Theorder of parsinga PARTICIPLE, is—a participle, and why?—from what verb is it derived?—speak the three—present, perfect, or compound, and why?—to what does it refer or belong?—RULE.
Theorder of parsinga PARTICIPLE, is—a participle, and why?—from what verb is it derived?—speak the three—present, perfect, or compound, and why?—to what does it refer or belong?—RULE.
"I saw a vesselsailing"
Sailingis a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective—it comes from the verb to sail—pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed—it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of an unfinished action—and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject, according to
RULE 27.The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor.
"Not a breath disturbs thesleepingbillow."
Sleepingis a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express its quality—it cannot, with propriety, be compared—- it belongs to the noun "billow," agreeably to
RULE 18.Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or understood.
You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination toagreewith a noun or pronoun, for, as it has nonominative, it has no agreement; but it simplyrefers toan actor. Examples: I see avesselsailing; or, I see threevesselssailing. You perceive that the participlesailingrefers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in both examples. The nounvesselis in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verbsee. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nominative; as, the vesselsails;the vesselssail.
In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates to the participle. In the sentence, "The man isbeatinghis horse," the nounhorseis in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating," and it is governed by the participle beating, according to
RULE 26.Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived.
The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.
When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse correctly andsystematicallyby referring to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again the wholefivelectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, onlyfivemore will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical knowledge inthreemonths, than is commonly obtained intwoyears.
In the following examples, the wordspurling, crusted, slumbering, andtwinkling, are participial adjectives.Thereanditsyou may omit.
Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lowly head.
Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A goodunderstanding; Excellentwriting; He made a goodbeginning, but a badending."Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best authorities: "The goods areselling;" "The house isbuilding;" "The work is nowpublishing." A modern innovation, however, is likely to supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods arebeing sold;" "The house isbeing built;" "The work is nowbeing published."
Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A goodunderstanding; Excellentwriting; He made a goodbeginning, but a badending."
Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best authorities: "The goods areselling;" "The house isbuilding;" "The work is nowpublishing." A modern innovation, however, is likely to supersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods arebeing sold;" "The house isbeing built;" "The work is nowbeing published."
You may now answer these
How many kinds of participles are there?—What is the ending of a present participle?—What does a perfect participle denote?—With what does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?—What is a compound participle?—From what word is the term participle derived?—Why is this part of speech thus named?—Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature of a verb?—Do all participles participate the properties of adjectives?—In what respect?—When are participles calledparticipial adjectives?—Give examples.—How may a present participle be known?—Repeat the order of parsing a participle.—What rule applies in parsing apresentparticiple?—What Rule in parsing a participial adjective?—Do participles vary in their terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?—What Rule applies in parsing a noun in theobjective case, governed by a participle?—Do participles ever become nouns?—Give examples.
Participles are formed by adding to the verb theterminationing, ed, oren.Ingsignifies the same as the nounbeing. Whenpostfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thusformed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. Itimplies that what is meant by the verb, isbeingcontinued.Enis an alteration ofan, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct;edis a contraction ofdede; and the terminationsdandt, are a contraction ofed. Participles ending inedoren, usually denote thedodo, dede, doed, did, done, orfinishedstate of what is meant by the verb. The book isprinted. It is aprint-edorprint-donebook, or such a one as thedoneact ofprintinghas made it. The book iswritten; i.e. it has received thedoneorfinish-edact ofwrit-ingit.Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do tonouns. They might, therefore, be styledverbal adjectives. Butthat theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on asandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided moreby theirmannerof meaning, and theirinferentialmeaning, than by their primitive, essential signification. "I have abrokenplate;" i.e. I have a plate—broken; "I havebrokena plate." If there is no difference in theessentialmeaning of the wordbroken, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that there is a wide difference in the meaning—inferredby custom; which difference depends on themannerin which the term is applied. The former construction denotes, that Ipossessa plate which wasbroken, (whether with or without my agency, is notintimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas,the meaning of the latter is, that Iperformed the actof reducing the plate from a whole to abrokenstate; and it is not intimatedwhether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that,in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs inconstructions differing so widely, may properly be classed withdifferent parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishesthe propriety of retaining what we call theperfect tenseof theverb.QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.How are participles formed?—What does the imperfect part express?— What do perfect participles denote?
