There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and thrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has already employed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless he believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one of the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the public this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded, must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, withthemhe will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement,thatwill be its best apology.
When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy medium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little like presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least, inmanner,if not inmatter; and this conviction, he believes, will be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the author considers a very important object, namely,a systematic order of parsing;and nearly all have neglected todevelop and explainthe principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use.
By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of itssimplicity; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct the literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify him; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has hitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and useful exercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with their practical utility and application.
Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of policy, but from choice, to select hisprincipleschiefly from that work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another.
The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to originality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he happen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar tosomecontained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is not uncommon for the same thought to be strictlyoriginalwith many writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of another; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject a good ideaof his own,merely because some one else has, at some time or other, been blessed with the same thought.
As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of illustrations so full and intelligible, ascompletely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners.Whether this design has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the public to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it has become known, and the ready sale offorty thousandcopies, (thoughwithout hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,) are favorable omens.
In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own invention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he has taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others, consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in themethod adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the learner. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: and he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own want of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and, moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected because they admit of exceptions.—He who is thoroughly acquainted with the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth of these remarks.
Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which it accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the definitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of Lectures.
As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangement essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the order of parsing, will not consider itnew, but blend it with those long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat similar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author considers aregular systematic order.
The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher tointerrogatethe pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. Thesystematicorder laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses, without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing, he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method, are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice, wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying them in parsing.
If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years, devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system, he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical knowledge of this abstruse science, intwo months, than he could inone yearwhen he taught in the "old way." It is presumed that no instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the truth of this assertion.
Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will find that, although the author has not followed the common "artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of the understanding."
The learner should commence,not by committing and rehearsing, but by reading attentively the firsttwolectures several times over. He ought then to parse, according to thesystematic order, the examples given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the parts of speech included in the examples.
The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an "Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the young student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsingfivewords critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsingfiftywords superficially, and without understanding their various properties. The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing his pupils recite a single lesson ofdefinitionscommitted to memory, for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the learner in school, as well as for theprivate learner, will be given in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized; but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not be thrown uponhim.
To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints by way of encouragement.
Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to make himself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find it an easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer, is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him communicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part of speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties, not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also by giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part of speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it, and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the rules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may have been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress, on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and that teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an enviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM.
TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.
You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind, all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual existence;—of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship, arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;—when you speak, read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility.
Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross, which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me, therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it impossible for any one tounderstandthem: their language frequently amounts, not only tobadsense, butnon-sense. In other instances several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.
The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you will be able,if you exercise your mind,to understand its nature, and apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you would probably be unable to comprehend.
Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing; and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your studies, is to cultivate the habit ofthinking methodically and soundlyon all subjects of importance which may engage your attention. Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.
You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and knowledge;—an age in which science and the arts are marching onward with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;—a land on which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or in our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuous people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of her crystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame." Become learned and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you will be happy.
Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and desires.
Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken and written.
NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another. The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds; modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in the use of thoseinarticulatesounds by which they express their thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.
ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.—In order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the termword,I will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.
Idea. Thenoticeswhich we gain by sensation and perception, and which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we callcoldness. That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the mind, is calledperception;and the abstract notice itself, or notion you form of this sensation, is denominated anidea. This being premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.
Wordsarearticulatesounds, used by common consent, not as natural, but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them. In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the namegold;not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the wordgoldwould convey the same idea to the people of other countries as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus,aurumdenotes the same idea in Latin, andorin French. Hence it follows, that it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.
SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice.
The voiceis formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.
WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate sounds uttered by the voice.
GRAMMAR is the science of language.
Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all languages.
PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,
The established practice of the best speakers and writersof any language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that language.
By the phrase,established practice,is implied reputable, national, and present usage. A usage becomesgoodandlegal,when it has been long and generally adopted.
The best speakers and writers,or such as may be considered good authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid matter, and refined manner.
In the grammar of aperfectlanguage, no rules should be admitted, but such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of that language and the nature of things; but our language beingim-perfect, it becomes necessary, in apracticaltreatise, like this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated bycustom. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, great inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have power to control it.
Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive advancement,variedfor purposes of practical convenience. Hence it assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give it. We are, therefore, asrationalandpracticalgrammarians, compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the language as itis, and not as itshould be, and bow to custom.
PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words, and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our observance.
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and design, and enforces their application.
PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the language, sanctioned by good usage.
DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed in a definite form.
RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English language with propriety.
GRAMMAR teaches ushow to use words in a proper manner.The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were invented.Grammar, well understood, enables us to express our thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest moment.
Grammar is divided into four parts;
ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just method of spelling words.
ORTHOGRAPHY meansword-making, orspelling. It teaches us the different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into syllables, and syllables into words.
As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and analyzing language. And, therefore, if you canspell correctly, you may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.
Orthography treats, 1st, ofLetters, 2ndly, ofSyllables, and 3dly, ofWords.
I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word.
The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters.
They are divided into vowels and consonants.
A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowels area, e, i, o, u,and sometimeswandy.Wandyare consonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels.
A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel; as,b, d, f, l. All letters except the vowels are consonants.
Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels.
The mutes cannot be soundedat allwithout the aid of a vowel. They areb, p, t, d, k, andcandghard.
The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They aref, l, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, andcandgsoft.
Four of the semi-vowels, namely,l, m, n, r, are calledliquids, because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into their sounds.
A diphthong is the union oftwovowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice; asoiin voice,ouin sound.
A triphthong is the union ofthreevowels pronounced in like manner; as,eauin beau,iewin view.
Aproperdiphthong hasboththe vowels sounded; as,ouin ounce. Animproperdiphthong has onlyoneof the vowels sounded; as,oain boat.
II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single impulse of the voice; as,a, an, ant.
A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable.
III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas.
Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative.
Aprimitiveword is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in the language; as,man, good.
Aderivativeword is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as,manful, goodness.
There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. Theterminations or added syllables, such ased, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness, and the like, were, originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to coalesce with other words.
A.—Ahas four sounds; the long; as inname, basin; the broad; as inball, wall; the short; as infagot, glass; and the flat, Italian sound; as inbar, farther. The improper diphthong,aa, has the short sound of a inBalaam, Canaan, Isaac; and the long sound ofainBaal, Gaal, Aaron.
The Latin diphthong,ae, has the long sound ofeinaenigma, Caesar, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless excrescence of antiquity, and write,enigma, Cesar.
The diphthong,ai, has the long sound ofa; as inpail, sail; except inplaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and some others.
Auis sounded like broadaintaught, like flatainaunt, like longoinhautboy, and like shortoinlaurel.
Awhas always the sound of broada; as inbawl, crawl.
Ayhas the long sound ofa; as inpay, delay.
B.—Bhas only one sound; as inbaker, number, chub.
Bis silent when it followsmin the same syllable; as inlamb, &c. except inaccumb, rhomb, andsuccumb. It is also silent beforetin the same syllable; as indoubt, debtor, subtle, &c.
C.—Csounds likekbeforea, o, u, r, l, t, and at the end of syllables; as incart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid. It has the sound ofsbeforee, i, andy; as incentre, cigar, mercy. Chas the sound ofshwhen followed by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as insocial, pronunciation, &c.; and ofzindiscern, sacrifice, sice, suffice. It is mute inarbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle.
Chis commonly sounded liketsh; as inchurch, chin; but in words derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound ofk; as inchemist, chorus; and likewise in foreign names; as inAchish, Enoch. In words from the French,chsounds likesh; as inchaise, chevalier; and also likeshwhen preceded bylorn; as inmilch, bench, clinch, &c.
Chinarch, before a vowel, sounds likek; as inarch-angel, except inarched, archery, archer; archenemy; but before a consonant, it sounds liketsh; as inarchbishop. Chis silent inschedule, schism, yacht, drachm.
D.—Dhas one uniform sound; as indeath, bandage. It sounds likedjorjwhen followed by longupreceded by the accent; as ineducate, verdure. It also sounds likejingrandeur, soldier.
The termination,ed, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains its distinct sound; as, awick-edman, alearn-edman,bless-edare the meek; but in verbs theeis generally dropped; as,passed, walked, flashed, aimed, rolled, &c. which are pronounced,past, walkt, flasht, aimd, rold.
E.—Ehas a long sound; as inscheme, severe; a short sound; as inmen, tent; and sometimes the sound of flata; as insergeant; and of shorti; as inyes, pretty, England, and generally in the unaccented terminations,es, et, en.
