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep his commandments,whichis the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this phrase is the antecedent towhich.The conjunctionas, when it followssuch, many, orsame, is frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased withsuch ashave a refined taste;" that is, withthose who, orthem who have, &c. "Letsuch aspresume to advise others, look well to their own conduct;" that is, Letthose, orthem whopresume, &c. "As many aswere ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is,they, those, orall whowere ordained, believed. "He exhibited thesametestimonialsaswere adduced on a former occasion;" that is,thosetestimonialswhichwere adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do,aswill be found to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased withsuch persons, as those persons are whohave a refined taste; Letsuch persons, as those persons are whopresume," &c.
NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and the objective case, before the verb that governs it.Whom, in every sentence except one,house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, the thirdwhatandwhich, the relative part of the firsttwo whats, are all in theobjectivecase, and governed by the several verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1.Treeis nom. after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part ofwhatever, is nom. to "fortifies;"which, the relative part, is nom. to "purifies."Nothingis governed bydo, andpoem, byhave, understood.Henryis nominative todoes, understood.WhoseandJohn'sare governed according to RULE 12.I, thou, you, him, &c. represent nouns understood.Him, in the last sentence but five, is governed bydeclare, andIis nominative todeclare. GeorgeandElizaare in the nominative case independent: Rule 5. "Whateverscience," &c. is equivalent to,thatsciencewhichsuits your taste;—"whicheverpattern;" i.e.thatpatternwhichpleases you best.Whoeveris a compound relative;he, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will behold."Takeagrees withyouunderstood.Forsakeis in the infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.
Whichsometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep his commandments,whichis the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this phrase is the antecedent towhich.
The conjunctionas, when it followssuch, many, orsame, is frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased withsuch ashave a refined taste;" that is, withthose who, orthem who have, &c. "Letsuch aspresume to advise others, look well to their own conduct;" that is, Letthose, orthem whopresume, &c. "As many aswere ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is,they, those, orall whowere ordained, believed. "He exhibited thesametestimonialsaswere adduced on a former occasion;" that is,thosetestimonialswhichwere adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do,aswill be found to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased withsuch persons, as those persons are whohave a refined taste; Letsuch persons, as those persons are whopresume," &c.
From what words is the term pronoun derived?—Do pronouns always avoid the repetition of nouns?—Name the three kinds of pronouns.—What distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?—How many personal pronouns are there?—Repeat them.—What belong to pronouns?—Is gender applied to all the personal pronouns?—To which of them is it applied?—Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote their gender?—How many persons have pronouns?—Speak them in their different persons.—How many numbers have pronouns?—How many cases?—What are they?—Decline all the personal pronouns.—Whenselfis added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are they used?—When isyousingular in sense?—Is it ever singular in form?—Why are the words,my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, called personal pronouns?—Why are the words,mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, denominated compound pers. pron.?—How do you parse these compounds?—What is said ofothers?—Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun.—What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, and in the nom. case?—What rule when the pronoun is in the possessive case?—What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?—What Rules in parsing the compounds,yours, ours, mine, &c.?—What is said of the pronounit?
What are adjective pronouns?—Name the three kinds.—What doeseachrelate to?—To what doeseveryrelate?—To what doeseitherrelate?—What doesneitherimport?—To what dothisandtheserefer?—Give examples.—To what dothatandthoserefer?—Give examples.—Repeat all the adjective pronouns.—When adj. pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed?—When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called?—Give examples.—Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun.—What Rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns?—What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demonstratives?
What are relative pronouns?—Repeat them.—From what words is the term antecedent derived?—What doesantecedentmean?—Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or number?—To what arewhoandwhichapplied?—To what isthatapplied?—Shouldwhoever be applied to irrational beings or children?—In what instances maywhichbe applied to persons?—Decline the rel. pronouns.—Canwhichandthatbe declined?—Isthatever used as three parts of speech?—Give examples.—What part of speech is the wordwhat?—Iswhatever used as three kinds of a pronoun?—Give examples.—What is said ofwhoever?—What words are used as interrogative pronouns?—Give examples.—When are the words,what, which, andthat, called adj. pron.?—When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?—What is said ofwhateverandwhichever?—Iswhatever used as an interjection?—Give examples.—Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron.—What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?—What Rules in parsing a compound relative?—What Rules in parsing an interrogative?—Does the relativewhichever relate to a sentence for its antecedent?—When does the conjunctionasbecome a relative?—Give examples.
NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case.
Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?
"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronounhimis the subject of the verbwill gounderstood, therefore him should be in the nominative case,he, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.)Himand I are connected by the conjunctionand, andhimis in the obj. case, and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third examples,theeshould bethou, according to the NOTE. The verbs,doesandis, are of the third person, and the nom.thouis second, for which reason the verbs should be of the second person,dost doandart, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct the other examples,fourtimes over.
"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronounhimis the subject of the verbwill gounderstood, therefore him should be in the nominative case,he, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.)Himand I are connected by the conjunctionand, andhimis in the obj. case, and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third examples,theeshould bethou, according to the NOTE. The verbs,doesandis, are of the third person, and the nom.thouis second, for which reason the verbs should be of the second person,dost doandart, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct the other examples,fourtimes over.
Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of honor bestowed upon him.
NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with the noun which they represent.
The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually doing evil.
In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, according to Note 2.
In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, according to Note 2.
NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not be used instead oftheseandthose.
Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons deserves most credit?
In all these examples,thoseshould be used in place ofthem. The use of the personal,them, in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.
In all these examples,thoseshould be used in place ofthem. The use of the personal,them, in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.
A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thouandhe are happy,becauseyou are good."
A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thouandhe are happy,becauseyou are good."
Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of human thought. They belong to language only in its refined state.
The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words,con, which signifiestogether, andjungo, tojoin. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences.
ASENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative; as, "Wheat growsin the field."
ASENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense.
A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative; as, "Wheat growsin the field."
You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative and onefiniteverb, (that is, a verbnotin the infinitive mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences.
A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together; as, "Wheat growsin the field, andmen reapit."
A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together; as, "Wheat growsin the field, andmen reapit."
This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the wordand; which word, on account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it."
The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish toaddanother, or several others, which are closely connected with it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, "The Georgians cultivate riceandcotton;" that is, "They cultivate riceaddcotton." This sentence is compound, and without the use of the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The conjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the preposition; as, "The sunand (add)the planets constitute the solar system." In this, which is a simple sentence,andconnects twowords.
A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. He labors harder—more successfully—I do. That man is healthy—he is temperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, He labors harderandmore successfullythanI do. That man is healthybecausehe is temperate.
Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.I. The ConjunctionCopulativeserves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a cause; as, "Twoandthree are five; I will goifhe will accompany me; You are happybecauseyou are good."
Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive.
I. The ConjunctionCopulativeserves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a cause; as, "Twoandthree are five; I will goifhe will accompany me; You are happybecauseyou are good."
In the first of these examples,andjoins on a word that expresses anaddition; in the second,ifconnects a member that implies asuppositionorcondition; and in the third,becauseconnects a member that expresses acause.
II. The ConjunctionDisjunctiveserves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; as, "They came with her,butthey went away without her."
II. The ConjunctionDisjunctiveserves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning; as, "They came with her,butthey went away without her."
Butjoins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not only something added, but, also,oppositionof meaning.
The principal conjunctions, may be known by the followinglists, which you may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if you study well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language.
Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides.Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as.
Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides.
Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as.
Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former; as,
1.Though—yetornevertheless; as, "Thoughhe was rich,yetfor our sakes he became poor."
2.Whether—or; as, "Whetherhe will go,ornot, I cannot tell." It is improper to say, "Whether he will go orno."
3.Either—or; as, "I willeithersend it,orbring it myself."
4.Neither—nor; as, "NeitherthounorI can comprehend it."
5.As—as; as, "She isasamiableasher sister."
