THE MOST REFINED POLICY.

I. The center of all the political doctrine of Machiavel, is placed in that cursed maxim of his, that in the application of temporal means, the semblance or appearance of virtue is useful; real virtue, or virtue itself, is an obstacle. From this point issues forth, in right lines, the poison, to the whole circumference of that pernicious system. All the world abominates the name of Machiavel, and almost all the world are his followers. Although, to speak the truth, the practice of the world is not taken from the doctrine of Machiavel; but the doctrine of Machiavel, is rather taken from the practice of the world. This depraved genius taught, in his writings, that which he had studied in men. The world was the same before Machiavel, which it is at present, and theydeceive themselves greatly, who think, that the ages continued to grow worse, as they continued to succeed one another. The golden age never existed but in the imaginations of the poets; the happiness they feign to have prevailed in it, was enjoyed by only one man, and one woman, Adam and Eve; and continued so short a space of time, that so far from lasting an age, according to many fathers, it did not endure an entire day.

II. You need only examine history, both sacred and profane, to be informed, that the policy of the antients was not better than that of the moderns; and I for my part, am inclined to think it was worse; for they scarce knew any other road to the temple of Fortune, than that which was either laid open by violence, or fabricated by deceit. Good faith and friendship, lasted as long as people found it their interest to preserve them. Religion and justice, served as footstools to the idol of convenience. Ovid and Aulus Gellius relate, that when Tarquin resolved to build the great temple of the capitol to the honour of Jupiter, he demolished, in order to make room for it, the temples of many inferior Gods, who were all obliged to give way to Jupiter; but the God Terminus, or the patron of interest and convenience, refused to cede or make way for Jupiter himself, so he maintained his ground, and his statue kept itsplace in the capitol, jointly with that of Jupiter:

Terminus, ut veteres memorant, conventus in urbeRestitit, & magno cum Jove templa tenet.

Terminus, ut veteres memorant, conventus in urbe

Restitit, & magno cum Jove templa tenet.

III. This fiction discovers to us the following truth, that the object of men’s pursuits is their own convenience, which they are ever strenuous and anxious to promote; and this is the deity, who never cared to cede or give place to Jupiter himself, for from the most antient times,ut veteres memorant, interest has ever disputed the precedence with religion.

IV. Polybius lived a great while ago, and in his time they had not only one, but many Machiavels, who taught, that the management of public affairs was impracticable, without the aid of deceit and treachery:Non desunt, qui in tam crebro usu doli mali necessarium eum esse dicant ad publicarum rerum administrationem(Lib. 13. Histor.) Although you may see in Lucan, the fundamental doctrine of Machiavel more strongly expressed than it is in the above sentence, by the abandoned Phocion, in the speech he made to Ptolemy King of Egypt, to prevail with him, in violation of gratitude, and in breach of his plighted word, to take away the life of the great Pompey;

Sidera terraUt distant, & flamma mari sic utile recto.

Sidera terra

Ut distant, & flamma mari sic utile recto.

V. This is precisely saying, that virtue is always in a state of warfare with private utility, and that to negotiate convenience, it is necessary to abandon justice. A little after he adds, that he who resolves to be merciful and just, should banish himself from courts, for there, vice only is patronized:

Exeat aulaQui vult esse pius.

Exeat aula

Qui vult esse pius.

VI. This is the creed, not of a few people only, but of the world at large, and it has been so in all times. What Machiavel, Hobbes, and other infamous politicians have inserted in their works, is the same which you hear every day in juntos of people; to wit, that virtue is neglected, that vice is caressed and exalted; that truth and justice are banished from courts; and that flattery and lying are the wings, with which people ascend to high stations. But this I suppose to be an error, and that it ought to be classed in the catalogue of common errors, and in my reasoning on this subject, I shall undertake to demonstrate that it is one, by informing mankind, that contrary to the opinion of the world, the most refined, and the most safe policy, is that which is founded in justice and truth.

VII. I shall begin with confessing, that those who aspire at being usurpers, can never attain their ends, but by wicked means, because to the goal of insolence, there is no road through the land of virtue. But who will say these are subtil politicians? They are the most blind and mistaken of all, because they pursue a road, that is all over drenched with blood. Very few have travelled through it, who before they arrived at the point in view, have not lost their lives in a violent and an ignominious manner. You hardly see any thing in this whole rout, but men hanging on gibbets, carcasses extended on scaffolds, limbs torn off by wild beasts, and the ashes of victims, who have been sacrificed to the vengeance of the party offended. You may find here or there one, who, by pursuing this road, has at the end of his career attained sovereignty. But is the accidental success of one or two lucky people, a counterbalance to so horrid and bloody a spectacle? Who will be encouraged to trust himself in a sea, strewed with rocks, and covered with wrecks and dead bodies, because in the course of many ages, three or four vessels which have navigated it, have arrived safe at their desired port? We should add, to the hazard of shipwreck, the toils and terrors ofthe navigation; for it is certain, that those who navigate a sea of danger and horror, before their catastrophe, endure a tempest within their souls. Those who from private people aspire at being sovereigns, lead a life of perpetual alarms and anxiety, in order afterwards to die with ignominy: so that their toil and their danger remain cemented to their fortune, even after they have accomplished or succeeded in their undertaking; for all tyrants live in terror, and rarely or never die in their beds. But how can such as these be considered even as middling politicians? Policy, in the sense we here use the word, means the art of negotiating one’s own convenience. But what convenience can a man find, by travelling through a laborious life to a violent death? I say, that so far from contemplating such people as able politicians, we ought to esteem them consummate fools.