F.—Fhas one unvaried sound; as infancy, muffin; except inof, which, when uncompounded, is pronouncedov. A wive's portion, a calve's head, are improper. They should be,wife'sportion,calf'shead.
G.—Ghas two sounds. It is hard beforea, o, u, l, andr, and at the end of a word; as ingay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug. It is soft beforee, i, andy; as ingenius, ginger, Egypt. Exceptions;get, gewgaw, gimlet, and some others. G is silent beforen, as ingnash.
H.—Hhas an articulate sound; as inhat, horse, hull. It is silent afterr; as inrhetoric, rhubarb.
I.—Ihas a long sound; as infine; and a short one; as infin. Beforerit is often sounded likeushort; as infirst, third; and in other words, like shorte; as inbirth, virtue. In some words it has the sound of longe; as inmachine, profile.
J.—Jhas the sound of softg; except inhallelujah, in which it is pronounced likey.
K.—Khas the sound ofchard, and is used beforee, i, andy, wherecwould be soft; askept, skirt, murky. It is silent beforen; as inknife, knell, knocker.
L.—Lhas always a soft liquid sound; as inlove, billow. It is often silent; as inhalf, talk, almond.
M.—Mhas always the same sound; as inmurmur, monumental; except incomptroller, which is pronouncedcontroller.
N.—Nhas two sounds; the one pure; as inman, net, noble; the other a compound sound; as inankle, banquet, distinct, &c., pronouncedangkl, bangkwet.Nfinal is silent when preceded bym; as inhymn, autumn.
O.—Ohas a long sound; as innote, over; and a short one; as innot, got. It has the sound ofushort; as inson, attorney, doth, does; and generally in the terminations,op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od, &c.
P.—Phas but one uniform sound; as inpin, slipper; except incupboard, clapboard, where it has the sound ofb. It is mute inpsalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt.
Phhas the sound offinphilosophy, Philip; and ofvinnephew, Stephen.
Q.—Qis sounded likek, and is always followed byupronounced likew; as inquadrant, queen, conquest.
R.—Rhas a rough sound; as inRome, river, rage; and a smooth one; as inbard, card, regard. In the unaccented terminationre, theris sounded after the e; asin fibre, centre.
S.—Shas a flat sound likez; as inbesom, nasal; and, at the beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as insaint, sister, sample. It has the sound ofshwhen preceded by the accent and another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or longu; as inexpulsion, censure.Ssounds likezhwhen preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or longuas inbrasier, usual. It is mute inisle, corps, demesne, viscount.
T.—Tis sounded intake, temper.Tbeforeu, when the accent precedes, and generally beforeeou, sounds liketsh; as,nature, virtue, righteous, are pronouncednatshure, virtshue, richeus.Tibefore a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound ofsh; as insalvation, negotiation; except in such words astierce, tiara, &c. and unless ansgoes before; as,question; and excepting also derivatives from words ending inty; as inmighty, mightier.
Th, at the beginning,middle, and end of words, is sharp; as inthick, panther, breath. Exceptions;then, booth, worthy, &c.
U.—Uhas three sounds; a long; as inmule, cubic; a short; as indull, custard; and an obtuse sound; as infull, bushel. It is pronounced like shorteinbury; and like shortiinbusy, business.
V.—Vhas uniformly the sound of flatf; as invanity, love.
W.—W, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard inwo, beware.Wis silent beforer; as inwry, wrap, wrinkle; and also inanswer, sword, &c. Beforehit is pronounced as if written after theh; as inwhy, when, what;—hwy, hwen, hwat. When heard as a vowel, it takes the sound ofu; as indraw, crew, now.
X.—Xhas a sharp sound, likeks, when it ends a syllable with the accent on it; as,exit, exercise; or when it precedes an accented syllable which begins with any consonant excepth; as,excuse, extent; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel orh, it has, generally, a flat sound, likegz; as inexert, exhort.Xhas the sound ofZat the beginning of proper names of Greek original; as inXanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes.
Y.—Y, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as inyouth, York, yes, new-year. Whenyis employed as a vowel, it has exactly the sound thatiwould have in the same situation; as inrhyme, system, party, pyramid.
Z.—Zhas the sound of flats; as infreeze, brazen.
SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters.
The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.
RULE I. Monosyllables ending inf, l, ors, double the final or ending consonant when it is preceded by asinglevowel; asstaff, mill, pass. Exceptions;of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this, us, andthus.