6.As—so; as, "Asthe stars,soshall thy seed be."
7.So—as; as, "To see thy glory,so asI have seen thee in the sanctuary."
8.So—that; as, "He becamesovain,thateveryone disliked him."
NOTES.1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simplesentencesonly, and form them into compoundsentences; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simplemembersonly, so as to make them compoundmembers; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or simple members.2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; as, "Blessed is the manwhofeareth the Lord,andkeepeth his commandments."
1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simplesentencesonly, and form them into compoundsentences; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simplemembersonly, so as to make them compoundmembers; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or simple members.
2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; as, "Blessed is the manwhofeareth the Lord,andkeepeth his commandments."
You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five times over; and then, after committing the following order, you may parse the subsequent exercises.
The order of parsing aCONJUNCTION, is—a conjunction, and why?—copulative or disjunctive, and why?—what does it connect?
The order of parsing aCONJUNCTION, is—a conjunction, and why?—copulative or disjunctive, and why?—what does it connect?
"Wisdomandvirtueformthe good man's character."
Andis a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but in this example it connects only words—copulative, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition—it connects the words "wisdom and virtue."
Wisdomis a noun, the name of a thing—(You may parse it in full.)—Wisdomis one of the nominatives to the verb "form."
Virtueis a noun, the name, &c.—(Parse it in full:)—and in the nom. case to the verb "form," and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and, according to RULE 33.Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case.
Formis a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.—of the third person,plural, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue," are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8.Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined bycopulativeconjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in theplural.
"Wisdomorfollygovernsus."
Oris a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connects words—disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of meaning—it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly."
Governsis a verb, a word that signifies, &c.—of the third person, singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly," according to RULE 9.Two or more nouns singular, joined bydisjunctiveconjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in thesingular:
If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For example; in the sentence, "OrlandoandThomas,who study their lessons, makerapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns,OrlandoandThomas, are connected by the copulative conjunctionand, therefore the verbmake, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action ofbothits nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that the pronounswhoandtheir, and the nounlessons, areplural, agreeing with the nounsOrlandoandThomas, according to RULE 8. The verbstudyis plural, agreeing withwho, according to RULE 4.
But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see how the sentence will read: "OrlandoorThomas,who studies his lesson, makesrapid progress." Now, you perceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas,bothstudy and make rapid progress; but it asserts, that either the oneorthe other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verbmakesis singular, because it expresses the action of the oneorthe other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronounswhoandhis, and the nounlesson, are likewise in the singular, agreeing with OrlandoorThomas, agreeably to RULE 9.Studiesis also singular, agreeing withwho, according to RULE 4.
Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and interest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions.
NOTE. The verbformis plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verbcomfortagrees withtheyfor its nominative. It is connected tosupportby the conjunctionand, agreeably to RULE 34.Angelsis nom. toareunderstood, andGreat Britainis nom. tocan boastunderstood, according to RULE 35.REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS.The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted,forit was in vain to resist;" in this example,foris a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governsvictoryin the objective case: "He contendedforvictory only."In the first of the following sentences,sinceis a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "Sincewe must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen himsincethat time; Our friendship commenced longsince.""He will repentbeforehe dies; Standbeforeme; Why did you not returnbefore" [that or thistime;] in the first of these three examples,beforeis an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive theconnectingpower of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed; as, "Inthe days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha;" "Ifthou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; but,ifthou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever.""Whencoldness wraps this suffering clay,"Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"That the wordsin, if, andwhen, in these examples, connect the members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particlesbetweenthe members which they connect: thus, "Elisha the prophet flourishedinthe days of Joram, king of Israel;" "The Lord will be found of theeifthou seek him; but he will cast thee off for everifthou forsake him:""Ah, whither strays the immortal mind,"Whencoldness wraps this suffering clay?"
NOTE. The verbformis plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verbcomfortagrees withtheyfor its nominative. It is connected tosupportby the conjunctionand, agreeably to RULE 34.Angelsis nom. toareunderstood, andGreat Britainis nom. tocan boastunderstood, according to RULE 35.