VIII. There are however, some among them, who by calling them fools, you do not say enough of; as they give cause to have themselves pronounced raving mad men; such, as when they see they are advancing to a lofty precipice, will attempt to scale the height; people, emulous of vain exaltations, who that they may shine on high, consent to be reduced to ashes, and who prefer the shortest life elevated in air, to a long duration onthe humble earth. These take to themselves the motto of Saavedra,dum luceam peream; provided they shine, they are indifferent about being consumed. Such was the ambitious Agrippina, who, when the Chaldeans told her her son would obtain the empire, but that he would take away her life, answered spiritedly,Occidat dum imperet. Provided he reigns, I don’t mind his murdering me. Such again was Anna Bolen, who, finding herself condemned to death for an adultress, said proudly, They may do what they will with me, but they can’t deprive me of having been Queen of England; from whence may be inferred, that she esteemed it a preferable lot, to have been a Queen, and die with indignity in the flower of her age, than to enjoy a long life of honour as a private person. We should look with an eye of pity on geniuses of this character, not only with respect to their misfortunes, but to their delusion also; and we should degrade those from politicians to mad men, who knowing their danger, run headlong into it.

IX. I will go so far as to acknowledge, that some iniquitous politicians, have experienced the gale of fortune favourable for them, even to the day of their deaths. Philip, King of Macedon, and father of Alexander, was fortunate in almost all his undertakings; for which he was as much indebted to his craft and deceptions, as to hisarms; and in his conquests, was equally favoured by Mercury and Mars; and if his injustice to Pausanias, in not caring to punish the abominable act of turpitude, which Atalus, one of Philip’s captains, had violently perpetrated on him, had not irritated that generous youth to such a degree, that he murdered the unjust Prince with his fists, it might have been said, that none of his wicked deeds had ever been prejudicial to his fortune. Cornelius Scylla manifested, that he professed no regard to any religion, by the havock he made among the Grecian temples, which he accompanied with such piccant terms of contempt and derision of their deities, as they were well deserving of; and though he was extremely able in the conduct of war, he was not less so in political subtilties; which made his enemy Carbon say of him, that in the person of one man, he found himself engaged with a lion and a fox, but that he feared the fox more than the lion. His cruelty exceeded the bounds of barbarity, notwithstanding which, he was wonderfully successful. He first triumphed over the enemies of the republic, and afterwards over his personal ones. Nor did his putting thousands of people to death violently, who while he was dictator were all executed by his order, excite a sufficient degree of public or private hatred, to occasion his being treated in the same way; but his natural death was worse than any violent one; for he died eat up by lice, in consequenceof all his flesh by degrees, being converted to those vermin.

X. England furnishes us in later times with two wayward, but successful politicians. The first was Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester[1], the favourite of Queen Elizabeth, and so great a favourite, as to cause his entertaining hopes, that she would give him her hand in marriage, which was the occasion of one of the most wicked acts of his life, for he murdered his wife to remove the obstacle to his attaining so high an honour. Fortune always cherished and continued faithful to him, making him to the day of his death, master of the affections of that Queen, whom he held in chains, by the sprightliness of his wit, and his fertile and domestic talents of pleasing, as well as by his genteel and graceful person; and he had the presumption, when he found he could not obtain her for his wife, to solicit from her the last personal favours. The second was Oliver Cromwell, who, under the title of Protector, wastyrant of England, and principal actor in the death of Charles the First. An attempt so horrible, from the circumstance of his own subjects having erected themselves into his Judges, and having instituted process, and pronounced sentence with all the formalities which are ordinarily used with respect to common criminals, is such an example, that the world till then, had never seen the like. The insult was made greater, by their affecting to elude insulting him, under the pretence, that they proceeded according to law. The English nation so far debased themselves by that act, that the person who was then hangman of London, and who could not be prevailed on, either by threats or promises to execute the sentence, appeared to be the most noble spirited man in the kingdom. Cromwell, the author of such an enormous piece of wickedness, and of many other inferior ones, reigned afterwards, not only absolute master of Great Britain for the residue of his life, but, by dint of his incomparable sagacity, came to be the arbiter of all Europe.

XI. There are these examples, but you will find very few others, of perverse politicians, who have been always successful. But what shall we infer from such examples? Shall we esteem those fine politicians who have pursued the same rout? no, we should rather call them absurd and insensible ones. It shews great want of judgment, to found hopes and expectations upon one or two singularevents, in preference to what commonly happens in the ordinary course of things. Because some one has found a vein of gold by digging the ground, would it not be madness in me to occupy myself, and spend all my time in opening wells through the bowels of the earth? for if two or three have found the philosopher’s stone, (though I much doubt if any one ever did) the number of those are infinite, who by searching after it, have wasted their substance, and lost their lives. In these very rare chances, on which imprudent ambitious people found their expectations, there likewise intervene other very rare accidents, and that these should all concur to favour him, is more than any prudent man can expect. Those few successful people were also assisted with very uncommon natural talents, by dint of which, if they had directed their steps through the paths of virtue, they would have gone on smoothly, and would have arrived at happiness with much greater ease and satisfaction to themselves, than they did in the vicious course they pursued; and this corresponds with the observation Titus Livius makes on the elder Cato;In illo viro tantum robur corporis, & animi fuit, ut quocumque loco natus esset, fortunam sibi facturus videretur.

