FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[85]President’s Address before the American Psychological Association, Philadelphia Meeting, December, 1904. [Reprinted fromThe Psychological Review, vol.xii, No. 1, Jan., 1905. Also reprinted, with some omissions, as Appendix B,A Pluralistic Universe, pp. 370-394. Pp. 166-167 have also been reprinted inSome Problems of Philosophy, p. 212. The present essay is referred to inibid., p.219, note. The author’s corrections have been adopted for the present text.Ed.][86][The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods.][87]Appearance and Reality, second edition, pp. 116-117.—Obviously writtenatWard, though Ward’s name is not mentioned.[88][Mind, vol.xii, 1887, pp. 573-574.][89]Mind, N. S., vol.vi, [1897], p. 379.[90]Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol.ii, p. 245. One thinks naturally of the peripateticactus primusandactus secundushere. [“Actus autem estduplex:primusetsecundus. Actus quidem primus est forma, et integritas sei. Actus autem secundus est operatio.” Thomas Aquinas:Summa Theologica, edition of Leo XIII, (1894), vol.i, p. 391. Cf. also Blanc:Dictionnaire de Philosophie, under ‘acte.’Ed.][91][Appearance and Reality, second edition, p. 116.][92][Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Werke, (1905), vol.iv, p. 110 (trans. by Max Müller, second edition, p. 128).][93]I refer to such descriptive work as Ladd’s (Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory, parti, chap.v, partii, chap.xi, partiii, chaps.xxvandxxvi); as Sully’s (The Human Mind, partv); as Stout’s (Analytic Psychology, booki, chap.vi, and bookii, chaps.i,ii, andiii); as Bradley’s (in his long series of analytic articles on Psychology inMind); as Titchener’s (Outline of Psychology, parti, chap.vi); as Shand’s (Mind, N. S.,iii, 449;iv, 450;vi, 289); as Ward’s (Mind,xii, 67; 564); as Loveday’s (Mind, N. S.,x, 455); as Lipps’s (Vom Fühlen, Wollen und Denken, 1902, chaps.ii,iv,vi); and as Bergson’s (Revue Philosophique,LIII, 1)—to mention only a few writings which I immediately recall.[94]Their existence forms a curious commentary on Prof. Münsterberg’s dogma that will-attitudes are not describable. He himself has contributed in a superior way to their description, both in hisWillenshandlung, and in hisGrundzüge[der Psychologie], partii, chap.ix, § 7.[95]I ought myself to crypeccavi, having been a voluminous sinner in my own chapter on the will. [Principles of Psychology, vol.ii, chap.xxvi.][96][Cf. F. H. Bradley,Appearance and Reality, second edition, pp. 96-97.][97][Cf. above, p. 59,note.][98]Verborum gratiâ: “The feeling of activity is not able,quâfeeling, to tell us anything about activity” (Loveday:Mind, N. S., vol.x, [1901], p. 463); “A sensation or feeling or senseofactivity ... is not, looked at in another way, an experienceofactivity at all. It is a mere sensation shut up within which you could by no reflection get the idea of activity.... Whether this experience is or is not later on a character essential to our perception and our idea of activity, it, as it comes first, is not in itself an experience of activity at all. It, as it comes first, is only so for extraneous reasons and only so for an outside observer” (Bradley,Appearance and Reality, second edition, p. 605); “In dem Tätigkeitsgefühle liegt an sich nicht der geringste Beweis für das Vorhandensein einer psychischen Tätigkeit” (Münsterberg:Grundzüge der Psychologie). I could multiply similar quotations and would have introduced some of them into my text to make it more concrete, save that the mingling of different points of view in most of these author’s discussions (not in Münsterberg’s) make it impossible to disentangle exactly what they mean. I am sure in any case, to be accused of misrepresenting them totally, even in this note, by omission of the context, so the less I name names and the more I stick to abstract characterization of a merely possible style of opinion, the safer it will be. And apropos of misunderstandings, I may add to this note a complaint on my own account. Professor Stout, in the excellent chapter on ‘Mental Activity,’ in vol.iof hisAnalytic Psychology, takes me to task for identifying spiritual activity with certain muscular feelings and gives quotations to bear him out. They are from certain paragraphs on ‘the Self,’ in which my attempt was to show what the central nucleus of the activities that we call ‘ours’ is. [Principles of Psychology, vol.i, pp. 299-305.] I found it in certain intracephalic movements which we habitually oppose, as ‘subjective,’ to the activities of the transcorporeal world. I sought to show that there is no direct evidence that we feel the activity of an inner spiritual agent as such (I should now say the activity of ‘consciousness’ as such, see [the first essay], ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’). There are, in fact, three distinguishable ‘activities’ in the field of discussion: the elementary activity involved in the merethatof experience, in the fact thatsomethingis going on, and the farther specification of thissomethinginto twowhats, an activity felt as ‘ours,’ and an activity ascribed to objects. Stout, as I apprehend him, identifies ‘our’ activity with that of the total experience-process, and when I circumscribe it as a part thereof, accuses me of treating it as a sort of external appendage to itself (Stout:op. cit., vol.i, pp. 162-163), as if I ‘separated the activity from the process which is active.’ But all the processes in question are active, and their activity is inseparable from their being. My book raised only the question ofwhichactivity deserved the name of ‘ours.’ So far as we are ‘persons,’ and contrasted and opposed to an ‘environment,’ movements in our body figure as our activities; and I am unable to find any other activities that are ours in this strictly personal sense. There is a wider sense in which the whole ‘choir of heaven and furniture of the earth,’ and their activities, are ours, for they are our ‘objects.’ But ‘we’ are here only another name for the total process of experience, another name for all that is, in fact; and I was dealing with the personal and individualized self exclusively in the passages with which Professor Stout finds fault.The individualized self, which I believe to be the only thing properly called self, is a part of the content of the world experienced. The world experienced (otherwise called the ‘field of consciousness’) comes at all times with our body as its centre, centre of vision, centre of action, centre of interest. Where the body is is ‘here’; when the body acts is ‘now’; what the body touches is ‘this’; all other things are ‘there’ and ‘then’ and ‘that.’ These words of emphasized position imply a systematization of things with reference to a focus of action and interest which lies in the body; and the systematization is now so instinctive (was it ever not so?) that no developed or active experience exists for us at all except in that ordered form. So far as ‘thoughts’ and ‘feelings’ can be active, their activity terminates in the activity of the body, and only through first arousing its activities can they begin to change those of the rest of the world. [Cf. alsoA Pluralistic Universe, p. 344, note 8.Ed.] The body is the storm centre, the origin of co-ordinates, the constant place of stress in all that experience-train. Everything circles round it, and is felt from its point of view. The word ‘I,’ then, is primarily a noun of position, just like ‘this’ and ‘here.’ Activities attached to ‘this’ position have prerogative emphasis, and, if activities have feelings, must be felt in a peculiar way. The word ‘my’ designates the kind of emphasis. I see no inconsistency whatever in defending, on the one hand, ‘my’ activities as unique and opposed to those of outer nature, and, on the other hand, in affirming, after introspection, that they consist in movements in the head. The ‘my’ of them is the emphasis, the feeling of perspective-interest in which they are dyed.[99][Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, sect.vii, parti, Selby-Bigge’s edition, pp. 65 ff.][100]Page172.[101]Let me not be told that this contradicts [the first essay], ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ (see especially page32), in which it was said that while ‘thoughts’ and ‘things’ have the same natures, the natures work ‘energetically’ on each other in the things (fire burns, water wets, etc.) but not in the thoughts. Mental activity-trains are composed of thoughts, yet their members do work on each other, they check, sustain, and introduce. They do so when the activity is merely associational as well as when effort is there. But, and this is my reply, they do so by other parts of their nature than those that energize physically. One thought in every developed activity-series is a desire or thought of purpose, and all the other thoughts acquire a feeling tone from their relation of harmony or oppugnancy to this. The interplay of these secondary tones (among which ‘interest,’ ‘difficulty,’ and ‘effort’ figure) runs the drama in the mental series. In what we term the physical drama these qualities play absolutely no part. The subject needs careful working out; but I can see no inconsistency.[102]I have found myself more than once accused in print of being the assertor of a metaphysical principle of activity. Since literary misunderstandings retard the settlement of problems, I should like to say that such an interpretation of the pages I have published on Effort and on Will is absolutely foreign to what I meant to express. [Principles of Psychology, vol.ii, ch.xxvi.] I owe all my doctrines on this subject to Renouvier; and Renouvier, as I understand him, is (or at any rate then was) an out and out phenomenist, a denier of ‘forces’ in the most strenuous sense. [Cf. Ch. Renouvier:Esquisse d’une Classification Systématique des Doctrines Philosophiques(1885), vol.ii, pp. 390-392;Essais de Critique Générale(1859), vol.ii, §§ ix, xiii. For an acknowledgment of the author’s general indebtedness to Renouvier, cf.Some Problems of Philosophy, p. 165, note.Ed.] Single clauses in my writing, or sentences read out of their connection, may possibly have been compatible with a transphenomenal principle of energy; but I defy anyone to show a single sentence which, taken with its context, should be naturally held to advocate that view. The misinterpretation probably arose at first from my defending (after Renouvier) the indeterminism of our efforts. ‘Free will’ was supposed by my critics to involve a supernatural agent. As a matter of plain history the only ‘free will’ I have ever thought of defending is the character of novelty in fresh activity-situations. If an activity-process is the form of a whole ‘field of consciousness,’ and if each field of consciousness is not only in its totality unique (as is now commonly admitted) but has its elements unique (since in that situation they are all dyed in the total) then novelty is perpetually entering the world and what happens there is not purerepetition, as the dogma of the literal uniformity of nature requires. Activity-situations come, in short, each with an original touch. A ‘principle’ of free will if there were one, would doubtless manifest itself in such phenomena, but I never saw, nor do I now see, what the principle could do except rehearse the phenomenon beforehand, or why it ever should be invoked.[103]Mind, N. S., vol.vi, 1897; cf. pp. 392-393.[104][Cf.A Pluralistic Universe, Lect.vi(on Bergson); H. Bergson:Creative Evolution, trans. by A. Mitchell; C. A. Strong:Why the Mind has a Body, ch.xii.Ed.]