The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an adverb, or a preposition. "I submitted,forit was in vain to resist;" in this example,foris a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governsvictoryin the objective case: "He contendedforvictory only."
In the first of the following sentences,sinceis a conjunction; in the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "Sincewe must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen himsincethat time; Our friendship commenced longsince."
"He will repentbeforehe dies; Standbeforeme; Why did you not returnbefore" [that or thistime;] in the first of these three examples,beforeis an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition.
As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive theconnectingpower of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed; as, "Inthe days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha;" "Ifthou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; but,ifthou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever."
That the wordsin, if, andwhen, in these examples, connect the members of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particlesbetweenthe members which they connect: thus, "Elisha the prophet flourishedinthe days of Joram, king of Israel;" "The Lord will be found of theeifthou seek him; but he will cast thee off for everifthou forsake him:"
As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these
From what words is the term conjunction derived?—What is a sentence?—What is a simple sentence?—What is a compound sentence?—Give examples.—In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature?—How many sorts of conjunctions are there?—Repeat the lists of conjunctions.—Repeat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions.—Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences?—Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.—Do you apply any Rule in parsing a conjunction?—What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another?—What Rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulative conjunction?—What Rule when the nouns are connected by a disjunctive?—In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply?—Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech?—Give examples.—What is said of the wordsfor, since, andbefore?—What is said of the transposition of sentences?
PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.On scientific principles, ourconnectives, commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives."I wish you to believe,thatI would not wilfully hurt a fly." Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunctionthat, is merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believethat [assertion."] Now, if we admit, thatthatis an adjective in the latter construction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both the mode of employingthat, and itsinferentialmeaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas, by the former, I merelywish you to believethat "I would not wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do notaffirm, that as a fact.Thatbeing the past part, ofthean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as aparticiple, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe theassumed [factorstatement;] or, the factassumedortaken."If, (formerly writtengif, give, gin,) as previously stated, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verbgifan, to give. In imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will go,ifhe will accompany me:"—"He will accompany me.Grant—givethat [fact] I will go." For the purpose of ascertaining theprimitivemeaning of this word, I have no objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force ofifas it is applied in our modern, refined state of the language? Itrownot. But, admitting we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employedifas a verb when they used the following circumlocution: "My son will reform.Give that fact. I will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our language, by usingifas aconjunction, (for I maintain that it is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use ofgin, a contraction ofgiven:thus, "I will pardon my son,ginhe reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?But perhaps the advocates of whattheycall a philosophical development of language, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:—we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.Butcomes from the Saxon verb,beon-utan, to be-out. "All were wellbut (be-out, leave-out)the stranger." "Man isbuta reed, floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed, floating on the current of time;but (be-outthis fact) he is not a stable being."And—aned, an'd, and, is the past part. ofananad, to add, join.A, an, ane, orone, from the same verb, points out whatever isaned, oned, or madeone. Andalso refers to the thing that isjoinedto,addedto, ormade onewith, some other person or thing mentioned. "JuliusandHarriet will make a happy pair." Resolution: "Julius, Harrietjoined, united, oraned, will make a happy pair;" i.e. Harrietmade onewith Julius; will make a happy pair.Formeanscause.Because—be-cause, is a compound of the verbbe, and the nouncause. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim,forI know it to be true;"—"I believe the maxim,be-causeI know it to be true;" i.e. thecauseof my belief,be, oris, I know it to be true.Noris a contraction ofne or. Neis a contraction ofnot, andor, ofother. Noris,not other-wise:notin theotherway or manner.Elseis the imperative ofalesan, unless, ofonlesan, andlest, the past part. oflesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished,unlesshe repent;"—"Unless, release, give up, (the fact) he repents he will be punished."Thoughis the imperative of the Saxon verbthafigan, to allow, andyetofgetan, to get.Yetis simply,get; ancientgis the moderny. "Thoughhe slay me,yetwill I trust in him:—Grantorallow(the fact) he slay me,get, orretain(the opposite fact) I will trust in him."QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived?—What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?—From what is each of the following words derived,that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though, andyet?