XII. But abstracted from the innumerable craigs and stumbling blocks in the way of ambition,when it advances to its object by the road of infamy; if its views are very high, the best and most safe policy is, to pursue the pretension by the way of justice and truth. Lord Chancellor Bacon, who was as great a politician as he was a philosopher, divided policy into the high and the low. The exalted or sound policy, consists in the knowledge of disposing means for the attainment of ends, without deviating, either from truth, equity, or honour. The low or mean policy, consists in the art of attaining ends, by the means of fictions, flattery and sophistries; the first is proper and natural to men, in whom a generous and an upright heart, is joined to a clear understanding and a solid judgment. In fact, says the author we have cited, almost all eminent politicians have been of this character:sane ubique reperias homines rerum tractandarum peritissimos, omnes ferè candorem, ingenuitatem, & veracitatem in negotiis præsetulisse. The second sort is composed of men, of bastard dispositions or understandings: or of such whose understandings are so faintly enlightened, that they can discern no other road which will lead them to their desired end, but that of deceit; or their dispositions are so depraved, that they embrace dishonesty without reluctance, if they conceive it will be useful to them; or I am rather inclined to think, that both their dispositions and understandings are vitiated.

XIII. The representation of both these sorts of politicians, may be seen as in two mirrors, by viewing the characters of the two Emperors, Augustus and Tiberius, who were immediate successors to each other. Augustus was open, candid, generous, steady in his friendships, faithful to his promises, and free from all deceit. In the whole course of his life, which was a very long one, there does not appear the least treachery; why do I say treachery? not even the slightest fallacy. Tiberius, on the contrary, was deceitful, false, gloomy, and dissembling. His looks and his breast, were never in concord, and his words were always opposite to his designs; which of the two was the best politician? Tacitus decides the question, when he extols the perspicuity of Augustus, and remarks on the caution of Tiberius; in the last he recognizes high dissimulation, and in the first supreme ability, which induced Mucianus, by way of animating Vespasian against Vitellius to say:Non adversus Augusti acerrimam mentem, neque adversus Tiberii cautissimam senectutem insurgimus.

XIV. I should always esteem him the best politician, who, contented with the little or much which Heaven has bestowed on him, avoids interfering with, or engaging in the traffic and bustle of the world; in the same sense, we understandthe saying, that the best thing which can be done with dice, is to forbear playing with them; but we must except the case of filling a public office, the business of which must be attended to. The following admirable distich, of I don’t know what antient, seems addressed to all private people:

Mitte superba pati fastidia, spemque caducamDespice, vive tibi cum moriare tibi.

Mitte superba pati fastidia, spemque caducam

Despice, vive tibi cum moriare tibi.

XV. But I would not have it understood from what I have been saying, that I approve of those they commonly call good men, who are in all respects useless members of society, to whom may be applied the Italian proverb,Tanto buon che val niente.They are so good, that they are good for, or worth nothing. Much less do I approve of those narrow-minded geniuses, who care for nobody but themselves. It is meanness of spirit, says the excellent Bacon, for a man to direct all his attention to his own convenience, and to make that the centre of all his happiness:Centrum plane ignobile est actionum hominis cujusquam commodum proprium.Man is a sociable animal, not only by the force of social laws; but the obligation of assisting other men when it is in our power, is a debt we owe to our own nature, and more especially to our friend, and our neighbour, but most of all, to our King and our country. Pliny says, that those who are disposed to acts of beneficence, and to administer ease andcomfort to other men, have something divine in them:Deus est mortali juvare mortalem.Those whose whole care or attention is confined to themselves only, scarce deserve the name of human beings.

XVI. What reason dictates is, that we should neither officiously engage in, nor obstinately refuse entering into business, provided we find in ourselves talents, that are apt and proper for it. If a person can make his fortune in this line, although he does not solicit employments, he should not refuse accepting them; because the public is much interested, in having places of trust filled with able and good-intentioned men. But upon a supposition, that the doctrine we have laid down on this head, is not suited to men of such moderation, but rather applicable to those who are somewhat affected with the malady of ambition, and who are not fond of reading documents of morality, but had rather study political ones: I say upon this supposition, let us proceed in following the parallel of the two courses, by which a man may either make his fortune, or improve that which he is already possessed of.