Participles are formed by adding to the verb theterminationing, ed, oren.Ingsignifies the same as the nounbeing. Whenpostfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thusformed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. Itimplies that what is meant by the verb, isbeingcontinued.Enis an alteration ofan, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct;edis a contraction ofdede; and the terminationsdandt, are a contraction ofed. Participles ending inedoren, usually denote thedodo, dede, doed, did, done, orfinishedstate of what is meant by the verb. The book isprinted. It is aprint-edorprint-donebook, or such a one as thedoneact ofprintinghas made it. The book iswritten; i.e. it has received thedoneorfinish-edact ofwrit-ingit.
Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do tonouns. They might, therefore, be styledverbal adjectives. Butthat theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on asandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided moreby theirmannerof meaning, and theirinferentialmeaning, than by their primitive, essential signification. "I have abrokenplate;" i.e. I have a plate—broken; "I havebrokena plate." If there is no difference in theessentialmeaning of the wordbroken, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that there is a wide difference in the meaning—inferredby custom; which difference depends on themannerin which the term is applied. The former construction denotes, that Ipossessa plate which wasbroken, (whether with or without my agency, is notintimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas,the meaning of the latter is, that Iperformed the actof reducing the plate from a whole to abrokenstate; and it is not intimatedwhether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that,in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs inconstructions differing so widely, may properly be classed withdifferent parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishesthe propriety of retaining what we call theperfect tenseof theverb.
How are participles formed?—What does the imperfect part express?— What do perfect participles denote?
An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of averb, aparticiple, anadjective, or anotheradverb.
An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of averb, aparticiple, anadjective, or anotheradverb.
Recollect, an adverb never qualifies anoun. It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others.
Tomodifyorqualify, you know, means to produce somechange. The adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's styleexcelsIrving's, the proposition is affirmative, and the verbexcelsexpresses the affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's styleexcels notIrving's, the assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or changes the meaning of the verbexcels? You perceive that it is the little wordnot. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the sentence.Not, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb.
When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the phrases, The man ridesgracefully, awkwardly,badly, swiftly, slowly, &c.; or, I saw the man ridingswiftly, slowly, leisurely, very fast, &c., you perceive that the wordsgracefully, awkwardly, very fast, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verbrides, or the participleriding, because they express themannerin which the action denoted by the verb and participle, is done.
In the phrases, The man ridesdaily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often, sometimes, never; or, The man rodeyesterday, heretofore, long since, long ago, recently, lately, just nowor, The man will ridesoon, presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter, you perceive that all these words initalics, are adverbs, qualifying the meaning of the verb, rides, because they express thetimeof the action denoted by the verb.
Again, if I say, The man liveshere, near by, yonder, remote, far off, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, &c., the words initalicsare adverbs ofplace, because they tell where he lives.
Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as,morewise,mostwise; ormore wisely, most wisely. When an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expressesthe degreeof comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison. Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjectiveskilfulis in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverbmorebefore the adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to the comparative; as, Amoreskilful artist: andmostrenders it superlative; as, Amostskilful artist. And if we place more and most before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully,moreskilfully,mostskilfully.
You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in the English language. I will, therefore, give you somesignswhich will assist you a little.
Most words ending inlyare adverbs; such as,politely, gracefully, judiciously. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of the questions,how? how much? when?orwhere?is an adverb; as, The river flowsrapidly; He walksvery fast; He has gonefar away;but he willsoonreturn; She singssweetly; They learnnone at all. How, or in what manner does the river flow?Rapidly. How does he walk?Very fast. Where has he gone?Far away. When will he return?Soon. How does she sing?Sweetly. How much do they learn?None at all. From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly important.Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly, &c. are known to be adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "Averygood pen writesextremely well." Well, in this sentence, is known to be an adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verbwrites; extremely, by its ending inly, or by its being joined to the adverbwellto qualify it; andveryis known as an adverb by its joining the adjectivegood.