[85]President’s Address before the American Psychological Association, Philadelphia Meeting, December, 1904. [Reprinted fromThe Psychological Review, vol.xii, No. 1, Jan., 1905. Also reprinted, with some omissions, as Appendix B,A Pluralistic Universe, pp. 370-394. Pp. 166-167 have also been reprinted inSome Problems of Philosophy, p. 212. The present essay is referred to inibid., p.219, note. The author’s corrections have been adopted for the present text.Ed.]

[85]President’s Address before the American Psychological Association, Philadelphia Meeting, December, 1904. [Reprinted fromThe Psychological Review, vol.xii, No. 1, Jan., 1905. Also reprinted, with some omissions, as Appendix B,A Pluralistic Universe, pp. 370-394. Pp. 166-167 have also been reprinted inSome Problems of Philosophy, p. 212. The present essay is referred to inibid., p.219, note. The author’s corrections have been adopted for the present text.Ed.]

[86][The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods.]

[86][The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods.]

[87]Appearance and Reality, second edition, pp. 116-117.—Obviously writtenatWard, though Ward’s name is not mentioned.

[87]Appearance and Reality, second edition, pp. 116-117.—Obviously writtenatWard, though Ward’s name is not mentioned.

[88][Mind, vol.xii, 1887, pp. 573-574.]

[88][Mind, vol.xii, 1887, pp. 573-574.]

[89]Mind, N. S., vol.vi, [1897], p. 379.

[89]Mind, N. S., vol.vi, [1897], p. 379.