XVII. All that a person can reasonably desire, may be attained without deviating from the path of honour. A man of a clear head, accompaniedwith perspicuity and prudence, will always find a way to arrive at the goal of his pretensions, without inclining the line of rectitude and honesty, towards the curve of deceit. Fidelity in friendship, and sincerity in behaviour, are so far from being prejudicial, that they afford great assistance; because with these endowments, he will gain the confidence and good-will of such as can lend their hand to raise him, and of those, who may be useful as instruments in helping him forward. By being disinterested and a lover of justice, he will acquire the esteem and affection of many, and the veneration of all men. To be open-hearted, and to communicate with confidence in all matters, except such as prudence dictates to you to conceal, or else, such as are confided to you under the seal of secrecy, by those with whom you have friendly intercourse, have a most powerful attraction. And although this behaviour may sometimes occasion disgust, to here and there a person of a different cast of mind; that disadvantage would be doubly compensated for, by the good opinion, that person would entertain of such a one when he is persuaded, that he is a man of sincerity; for the disgust would pass away, and the good opinion would remain. In fact, these transparent souls, when discretion is combin’d with the purity of their dispositions, are those, who ascend to the greatest height with the least fatigue. The theatre of nature in this particular,is an emblem of the theatre of fortune. The diaphonous and brilliant bodies, are those which occupy the most elevated stations in the fabric of the globe; the gloomy, opake, and obscure ones, the lowest.

XVIII. He who finds himself aided with an apt or ready prudence, an upright intention, and a firm loyalty, together with the qualities we have before enumerated, has no need to be always considering and contriving means to better his affairs. Apelles, who in every other instance celebrated the famous painter Protogenes, pointed out a defect in him, which was, that he never knew when to have done finishing a picture; this shews, says Pliny, that too much diligence many times is prejudicial:Documentum memorabile nocere sæpe nimiam diligentiam.When our politician finds himself on the theatre where his talents become conspicuous, expedients occur to him without much thought or study. An officious left-handed competitor may happen to dispute the palm with him, but it will be at the expence of a great deal of additional toil and labour. The cunning snake may arrive at the same eminence, to which the generous eagle aspires to mount, but with how much fatigue? The character and properties of a low politician, cannot be better displayed, than under the figure of a snake, the side way and oblique motion with which he goeson, points out the deceit he proceeds with; his breast fix’d to the earth, shews his adherence to self-interest; the various inflexions and foldings of his body, are descriptive of his crooked soul; and his conceal’d venom, denotes the evil intention he hides. O serpent! what pains does it cost you to better your situation, only because thou art a snake; while at the same time, the eagle with a careless and an easy flight, ascends to the top of Olympus.

XIX. This is not the greatest inequality discernible; the most striking consists, in the different security consequent to the one and the other mode of conduct. The left-handed politician, both while he is seeking his fortune, and even after he has obtained it, is exposed to great danger. It is impossible, or next to impossible, that the artifices and mal-practices of a man beset and watched by many rivals, should not be discovered; and when these are once laid open, as this was the cement of the whole fabric, its being reduced to ruins will not be delayed an instant. It is very difficult says father Famianus Estrada, for him to avoid a sudden fall, who stands on slippery ground, and is press’d upon by many people:Difficile est in lubrico stare diu, quem plures impellunt.This is the state of a deceitful politician; he walks through a very slippery path, and is always upon false ground. The people who labour to pull him down consist, of all those who either envy his fortune, or abhor his evil deeds; which is as much as to say, he has for enemies, both the good and the bad. How can a man so circumstanced, support himself for any length of time? he must be overthrown, and, as it frequently happens, may in his fall be dashed to pieces: an energetic description of this is sung by Claudian:

————Jam non ad culmina rerumInjustos crevisse queror: tolluntur in altumUt lapsu graviore ruant.

————Jam non ad culmina rerum

Injustos crevisse queror: tolluntur in altum

Ut lapsu graviore ruant.

XX. The upright politician, on the contrary, meets no dangers on his road, and has nothing to fear at his journey’s end. He is the more safe, the more the grounds of his conduct are displayed. He has fewer enemies than the other, because they can consist of none but bad people. In case he is overthrown, his fall will not be precipitate and violent, but soft and easy. His innocence will at least preserve his life; and the worst that can befal him, is being reduced to his former state; but it most commonly happens, that evil-intentioned people do not succeed in their attacks upon him, and that the shafts of their malice recoiland wound themselves, which oftentimes, affords honour and triumph to the party accused. The history of a politician of integrity, although an infidel by his religion, occurs to me at present, which is very applicable to the subject we are treating of. The relation is taken from Tavernier’s Voyages, and it being new and pleasant, I shall give a brief recital of it.