Expressions like these,none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long since, at length, in vain, when they are used to denote themannerortimeof the action of verbs or participles, are generally termedadverbial phrases.
Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical convenience, be reduced to particular classes.
1.Of Number;as, Once, twice, thrice, &c.
2.Of Order;as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c.
3.Of Place;as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c.
4.Of Time.Present; as, Now, to-day, &c.Past; as, Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, &c.Future; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long, straightways, &c.Time indefinite; as, Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c.
5.Of Quantity; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly, &c.
6.Of Mannerorquality; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and they are generally formed by adding the terminationlyto an adjective or a participle, or by changingleintoly;as, Bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably.
7.Of Doubt; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.
8.Of Affirmation; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.
9.Of Negation; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, &c.
10.Of Interrogation; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and sometimes when, whence, where.
11.Of Comparison; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c.
1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions with the adverbs of place,here, there, where; as,Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein; therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon, hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the lettera, used instead ofat, an, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep,aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance,away, asunder, astray, &c.
1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions with the adverbs of place,here, there, where; as,Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein; therefore, (i.e. there-for,) wherefore, (i.e. where-for,) hereupon, hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c.
2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the lettera, used instead ofat, an, &c.; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep,aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance,away, asunder, astray, &c.
You will now please to read this lecturefourtimes over, and read slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in this sentence which you have just read, the wordsslowly, carefully, well, andfrequently, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in the question I have just put to you, the wordsnowandjustare adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading.
In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely, Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the systematic order,fourtimes over. Those words initalicsare adverbs.
The order of parsing anADVERB, is—an adverb, and why?—what sort?—what does it qualify?—RULE.
The order of parsing anADVERB, is—an adverb, and why?—what sort?—what does it qualify?—RULE.
"My friend has returnedagain; but his health isnot verygood."
Again, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb—of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined—it qualifies the verb "has returned," according to
Rule 29.Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs.
Notis an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb—of negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative—and it qualifies the adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29.Adverbs qualify verbs, &c.
Veryis an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an adjective—of comparison, it compares the adjective "good," and qualifies it according to Rule 29.Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c.
The traveller described a lofty castle decayinggradually. Veryfew literary meneverbecame distinguished poets. The great Milton excelsnotHomer. The Roman women,once voluntarilycontributed theirmostprecious jewels to save the city.
Many small streams uniting, formverylarge rivers. The river Funza fallingperpendicularlyforms a vast cataract. Attentive servantsalwaysdrive horsesvery carefully; negligent servantsoftendrive horsesvery carelessly. Assiduous scholars improvevery fast; idle scholars learnnone at all. Friendshipoftenends in love; but love in friendship,never.
NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked?Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far, andenough, qualify "have walked" understood;perhapsqualifiesnot; andquitequalifiesfar. The adverbsalwaysandcarefullyboth qualify the verb "drive:" the former expressestime, and the latter,manner. Onceandvoluntarilyqualify the verb "contributed;" the former expressesnumber, and the latter,manner. The wordtheiryou need not parse. The active verbto savehas no nominative. The nounsloveandfriendship, followingin, are in the objective case, and governed by that preposition.REMARKS ON ADVERBS.When the wordstherefore, consequently, accordingly, and the like, are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they areadverbs; but when they appear single, they are commonly consideredconjunctions.The wordswhenandwhere, and all others of the same nature, such aswhence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while, wherefore, &c. may be properly calledadverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either oftimeorplace; of conjunctions, as theyconjoin sentences.There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and, sometimes as adverbs; as, "Moremen than women were there; I ammorediligent than he." In the former sentencemoreis evidently an adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "to-day'slesson is longer thanyesterday's." In this example,to-dayandyesterdayare nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [to his] home yesterday, and will set out againto-day." Here they are nouns, if we supplyonbefore them."Wheremuch [wealth, talent, or something else] is given,much [increase, improvement] will be required;Muchmoney has been expended; It ismuchbetter to write than starve." In the first two of these examples,muchis an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjectivebetter. In short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by itssense, or by considering themannerin which it is associated with other words.An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from anadverbby this rule: when a word qualifies anounorpronoun, it is an adjective, but when it qualifies averb, participle, adjective, oradverb, it is an adverb.Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns are understood. "He ridesabout;" that is, about thetown, country, or some-thingelse. "She wasnear[theactormisfortune of] falling;" "But do notafter[thattimeorevent] lay the blame on me." "He camedown[theascent] from the hill;" "They lifted himup[theascent] out of the pit." "The angelsabove;"—aboveus—"Above these lowerheavens, to us invisible, or dimly seen."
NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked?Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far, andenough, qualify "have walked" understood;perhapsqualifiesnot; andquitequalifiesfar. The adverbsalwaysandcarefullyboth qualify the verb "drive:" the former expressestime, and the latter,manner. Onceandvoluntarilyqualify the verb "contributed;" the former expressesnumber, and the latter,manner. The wordtheiryou need not parse. The active verbto savehas no nominative. The nounsloveandfriendship, followingin, are in the objective case, and governed by that preposition.
When the wordstherefore, consequently, accordingly, and the like, are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they areadverbs; but when they appear single, they are commonly consideredconjunctions.
The wordswhenandwhere, and all others of the same nature, such aswhence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while, wherefore, &c. may be properly calledadverbial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either oftimeorplace; of conjunctions, as theyconjoin sentences.
There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and, sometimes as adverbs; as, "Moremen than women were there; I ammorediligent than he." In the former sentencemoreis evidently an adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it is an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "to-day'slesson is longer thanyesterday's." In this example,to-dayandyesterdayare nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like the following, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [to his] home yesterday, and will set out againto-day." Here they are nouns, if we supplyonbefore them.
"Wheremuch [wealth, talent, or something else] is given,much [increase, improvement] will be required;Muchmoney has been expended; It ismuchbetter to write than starve." In the first two of these examples,muchis an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; in the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjectivebetter. In short, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by itssense, or by considering themannerin which it is associated with other words.
An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from anadverbby this rule: when a word qualifies anounorpronoun, it is an adjective, but when it qualifies averb, participle, adjective, oradverb, it is an adverb.
Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns are understood. "He ridesabout;" that is, about thetown, country, or some-thingelse. "She wasnear[theactormisfortune of] falling;" "But do notafter[thattimeorevent] lay the blame on me." "He camedown[theascent] from the hill;" "They lifted himup[theascent] out of the pit." "The angelsabove;"—aboveus—"Above these lowerheavens, to us invisible, or dimly seen."
Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax, you may answer these
Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?—What parts of speech does it qualify?—When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it express?—When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it generally express?—Compare some adverbs.—By what signs may an adverb be known?—Give examples.—Repeat someadverbial phrases.—Name the different classes of adverbs.—Repeat some of each class.—Repeat the order of parsing an adverb.—What rule do you apply in parsing an adverb?
Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs of place.—Repeat some that are composed of the articleaand nouns.—What part of speech are the words,therefore, consequently, &c.?—What words are styledadverbial conjunctions?—Why are they so called?—Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb?—Give examples.—What is said ofmuch?—By what rule can you distinguish an adjective from an adverb?—Do prepositions ever become adverbs?PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that that nation which continues, through successive generations, steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the English language as their medium for the transmission of thought. Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does much for their benefit.Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words; as, "He did ithere," for, He did itin this place; there, for,in that place; where, for,in what place; now, for,at this time. Whymeansfor what reason; how—in what mind, mood, mode, ormanner; exceedingly—to a great degree; very—in an eminent degree; oftenandseldomsignifymany times, few times.The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those inly, a contraction oflike. Gentleman-ly, meansgentleman-like, likea gentleman. We do not yet say,ladily, butlady-like. The north Britons still say,wiselike, manlike, instead of,wisely, manly.Quickcomes fromgwick, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verbgwiccian, to vivify, give life.Quick-lyorlive-ly, means, in aquick-likeorlife-likemanner; in the manner of a creature that haslife. Rapid-ly—rapid-like, like a rapid; aquick-lyorswift-lyrunning place in a stream.Al-ways, contraction ofin all ways. By a slight transition, it meansinorat all times. Al-one, contraction ofall-one. On-ly—one-like. Al-so—all the same(thing.)Ever—anage. Foreverandever—foragesandages. Ever is not synonymous with always.Never—ne ever. It signifiesno age, no period of time. No, contraction ofnot. Not, a modification ofno-thing, noth-ing, naught. "He isnotgreater"—is greaterin naught—in no thing.Adriftis the past part.adrifed, adrif'd, adrift; from the Saxondrifan, oradrifan, to drive.Ago, formerly writtenygo, gon, agon, gone, agone, is the past part. of the verbto go. It refers to timegone by. Asunder, the Saxon past part.asundren, from the verbsondrianorasondrian, to separate.Aloft—on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyftbeing the Anglo-Saxon word forairorclouds. Astray, the part. ofstraegan, to stray.Awry, part. ofwry than, to writhe.Needs—need-is; anciently,nedes, nede is. To-wit, the infinitive ofwitan, to know. It means,to be known.Ayoryeasignifieshave it, enjoy it. Yesisay-es, have, possess, enjoythat. Our corrupto-yesof the crier, is the French imperative,oyez, hear, listen.Straight way—by a straight way.While—wheel; period in which some thingwhilesorwheelsitself round.Till—to while.Per, Latin,—the Englishby. Perhaps—per haps, per chance.These examples of derivation are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke."QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language?—Illustrate the fact.—What is said ofly, like, andquick?—How are the following words composed,always, alone, only, also?—What is the meaning ofever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry?—Give the signification ofneeds, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till, andper.NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes, in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient.
Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs of place.—Repeat some that are composed of the articleaand nouns.—What part of speech are the words,therefore, consequently, &c.?—What words are styledadverbial conjunctions?—Why are they so called?—Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb?—Give examples.—What is said ofmuch?—By what rule can you distinguish an adjective from an adverb?—Do prepositions ever become adverbs?
As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that that nation which continues, through successive generations, steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the English language as their medium for the transmission of thought. Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does much for their benefit.
Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words; as, "He did ithere," for, He did itin this place; there, for,in that place; where, for,in what place; now, for,at this time. Whymeansfor what reason; how—in what mind, mood, mode, ormanner; exceedingly—to a great degree; very—in an eminent degree; oftenandseldomsignifymany times, few times.
The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those inly, a contraction oflike. Gentleman-ly, meansgentleman-like, likea gentleman. We do not yet say,ladily, butlady-like. The north Britons still say,wiselike, manlike, instead of,wisely, manly.
Quickcomes fromgwick, the past part. of the Anglo-Saxon verbgwiccian, to vivify, give life.Quick-lyorlive-ly, means, in aquick-likeorlife-likemanner; in the manner of a creature that haslife. Rapid-ly—rapid-like, like a rapid; aquick-lyorswift-lyrunning place in a stream.
Al-ways, contraction ofin all ways. By a slight transition, it meansinorat all times. Al-one, contraction ofall-one. On-ly—one-like. Al-so—all the same(thing.)Ever—anage. Foreverandever—foragesandages. Ever is not synonymous with always.Never—ne ever. It signifiesno age, no period of time. No, contraction ofnot. Not, a modification ofno-thing, noth-ing, naught. "He isnotgreater"—is greaterin naught—in no thing.
Adriftis the past part.adrifed, adrif'd, adrift; from the Saxondrifan, oradrifan, to drive.Ago, formerly writtenygo, gon, agon, gone, agone, is the past part. of the verbto go. It refers to timegone by. Asunder, the Saxon past part.asundren, from the verbsondrianorasondrian, to separate.Aloft—on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyftbeing the Anglo-Saxon word forairorclouds. Astray, the part. ofstraegan, to stray.Awry, part. ofwry than, to writhe.