[90]Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol.ii, p. 245. One thinks naturally of the peripateticactus primusandactus secundushere. [“Actus autem estduplex:primusetsecundus. Actus quidem primus est forma, et integritas sei. Actus autem secundus est operatio.” Thomas Aquinas:Summa Theologica, edition of Leo XIII, (1894), vol.i, p. 391. Cf. also Blanc:Dictionnaire de Philosophie, under ‘acte.’Ed.]

[90]Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol.ii, p. 245. One thinks naturally of the peripateticactus primusandactus secundushere. [“Actus autem estduplex:primusetsecundus. Actus quidem primus est forma, et integritas sei. Actus autem secundus est operatio.” Thomas Aquinas:Summa Theologica, edition of Leo XIII, (1894), vol.i, p. 391. Cf. also Blanc:Dictionnaire de Philosophie, under ‘acte.’Ed.]

[91][Appearance and Reality, second edition, p. 116.]

[91][Appearance and Reality, second edition, p. 116.]

[92][Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Werke, (1905), vol.iv, p. 110 (trans. by Max Müller, second edition, p. 128).]

[92][Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Werke, (1905), vol.iv, p. 110 (trans. by Max Müller, second edition, p. 128).]

[93]I refer to such descriptive work as Ladd’s (Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory, parti, chap.v, partii, chap.xi, partiii, chaps.xxvandxxvi); as Sully’s (The Human Mind, partv); as Stout’s (Analytic Psychology, booki, chap.vi, and bookii, chaps.i,ii, andiii); as Bradley’s (in his long series of analytic articles on Psychology inMind); as Titchener’s (Outline of Psychology, parti, chap.vi); as Shand’s (Mind, N. S.,iii, 449;iv, 450;vi, 289); as Ward’s (Mind,xii, 67; 564); as Loveday’s (Mind, N. S.,x, 455); as Lipps’s (Vom Fühlen, Wollen und Denken, 1902, chaps.ii,iv,vi); and as Bergson’s (Revue Philosophique,LIII, 1)—to mention only a few writings which I immediately recall.

[93]I refer to such descriptive work as Ladd’s (Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory, parti, chap.v, partii, chap.xi, partiii, chaps.xxvandxxvi); as Sully’s (The Human Mind, partv); as Stout’s (Analytic Psychology, booki, chap.vi, and bookii, chaps.i,ii, andiii); as Bradley’s (in his long series of analytic articles on Psychology inMind); as Titchener’s (Outline of Psychology, parti, chap.vi); as Shand’s (Mind, N. S.,iii, 449;iv, 450;vi, 289); as Ward’s (Mind,xii, 67; 564); as Loveday’s (Mind, N. S.,x, 455); as Lipps’s (Vom Fühlen, Wollen und Denken, 1902, chaps.ii,iv,vi); and as Bergson’s (Revue Philosophique,LIII, 1)—to mention only a few writings which I immediately recall.

[94]Their existence forms a curious commentary on Prof. Münsterberg’s dogma that will-attitudes are not describable. He himself has contributed in a superior way to their description, both in hisWillenshandlung, and in hisGrundzüge[der Psychologie], partii, chap.ix, § 7.

[94]Their existence forms a curious commentary on Prof. Münsterberg’s dogma that will-attitudes are not describable. He himself has contributed in a superior way to their description, both in hisWillenshandlung, and in hisGrundzüge[der Psychologie], partii, chap.ix, § 7.

[95]I ought myself to crypeccavi, having been a voluminous sinner in my own chapter on the will. [Principles of Psychology, vol.ii, chap.xxvi.]

[95]I ought myself to crypeccavi, having been a voluminous sinner in my own chapter on the will. [Principles of Psychology, vol.ii, chap.xxvi.]

[96][Cf. F. H. Bradley,Appearance and Reality, second edition, pp. 96-97.]

[96][Cf. F. H. Bradley,Appearance and Reality, second edition, pp. 96-97.]

[97][Cf. above, p. 59,note.]

[97][Cf. above, p. 59,note.]