XXI. Mahomed Alibeg, high steward to the King of Persia, was, from being a poor shepherd, raised to that elevated post, in the beginning of the last century. The King, one day when he was hunting, met with him in the mountains, where he was playing on his flute, and attending his flocks. For his amusement, he asked him some questions, and, taken with the vivacity and acuteness of the lad’s answers, he carried him with him to his palace; where having him instructed, the rectitude of his heart, and the clearness of his understanding, soon gained the affection and confidence of the King, who advanc’d him rapidly from charge to charge, till he at last placed him in the office of high steward. His inflexible integrity, and his aversion to bribes, a thing very rare among the Mahometans, raised him powerful enemies; but finding him so thoroughly possessed of the confidence of his master, they could not venture to act in a hostile way against him during the King’s life. After his death, whenhis successor who was a young man mounted the throne, they suggested to him, that Mahomet had subtracted vast sums from the Royal Treasury. The Prince ordered him to make up his accounts in fifteen days, to which Mahomet replied with intrepidity, that so much delay was not necessary, and that if his Majesty would be pleased to go with him immediately to the Treasury Office, he would there deliver them to him. The King went, followed by all the accusers, but he found every thing in such fine order, and the books of accounts so exactly and accurately stated, with which all other circumstances corresponded, that nobody had a word to say. From thence the King proceeded to Mahomet’s house, where he could not help admiring the moderation of the furniture, and the poverty of the decorations. One of the enemies of the favourite observing the door of a room shut, and secured with three strong chains, hinted it to the King, who asked Mahomet what he had got shut up in that room. Sir, answered Mahomet, here I keep my own things, all you have hitherto seen belongs to your Majesty; and having said this he opened the door. The King entered the room, and after looking all round, saw nothing but the following particulars hanging on nails drove into the wall. A leathern doublet, a wallet, a shepherd’s crook, and a flute. The King was viewingthem with astonishment, when Mahomet throwing himself at his feet, said, Sir, this is the habit, and these are the goods which I was possessed of, when the King your father brought me to court. These were what belonged to me then, and these are what I have now, and these only I claim as my own; and as they are so, I supplicate with the greatest submission, that your Majesty will permit me to enjoy them, by returning to the mountains from whence my fortune brought me forth. Here the King, unable to refrain from tears, embraced the generous favourite; and not content with this mark of his approbation, immediately stript off his royal robes, and ordered Mahomet to wear them, which in Persia, is esteemed the highest honour a King can confer on a subject. The result of all this, was, that Mahomet during his whole life after, preserved the firm confidence and love of his Prince. What pity it is, that this disinterestedness, this nobleness of mind, this rectitude, this moderation, should be all lodged in an infidel!

XXII. The obstacle in the way of an honest politician, is the difficulty of treating with men in power upon the principles of truth and candour. Flattery is a door, that opens very wide for the introduction to favour, but as it is very low also,no man of a generous mind can enter in at it. I have heard all the world declare they abhorred flatterers, but I never saw any one who did not cherish them. This proceeds, from every man rating his own talents at more than their true value, and because the true language of a flatterer corresponds with the good opinion the person flattered entertains of himself, who does not look upon him who pays the adulation as a flatterer, but as a man of abilities, and one who forms right judgments of things: but allowing him to be so prudent, as even to undervalue, instead of over-rating his own talents, he might still lie open to the practices of a flatterer; as for instance, the flatter’d person, might be induced to attribute the excessive high opinion the flatterer professed to entertain of him, to the excess of his love and esteem for him, and all that is represented through the microscope of love, is greatly magnified in the imagination; and in this case, although he does not credit the applause, he esteems the affection. By these means, flattery becomes a universal net, which catches and entangles fish of every kind.

XXIII. This method then, if managed with art, for there are some flatterers, who are fulsome and surfeiting, is sufficiently effectual and secure to practise with, but is at the same time most vile and pernicious, and therefore should never be made use of, nor should the truth ever be deviated from.But truth is disgusting! no matter, prudence will find seasonings to make it palatable; and although it be true, that by using these means, an honest man will be longer in ingratiating himself into the good opinion of a great person, than a sordid flatterer, still, he will in the end obtain a more solid and lasting estimation with him. The first thing to be observed by him, is never to give his opinion with asperity, nor ever to give it at all but at proper opportunities. The rigidity of undeceiving people with respect to their errors, should be softened by the gentleness of respect; and if reverence and sweetness of manner, are used as vehicles to convey the proposition, they will cause it to be well received. It would be better still, to refrain intirely from doing what we have just mentioned, if you could with propriety be excused from speaking your sentiments. These qualities were celebrated by King Theodoricus, in a favourite of his:Sub genii nostri luce intrepidus quidem; sed reverenter adstabat, opportune tacitus, necessarie copiosus.(Casiodor. lib. 5. Epist. 3.) In cases that admit of waiting for favourable opportunities, be watchful and attentive to make use of them, when the mind of the great man is happily tempered, and when he is well disposed to be undeceived, and to receive information; the choice of these must be confided to discretion, which best understandsthese matters, and is the best guide in such cases:

Sola viri molles aditus, & tempora noras.

XXIV. In the second place, you should never, in opposition to the opinion of a great man, be stiff or positive in maintaining your own sentiments, because this is difficult to be done without giving offence. The philosopher Favorinus answered wisely to some, who blamed him for giving way in a dispute he had with the Emperor Adrian, by saying to them, it was proper and necessary to give way to a man who commanded thirty legions.

XXV. Thirdly, you may sweeten the bitter of truth, with a species of engaging and modest condescension; which consists more in actions, than in words, I mean that it is contained in being obsequious, and expressing by your gestures, a disposition and desire to please; and these will have a notable effect in promoting attention to your advice, because they will create an opinion, that the instruction is the offspring of generous sincerity, and not of positive pride. I would not however have it understood, that the submission should be abject, or savour of meanness of spirit; but I had almost said, that with respect to superiors, submission is generally defended from thehazard of such an imputation. Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, having refused to grant a request which was made to him by Aristippus of Cyrene, he prostrated himself at his feet, and obtained what he asked. Some people reprehended the action, as beneath the dignity of a philosopher; to which Aristippus answered, “He that would be heard by Dionysius, must apply his mouth to his feet, for there his ears are placed.” The saying was pleasant, and I won’t determine whether or not the submission was excessive.