On scientific principles, ourconnectives, commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives.
"I wish you to believe,thatI would not wilfully hurt a fly." Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunctionthat, is merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believethat [assertion."] Now, if we admit, thatthatis an adjective in the latter construction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both the mode of employingthat, and itsinferentialmeaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas, by the former, I merelywish you to believethat "I would not wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do notaffirm, that as a fact.
Thatbeing the past part, ofthean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as aparticiple, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe theassumed [factorstatement;] or, the factassumedortaken."
If, (formerly writtengif, give, gin,) as previously stated, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verbgifan, to give. In imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will go,ifhe will accompany me:"—"He will accompany me.Grant—givethat [fact] I will go." For the purpose of ascertaining theprimitivemeaning of this word, I have no objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force ofifas it is applied in our modern, refined state of the language? Itrownot. But, admitting we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employedifas a verb when they used the following circumlocution: "My son will reform.Give that fact. I will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our language, by usingifas aconjunction, (for I maintain that it is one,) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use ofgin, a contraction ofgiven:thus, "I will pardon my son,ginhe reform." But who will contend, that they speak pure English?
But perhaps the advocates of whattheycall a philosophical development of language, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:—we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age.
Butcomes from the Saxon verb,beon-utan, to be-out. "All were wellbut (be-out, leave-out)the stranger." "Man isbuta reed, floating on the current of time." Resolution: "Man is a reed, floating on the current of time;but (be-outthis fact) he is not a stable being."
And—aned, an'd, and, is the past part. ofananad, to add, join.A, an, ane, orone, from the same verb, points out whatever isaned, oned, or madeone. Andalso refers to the thing that isjoinedto,addedto, ormade onewith, some other person or thing mentioned. "JuliusandHarriet will make a happy pair." Resolution: "Julius, Harrietjoined, united, oraned, will make a happy pair;" i.e. Harrietmade onewith Julius; will make a happy pair.
Formeanscause.
Because—be-cause, is a compound of the verbbe, and the nouncause. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim,forI know it to be true;"—"I believe the maxim,be-causeI know it to be true;" i.e. thecauseof my belief,be, oris, I know it to be true.
Noris a contraction ofne or. Neis a contraction ofnot, andor, ofother. Noris,not other-wise:notin theotherway or manner.
Elseis the imperative ofalesan, unless, ofonlesan, andlest, the past part. oflesan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished,unlesshe repent;"—"Unless, release, give up, (the fact) he repents he will be punished."Thoughis the imperative of the Saxon verbthafigan, to allow, andyetofgetan, to get.Yetis simply,get; ancientgis the moderny. "Thoughhe slay me,yetwill I trust in him:—Grantorallow(the fact) he slay me,get, orretain(the opposite fact) I will trust in him."
From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived?—What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?—From what is each of the following words derived,that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though, andyet?
INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the speaker; as, "Alas!I fear for life;" "Odeath! where is thy sting?"
INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of the speaker; as, "Alas!I fear for life;" "Odeath! where is thy sting?"
Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling. Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, it is not the representative of adistinct, idea. A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to makenoises, when they have no useful information to communicate, are apt to use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions,la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing, and the like.
Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by their taking an exclamation point after them.
NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call aninterjective phrase; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the extreme! what ingratitude! away with him!
NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call aninterjective phrase; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the extreme! what ingratitude! away with him!
As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then commit the
The order of parsing anINTERJECTION, is—an interjection, and why?
The order of parsing anINTERJECTION, is—an interjection, and why?
"O virtue! how amiable thou art!"
Ois an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion of the speaker.
The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study faithfullysixhours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, insix weeks; but if you study onlythreehours in a day, it will take you nearlythree monthsto acquire the same knowledge.
True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the happiness of all around him.
Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of every virtue which it seems to hide.
He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life.
The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act; but, alas! I fear the consequence.