[98]Verborum gratiâ: “The feeling of activity is not able,quâfeeling, to tell us anything about activity” (Loveday:Mind, N. S., vol.x, [1901], p. 463); “A sensation or feeling or senseofactivity ... is not, looked at in another way, an experienceofactivity at all. It is a mere sensation shut up within which you could by no reflection get the idea of activity.... Whether this experience is or is not later on a character essential to our perception and our idea of activity, it, as it comes first, is not in itself an experience of activity at all. It, as it comes first, is only so for extraneous reasons and only so for an outside observer” (Bradley,Appearance and Reality, second edition, p. 605); “In dem Tätigkeitsgefühle liegt an sich nicht der geringste Beweis für das Vorhandensein einer psychischen Tätigkeit” (Münsterberg:Grundzüge der Psychologie). I could multiply similar quotations and would have introduced some of them into my text to make it more concrete, save that the mingling of different points of view in most of these author’s discussions (not in Münsterberg’s) make it impossible to disentangle exactly what they mean. I am sure in any case, to be accused of misrepresenting them totally, even in this note, by omission of the context, so the less I name names and the more I stick to abstract characterization of a merely possible style of opinion, the safer it will be. And apropos of misunderstandings, I may add to this note a complaint on my own account. Professor Stout, in the excellent chapter on ‘Mental Activity,’ in vol.iof hisAnalytic Psychology, takes me to task for identifying spiritual activity with certain muscular feelings and gives quotations to bear him out. They are from certain paragraphs on ‘the Self,’ in which my attempt was to show what the central nucleus of the activities that we call ‘ours’ is. [Principles of Psychology, vol.i, pp. 299-305.] I found it in certain intracephalic movements which we habitually oppose, as ‘subjective,’ to the activities of the transcorporeal world. I sought to show that there is no direct evidence that we feel the activity of an inner spiritual agent as such (I should now say the activity of ‘consciousness’ as such, see [the first essay], ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’). There are, in fact, three distinguishable ‘activities’ in the field of discussion: the elementary activity involved in the merethatof experience, in the fact thatsomethingis going on, and the farther specification of thissomethinginto twowhats, an activity felt as ‘ours,’ and an activity ascribed to objects. Stout, as I apprehend him, identifies ‘our’ activity with that of the total experience-process, and when I circumscribe it as a part thereof, accuses me of treating it as a sort of external appendage to itself (Stout:op. cit., vol.i, pp. 162-163), as if I ‘separated the activity from the process which is active.’ But all the processes in question are active, and their activity is inseparable from their being. My book raised only the question ofwhichactivity deserved the name of ‘ours.’ So far as we are ‘persons,’ and contrasted and opposed to an ‘environment,’ movements in our body figure as our activities; and I am unable to find any other activities that are ours in this strictly personal sense. There is a wider sense in which the whole ‘choir of heaven and furniture of the earth,’ and their activities, are ours, for they are our ‘objects.’ But ‘we’ are here only another name for the total process of experience, another name for all that is, in fact; and I was dealing with the personal and individualized self exclusively in the passages with which Professor Stout finds fault.The individualized self, which I believe to be the only thing properly called self, is a part of the content of the world experienced. The world experienced (otherwise called the ‘field of consciousness’) comes at all times with our body as its centre, centre of vision, centre of action, centre of interest. Where the body is is ‘here’; when the body acts is ‘now’; what the body touches is ‘this’; all other things are ‘there’ and ‘then’ and ‘that.’ These words of emphasized position imply a systematization of things with reference to a focus of action and interest which lies in the body; and the systematization is now so instinctive (was it ever not so?) that no developed or active experience exists for us at all except in that ordered form. So far as ‘thoughts’ and ‘feelings’ can be active, their activity terminates in the activity of the body, and only through first arousing its activities can they begin to change those of the rest of the world. [Cf. alsoA Pluralistic Universe, p. 344, note 8.Ed.] The body is the storm centre, the origin of co-ordinates, the constant place of stress in all that experience-train. Everything circles round it, and is felt from its point of view. The word ‘I,’ then, is primarily a noun of position, just like ‘this’ and ‘here.’ Activities attached to ‘this’ position have prerogative emphasis, and, if activities have feelings, must be felt in a peculiar way. The word ‘my’ designates the kind of emphasis. I see no inconsistency whatever in defending, on the one hand, ‘my’ activities as unique and opposed to those of outer nature, and, on the other hand, in affirming, after introspection, that they consist in movements in the head. The ‘my’ of them is the emphasis, the feeling of perspective-interest in which they are dyed.