XXVI. I repeat my assurance, that by using these precautions, the open honest politician, will obtain a much higher degree of estimation in the mind of a great man, than the sly contemplative one. When he arrives at convincing the person who was before persuaded he was able, that he is candid also, he stands on sure ground. In consequence of his integrity, he may at times experience a few slights, but he will still continue to possess the confidence he has gained; as it happened to the Duke of Alva, with Philip the Second, when he sent the Duke to conquer Portugal. The king, before he set out, shewed him the slight of refusing to let him wait on him to take his leave, and at the same time confided to his management, an enterprize of such importance. On the contrary, the flatterer, although he in his ordinary conversation and deportment,is always pleasant and entertaining, still you will perceive, if his superior is a wary man, that such sort of talents do not introduce him deep into his esteem. Many people make use of flatterers, as men who are feverish use water; which although it may seem obnoxious to them, they gargle their throats with, but do not swallow it. Generally speaking, and to me the conclusion is infallible, that with an equal share of talents, the good, candid, faithful, grateful man, who is a lover of justice and equity, will make a greater fortune, and with more certainty, than he who is void of those qualities, or possessed of opposite ones.

XXIX. But here I find myself pressed with an objection, which is pretended to be derived from common experience, to wit, that nothing is seen in the world but perverse people exalted, and virtuous ones cast down; that flattery and deceit ride triumphant; and that truth and candour lie groaning and oppressed. I answer first, that all this seems more like the voice of envy, than just observation founded on experience. I confess, that you hear these complaints at every turn; but who articulates them? not those who occupy places, for they would hardly speak against themselves; neither do virtuous neglected people utter them; forthey are not apt to go about complaining, and troubling the world with their disappointments, neither do they snarl at, or envy the honours conferred on men in power, nor do they compliment themselves with being the only people who possess any degree of merit. Who are those then, that find themselves so neglected? none but the bad and incapable; such who from want of ability, and by their bad behaviour, have made themselves unworthy of all attention; these are the men, who accuse Fortune of partiality; and the angry and discontented people being very numerous, they make such a noise with their complaints, that the cries vociferated from their vitiated breasts, seem like the clamours of all the world. You may add to this, that as no man who arrives at obtaining power, can serve every one he sees in an inferior station, but only a few of them, all such then as do not partake of his beneficence, think he has made an unjust distribution of his favours; like the Cafres, they only worship God when he sends them fair weather, and are very angry with him when they have foul. The very people obliged, are apt to complain, because the favours bestowed on them, fall short of what they expected, or what they thought themselves entitled to. I can assert from my own experience, that having had intercourse with some of those persons who had been the artisans of their own fortune, I found them beyond comparisonbetter men, than common fame had represented them to be.

XXVIII. Secondly, even though it should appear true, that the fortunate virtuous men are but few in number, I answer, nothing can be inferred from thence to contradict what we have asserted. If those are few who have made their fortunes by pursuing the paths of virtue, it is, because few have attempted it in that way. How can many arrive at a goal, which but few have set out on their rout to? It is certain, that men of sanctity of manners, or those who are truly virtuous, are never solicitous about ascending to high stations. They are like the stars, none of which attempt rising to a sphere superior to that in which God has placed them. Those who are not blessed with such solid virtue, but are endowed with the talents we have mentioned before, are the men we are about to treat of; and I say, that in all countries, such men are but few in number, though I will venture to assure those few, if they will apply themselves, that they will succeed and do their business. Shew me a single man of distinguished natural parts, and of a clear understanding, who is well intentioned, and has a firm and constant heart; who is courteous, faithful, and just; that has not better’d his fortune, if he has diligently endeavoured at it. Many of these, I mean, many in proportion to the numberof them, are sought by fortune, even when they themselves seem to slight her; and although I may be possibly shewn some such, who have been reduced; still, for every one of this sort that can be instanced, I will venture to point out a hundred crooked left-handed politicians, who have been brought to poverty and misery, by their frauds, little tricks, and mean cunning.

XXIX. But I have not mentioned all, for I am firmly persuaded, that you will rarely meet with a man, to whom virtue has not been of use, even in point of temporal convenience; because, if the system of government, and the men in power are favourable to him, he is raised; if indifferent, he is respected; if adverse, he is at least not hated; even when the state is inflam’d by factions, the opposite party, if in power, although they do not confide employments to him, consider him as an exception to their resentment. There never was seen in the world a furor, equal to that of the Sicilians, when in their famous vespers, they cut the throats of the French; nor was there ever any nation so irritated against another; for their barbarity, carried them to rip open the bellies of all the Sicilian women they suspected were with child by Frenchmen. In this horrible massacre, they did not spare one of that nation who fell into their hands, except William de Porceleto, governor of thedistrict of Calatafima, who was protected from the general rage, by the fame of his goodness. So certain is it, that the temple of virtue is the only asylum of public safety.