Needs—need-is; anciently,nedes, nede is. To-wit, the infinitive ofwitan, to know. It means,to be known.Ayoryeasignifieshave it, enjoy it. Yesisay-es, have, possess, enjoythat. Our corrupto-yesof the crier, is the French imperative,oyez, hear, listen.Straight way—by a straight way.While—wheel; period in which some thingwhilesorwheelsitself round.Till—to while.Per, Latin,—the Englishby. Perhaps—per haps, per chance.
These examples of derivation are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke."
How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language?—Illustrate the fact.—What is said ofly, like, andquick?—How are the following words composed,always, alone, only, also?—What is the meaning ofever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry?—Give the signification ofneeds, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till, andper.
NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes, in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient.
NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:—She writes elegant; He is walking slow.
The adjectivesindifferent, excellent, andmiserable, are here improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, therefore, be, "indifferentlyhonest,excellentlywell,miserablypoor."Elegantandsloware also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it isthe officeof the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writeselegantly; He is walkingslowly."
The adjectivesindifferent, excellent, andmiserable, are here improperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, therefore, be, "indifferentlyhonest,excellentlywell,miserablypoor."Elegantandsloware also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it isthe officeof the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writeselegantly; He is walkingslowly."
You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain the principles that are violated.
He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent.
She reads proper, and writes very neat.
They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor.
The lowering clouds are moving slow.
He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give offence.
NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of adjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, butsuitablyto his offence."
The adverbsuitablyis incorrect. It does not express the manner of the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes thequalityof the nountermsunderstood; for which reason it should be an adjective,suitable.
The adverbsuitablyis incorrect. It does not express the manner of the action of the verb "addressed," but it denotes thequalityof the nountermsunderstood; for which reason it should be an adjective,suitable.
The man was slowly wandering about,solitarilyand distressed.
He lived in a manneragreeablyto his condition.
The study of Syntax should bepreviouslyto that of Punctuation.
He introduced himself in a manner veryabruptly.
Conformablyto their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence of gesture.
I saw himpreviouslyto his arrival.
A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them.
A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them.
The termprepositionis derived from the two Latin words,pre, which signifiesbefore, andpono, to place. Prepositions are so called, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they govern in the objective case.
The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in composition.
This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions, and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted with thenatureof the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too, you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes any word belongs.
By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that it performs adoubleoffice in a sentence, namely, itconnectswords, and also shows arelationbetween them. I will first show you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is ripe—October, it is gathered—the field—men—who go—hill—hill—baskets,—which they put the ears. You perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let us fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear. "When corn is ripe,inOctober, it is gatheredinthe fieldbymen, who gofromhilltohillwithbaskets,intowhich they put the ears."
From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX.; in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I will show you how prepositions express arelationbetween words.
The boy's hat isunderhis arm. In this expression, what relation does the prepositionundershow? You know thathatandarmare words used as signs of two objects, or ideas; butunderisnotthe sign of a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of therelationexisting between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the wordunderis the sign of therelationexisting between particularideas, it also expresses a relation existing between the wordshatandarm, which words are the representatives of those ideas.
The boy holds his hatinhis hand. In this sentence the prepositioninshows the relation existing betweenhatandhand, or the situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, if I say, The boy's hat isonhis head, you perceive thatonshows the relation betweenhatandhead. Again, in the expressions, The boy threw his hatup stairs—underthe bed—behindthe table—throughthe window—overthe house—acrossthe street—intothe water—and so on, you perceive that the several prepositions express the different relations existing between thehatand the other nouns,stairs, bed, table, window, house, street, andwater.
A preposition tellswherea thing is: thus, "The pear is on the ground,underthe tree."
Prepositions govern the objective case, but they donotexpress an action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participle does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the objective case, because it is the object of therelationexpressed by the preposition, andnotthe object of anaction.
I can now give you a more extensive explanation of theobjective case, than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed you, that the objective case expresses the object of an actionorof a relation; and, also, that there arethreeparts of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely,active-transitive verbs, participles derived from transitive verbs, andprepositions. A noun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, the object of an actionandof a relation. It must be either the object of an actionorof a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or participle, it is the object of anaction; as, The tutorinstructshispupils; or, The tutor isinstructinghispupils; but whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of arelation; as, The tutor gives good instructiontohispupils.
Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to review this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previously recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This course will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish to proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have learned thus far, you will understandsevenparts of speech; and onlythreemore will remain to be learned.
If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the followingorder, and then proceed in parsing.
The order of parsing aPREPOSITION, is—a preposition, and why?—what does it connect?—what relation does it show?
The order of parsing aPREPOSITION, is—a preposition, and why?—what does it connect?—what relation does it show?
"He saw an antelopeinthewilderness."
Inis a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them—it connects the words "antelope" and "wilderness"—and shows the relation between them.
Wildernessis a noun, the name of a place—com. the name of a sort or species—neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex—third pers. spoken of—sing. num. it implies but one—and in the objective case, it is the object of arelationexpressed by the preposition "in," and governed by it, according to
RULE 31.Prepositions govern the objective case.
The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand beforehe; Hand the paper tothey. Prepositionsrequirethe pronoun following them to be in the objective form, position, or case; and this requisition amounts togovernment. Hence we say, "Stand beforehim;" "Hand the paper tothem." Every preposition expresses a relation, and every relation must have anobject: consequently, every preposition must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case.
The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract the laboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of Egypt.
A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales.
At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast; and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards.
Love still pursues an ever devious race,
True to the winding lineaments of grace.
NOTE.—The wordsmyandandyou need not parse. The noun "meteors," following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed byuntounderstood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home" is governed bytounderstood, according to Rule 32.REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS.A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a preposition understood; as, "Givehimthat book;" that is, "Give that booktohim;" "Ortugrul was onedaywandering," &c. that is,onone day. "Mercy givesafflictiona grace;" that is, Mercy gives a gracetoaffliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use ofbyandwith;as, "He walkswitha staffbymoonlight;" "He was takenbystratagem, and killedwitha sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, "He walksbya staffwithmoonlight;" "He was takenwithstratagem, and killedbya sword;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.Verbs are often compounded of a verb and apreposition;as, touphold, towithstand, tooverlook; and this composition gives a new meaning to the verb; as, tounderstand, towithdraw, toforgive. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered asa part of the verb. Thus,to castmeansto throw; butto cast upan account, signifiesto computeit; thereforeupis a part of the verb. The phrases,to fall on, to bear out, to give over, convey very different meanings from what they would if the prepositionson, outandover, were not used. Verbs of this kind are calledcompoundverbs.
NOTE.—The wordsmyandandyou need not parse. The noun "meteors," following the adverb "like," is in the objective case, and governed byuntounderstood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home" is governed bytounderstood, according to Rule 32.
A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a preposition understood; as, "Givehimthat book;" that is, "Give that booktohim;" "Ortugrul was onedaywandering," &c. that is,onone day. "Mercy givesafflictiona grace;" that is, Mercy gives a gracetoaffliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32.
To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use ofbyandwith;as, "He walkswitha staffbymoonlight;" "He was takenbystratagem, and killedwitha sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, "He walksbya staffwithmoonlight;" "He was takenwithstratagem, and killedbya sword;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the former in signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine.
Verbs are often compounded of a verb and apreposition;as, touphold, towithstand, tooverlook; and this composition gives a new meaning to the verb; as, tounderstand, towithdraw, toforgive. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in all instances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered asa part of the verb. Thus,to castmeansto throw; butto cast upan account, signifiesto computeit; thereforeupis a part of the verb. The phrases,to fall on, to bear out, to give over, convey very different meanings from what they would if the prepositionson, outandover, were not used. Verbs of this kind are calledcompoundverbs.
You may now answer the following
From what words is the termprepositionderived?—Why is it thus named?—Repeat the list of prepositions.—Name the three parts of speech that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case.—When is a noun or pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?—When is it the object of a relation?—Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.—What rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition?—Does every preposition require an objective case after it?—Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition understood?—Give examples.—What is said of verbs compounded of a verb and preposition?—Give the origin and meaning of the prepositions explained in the Philosophical Notes.