[98]Verborum gratiâ: “The feeling of activity is not able,quâfeeling, to tell us anything about activity” (Loveday:Mind, N. S., vol.x, [1901], p. 463); “A sensation or feeling or senseofactivity ... is not, looked at in another way, an experienceofactivity at all. It is a mere sensation shut up within which you could by no reflection get the idea of activity.... Whether this experience is or is not later on a character essential to our perception and our idea of activity, it, as it comes first, is not in itself an experience of activity at all. It, as it comes first, is only so for extraneous reasons and only so for an outside observer” (Bradley,Appearance and Reality, second edition, p. 605); “In dem Tätigkeitsgefühle liegt an sich nicht der geringste Beweis für das Vorhandensein einer psychischen Tätigkeit” (Münsterberg:Grundzüge der Psychologie). I could multiply similar quotations and would have introduced some of them into my text to make it more concrete, save that the mingling of different points of view in most of these author’s discussions (not in Münsterberg’s) make it impossible to disentangle exactly what they mean. I am sure in any case, to be accused of misrepresenting them totally, even in this note, by omission of the context, so the less I name names and the more I stick to abstract characterization of a merely possible style of opinion, the safer it will be. And apropos of misunderstandings, I may add to this note a complaint on my own account. Professor Stout, in the excellent chapter on ‘Mental Activity,’ in vol.iof hisAnalytic Psychology, takes me to task for identifying spiritual activity with certain muscular feelings and gives quotations to bear him out. They are from certain paragraphs on ‘the Self,’ in which my attempt was to show what the central nucleus of the activities that we call ‘ours’ is. [Principles of Psychology, vol.i, pp. 299-305.] I found it in certain intracephalic movements which we habitually oppose, as ‘subjective,’ to the activities of the transcorporeal world. I sought to show that there is no direct evidence that we feel the activity of an inner spiritual agent as such (I should now say the activity of ‘consciousness’ as such, see [the first essay], ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’). There are, in fact, three distinguishable ‘activities’ in the field of discussion: the elementary activity involved in the merethatof experience, in the fact thatsomethingis going on, and the farther specification of thissomethinginto twowhats, an activity felt as ‘ours,’ and an activity ascribed to objects. Stout, as I apprehend him, identifies ‘our’ activity with that of the total experience-process, and when I circumscribe it as a part thereof, accuses me of treating it as a sort of external appendage to itself (Stout:op. cit., vol.i, pp. 162-163), as if I ‘separated the activity from the process which is active.’ But all the processes in question are active, and their activity is inseparable from their being. My book raised only the question ofwhichactivity deserved the name of ‘ours.’ So far as we are ‘persons,’ and contrasted and opposed to an ‘environment,’ movements in our body figure as our activities; and I am unable to find any other activities that are ours in this strictly personal sense. There is a wider sense in which the whole ‘choir of heaven and furniture of the earth,’ and their activities, are ours, for they are our ‘objects.’ But ‘we’ are here only another name for the total process of experience, another name for all that is, in fact; and I was dealing with the personal and individualized self exclusively in the passages with which Professor Stout finds fault.