XXX. The noise and clamour that men of great abilities are neglected, and lie hid in corners, is a mere fable; and if they do not voluntarily hide themselves, totally void of truth, or if this is not the case, they are neglected, because to their great talents, there are annexed great defects. I have gone about and seen the world, but to this day, have not observed a man of distinguished abilities, (who was not blemished with glaring defects,) slighted and disregarded; however, as we ought in every instance to speak the truth, the esteem for him, has not always been in proportion to his degree of merit. Some maintain an opposite sentiment to that we have been advancing, but if you attend to them, they do not so much complain of other peoples’ slights and disappointments as of their own. With their tongues, they lament that men of talents are despised; in reality, they only grieve that those are despised who are void of them, which are themselves; and under the pretence of zeal for the public good, they vent their own private spleen. It is the vulgar artifice of people of extreme incapacity to censure the partial distribution of favours, and it has been remarked, that if one of these censurers ever ascended to what he aspired at, heimmediately approved of all those measures of government, which he had before clamoured against; from whence it may be inferred, that all the merit he before lamented to have been trodden under foot, he considered as centered and collected together in his own person. I have seen some unworthy men exalted, but do not remember an instance of a great man without spot ever having been despised or contemned.

XXXI. It is now time for us to treat of the inconvenience of low policy. The celebrated Bacon, calls it the asylum of those, who for want of talents, are incapable of pursuing the sublime path of heroic policy:Quid si quis ad hunc judicii, & discretionis gradum ascendere non valeat, ei relinquitur tanquam tatissimum, ut sit rectus & dissimulator(de Inter. rer. cap. 6.). This maxim, coincides with that which Plutarch cites of the General Lysander. The Lacedæmonians remonstrated with him, that on account of his little faith and truth, he degenerated from Hercules whom they boasted being the descendants of. To which he answered wittily, alluding to the habit Hercules used to wear, that for want of the skin of a lion, he was obliged to make use of the skin of a fox.

XXXII. There are different degrees of low policy, some of which, are worse than others. The first, is that of dissimulation and craft. The second, is that of false appearances and lying. The third, is that of wickedness and insolence. The first, if it does not come in contact with the line of the second, is in the moral indifferent; but it is very difficult to pursue a course of craft and reserve, without being under the occasional necessity of telling many lies; because if a man is pressed with questions, silence, by being unfavourably interpreted with respect to the person questioned, is equivalent to, or makes as much against him, as a positive answer; and the gift of being ready in these streights with an ingenious come off, is bestowed on very few people.

XXXIII. An habitual dissimulation proceeds, partly from a defect in the understanding, and partly from the natural talents being vitiated. Those who cannot distinguish when it is proper to observe silence, nor when it is requisite, and when hazardous, to be open and explicit; upon a short reflection, either decide upon keeping silence totally; or else on all occasions, never to venture more than a very diminutive explanation; like blind people, who even when they are walking on plain ground, for fear of slipping, proceed with great caution. This in some, is more the effect of pusillanimity than the want of reflection,although they always mix one with the other; but be that as it will, they lead but a weary and unpleasant life; for wearing a padlock continually on the lips, is the same thing, as living with a heart which is ever imprisoned. Such people, are ever in dread that the secrets of their breasts should be laid open, or else, that some words which they have made use of, have already discovered them. They are destitute of the comfort of unbosoming to a friend, because all pusillanimous people are distrustful and suspicious; they scarce think any man sincere in friendship, or safe to put confidence in; they also make themselves unpleasant and disgusting companions, because they make a mystery of every thing; and the reciprocal communication of souls, being the sweetest correspondence among men, they are unhappy, because they cannot taste of this bliss; and they are disagreeable, because as far as it depends on them, they deprive other people of that happiness. We may add to this; that no prudent person confides in him who has confidence in no one; because such a man, is ever suspected of judging other people by himself. It also happens, that in consequence of his not communicating his designs to any one, those afford him no assistance, who might either be disposed, or have it in their power to serve him, for want of being acquainted with what he aims at. This was the case of Pompey, who although a daring warrior, was a timidpolitician. His intention was the same as Cæsar’s, that is, to rule the republic with an absolute sway. Cæsar succeeded in his scheme, because he attempted the thing openly. Pompey, by hiding his designs from his most affectionate friends, who were numerous; and by using occult artifices, and endeavouring to disturb the republic, in order that it might fall spontaneously into his hands, missed his aim; because his friends, being ignorant of what he intended, knew not how to apply their influence in assisting him. Tacitus comparing him with Marius and Sylla, says,Occultior non melior.For all these reasons, it appears very difficult, for men who are exceedingly deceitful to better their fortunes. At least, they will hardly ever owe their doing it to their genius.

XXXV. The dealers in false pretences, and the men of cunning, compose the vulgar of a court, and are the most numerous part of population in the political world; but they who act upon these principles, follow a very dangerous tract, although it is the most beaten. Their deceptions are so manifold, that notwithstanding art and fortune should conspire to hide them, it is next to impossible that some will not appear. A fabric built on false ground, without the wind overturning it, will fall of itself. When a lying geniusis once found out, the least inconvenience consequent on the discovery is, his never being believed any more. Tiberius, on account of his having been so often detected in falsehoods, was not credited, even when he spoke the truth:Vero quoque, & honesto fidem demissit, says Tacitus.

XXXV. Not only lies detected are unfortunate, but they are likewise sometimes so, on account of their being thought true; for in this case, they produce an effect, quite opposite to the purpose they were intended to answer. Nero wanted to murder his mother Agrippina in such a manner, that her death should appear accidental, and not design’d. For this purpose, he caused a ship in which Agrippina was to embark, to be constructed so artfully, that the part where his mother was to be lodged, could be easily separated from the other, and let the unfortunate Princess drop into the Sea. The purpose was not answered, because the part did not separate as was intended, but only open’d, so as to cause great dread of shipwreck in those of the party. Aceronia, a lady who attended Agrippina, when the alarm happened, ran out and called aloud for assistance, saying, she was Agrippina, the mother of the Emperor. The darkness of the night favoured the deceit, and those who knew Nero’s intention, believing she was Agrippina, came quickly to her; not with a design to assist, but to demolish the unfortunateAceronia, which they did, upon a supposition that they were doing an agreeable piece of service to Nero.

XXXVI. Lying, is proper and natural to base and ambitious people, who by mixing flattery with their lies, become vile and contemptible to the last degree; and their doing this, makes them the slaves of all mankind. They submit to every one, and humble themselves to every one, and treat all the world as their masters; some because they should do them service, and others because they should not injure them; like the savages of Virginia, who not only worship the stars because they give them light, and promote fertility, but they worship all they fear likewise; not only the devil whom they most dread, but also fire, clouds, horses, and great guns are venerated as deities by them. They have work enough upon their hands who serve so many masters, for over and above the labour which liars find in obeying such a number of directors, they are alarm’d and fatigu’d with the risques they run, for their practices of deceiving being once discover’d, all mankind abhor them.

XXXVII. We come now to the quintessence of the venom of ambition, to those pests of society, abandoned politicians; to those concealedAtheists, those devils in disguise, who without the least scruple to attain their base purposes, practise the most deformed vices; who to lay their hands on benefits, set their feet on, and trample upon the laws; who with the fine accomplishments, of perjury, ingratitude, and treachery, are galanting fortune night and day. These, of all politicians are the most blind, because the road by which they think to arrive at happiness and honour, leads them directly to misfortune and disgrace. Who, by such sort of means, was ever made happy? Machiavel himself, the grand master of this infernal policy, passed the last years of his life in extreme misery; and he would long before his dissolution happened have died on a gibbet, if he had not denied in the torture, his participation in the conspiracy against the family of the Medicis. If one or two, have happened to raise themselves by the dint of wicked practices, their elevation may be compared to that of Simon Magus, who was lifted up, that his legs might be crushed to pieces with his fall. Sejanus, in consequence of a similarity in their habits and dispositions, gained such a degree of favour with Tiberius, and came to have such an ascendant over him, that he directed and control’d him with an absolute sway. And what did all these smiles of fortune end in? Nothing more, than that no culprit was ever put to death with greater ignominy. Petronius Arbiter, by flattering thelascivious disposition of Nero, arrived at being superintendant of his turpitudes, or regulator of his brutalities; so that in all which related to criminal pleasures, the Prince obeyed his subject; nor would he taste of any thing, but what Petronius prescribed; notwithstanding which, the criterion arrived, when Nero condemned him to death; which Petronius anticipated, by opening his veins. It is very remarkable that out of all the people Nero most hated, Seneca was the last who died by his order. The arm of the Prince, was restrained by the virtue of the philosopher, notwithstanding that same virtue made the Prince’s life unpleasant, and was an irksome monitor to him; and after all, the philosopher did not die without a crime, for he was privy to the conspiracy of Pison. If virtue enjoys these immunities under bad Princes, what may it not expect from good ones?

XXXVIII. It would be strange delirium in him who is making war against heaven, to expect, the stars should be favourable to his designs. A Frenchman, reminding an Englishman of the time, when in the reign of Henry the Sixth, the English were almost absolute masters of France, said sneeringly to him, “When do you think you shall return again to be Lords of our kingdom?” to which the Englishman made him this admirable reply,When your iniquities shall be greater than ours. Littledifferent from this was the saying of Agislaus; who (when Tisaphernes finding himself superior in force, in violation of the peace he had sworn to observe, began hostilities,) spoke thus:I am very happy at this event, because Tisaphernes by his perfidy, has engaged the Gods on my side.The issue was, that Agislaus came off triumphant, and Tisaphernes lost the battle and his life.

XXXIX. But to illustrate how much God takes part with the enemies of him, who hopes to succeed in his undertakings, by violating the oaths sworn by his holy name, there is not a more memorable instance in history, than may be seen in the case of Ladislaus the fourth, king of Hungary. This Prince, after gaining some victories, agreed upon a truce with Amurat the Second; but in a short time afterwards, instigated by the indiscreet zeal of the Pontifical legate, he began the war afresh: Worldly policy taught him, that the opportunity was favourable, as the Turks had not recovered from the consternation of their late defeats. Ladislaus had excellent troops, and for his General, John Huniades, who was esteemed the most skillful warrior the world knew in that age. They came to a battle, which in the beginning, was much in favour of the Hungarians. Amurat, when he saw his troops ready to betake themselves to flight, drew out from his bosomthe instrument containing the truce, which Ladislaus had sworn to observe; and lifting his eyes to heaven, in a loud voice, addressed our Saviour, in words to this effect:Jesus Christ, if thou art the true God, as the Christians believe you to be, chastise the affront offered to you by these people, in breaking a truce, which they have sworn by thy holy name to keep sacred; and wonderful to relate, at this instant the gale of fortune veer’d about, the Mahometans defeated the Christians with a bloody slaughter, and to compleat the whole, Ladislaus himself was among the slain:

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