The individualized self, which I believe to be the only thing properly called self, is a part of the content of the world experienced. The world experienced (otherwise called the ‘field of consciousness’) comes at all times with our body as its centre, centre of vision, centre of action, centre of interest. Where the body is is ‘here’; when the body acts is ‘now’; what the body touches is ‘this’; all other things are ‘there’ and ‘then’ and ‘that.’ These words of emphasized position imply a systematization of things with reference to a focus of action and interest which lies in the body; and the systematization is now so instinctive (was it ever not so?) that no developed or active experience exists for us at all except in that ordered form. So far as ‘thoughts’ and ‘feelings’ can be active, their activity terminates in the activity of the body, and only through first arousing its activities can they begin to change those of the rest of the world. [Cf. alsoA Pluralistic Universe, p. 344, note 8.Ed.] The body is the storm centre, the origin of co-ordinates, the constant place of stress in all that experience-train. Everything circles round it, and is felt from its point of view. The word ‘I,’ then, is primarily a noun of position, just like ‘this’ and ‘here.’ Activities attached to ‘this’ position have prerogative emphasis, and, if activities have feelings, must be felt in a peculiar way. The word ‘my’ designates the kind of emphasis. I see no inconsistency whatever in defending, on the one hand, ‘my’ activities as unique and opposed to those of outer nature, and, on the other hand, in affirming, after introspection, that they consist in movements in the head. The ‘my’ of them is the emphasis, the feeling of perspective-interest in which they are dyed.

[99][Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, sect.vii, parti, Selby-Bigge’s edition, pp. 65 ff.]

[99][Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, sect.vii, parti, Selby-Bigge’s edition, pp. 65 ff.]

[100]Page172.

[100]Page172.

[101]Let me not be told that this contradicts [the first essay], ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ (see especially page32), in which it was said that while ‘thoughts’ and ‘things’ have the same natures, the natures work ‘energetically’ on each other in the things (fire burns, water wets, etc.) but not in the thoughts. Mental activity-trains are composed of thoughts, yet their members do work on each other, they check, sustain, and introduce. They do so when the activity is merely associational as well as when effort is there. But, and this is my reply, they do so by other parts of their nature than those that energize physically. One thought in every developed activity-series is a desire or thought of purpose, and all the other thoughts acquire a feeling tone from their relation of harmony or oppugnancy to this. The interplay of these secondary tones (among which ‘interest,’ ‘difficulty,’ and ‘effort’ figure) runs the drama in the mental series. In what we term the physical drama these qualities play absolutely no part. The subject needs careful working out; but I can see no inconsistency.

[101]Let me not be told that this contradicts [the first essay], ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ (see especially page32), in which it was said that while ‘thoughts’ and ‘things’ have the same natures, the natures work ‘energetically’ on each other in the things (fire burns, water wets, etc.) but not in the thoughts. Mental activity-trains are composed of thoughts, yet their members do work on each other, they check, sustain, and introduce. They do so when the activity is merely associational as well as when effort is there. But, and this is my reply, they do so by other parts of their nature than those that energize physically. One thought in every developed activity-series is a desire or thought of purpose, and all the other thoughts acquire a feeling tone from their relation of harmony or oppugnancy to this. The interplay of these secondary tones (among which ‘interest,’ ‘difficulty,’ and ‘effort’ figure) runs the drama in the mental series. In what we term the physical drama these qualities play absolutely no part. The subject needs careful working out; but I can see no inconsistency.

[102]I have found myself more than once accused in print of being the assertor of a metaphysical principle of activity. Since literary misunderstandings retard the settlement of problems, I should like to say that such an interpretation of the pages I have published on Effort and on Will is absolutely foreign to what I meant to express. [Principles of Psychology, vol.ii, ch.xxvi.] I owe all my doctrines on this subject to Renouvier; and Renouvier, as I understand him, is (or at any rate then was) an out and out phenomenist, a denier of ‘forces’ in the most strenuous sense. [Cf. Ch. Renouvier:Esquisse d’une Classification Systématique des Doctrines Philosophiques(1885), vol.ii, pp. 390-392;Essais de Critique Générale(1859), vol.ii, §§ ix, xiii. For an acknowledgment of the author’s general indebtedness to Renouvier, cf.Some Problems of Philosophy, p. 165, note.Ed.] Single clauses in my writing, or sentences read out of their connection, may possibly have been compatible with a transphenomenal principle of energy; but I defy anyone to show a single sentence which, taken with its context, should be naturally held to advocate that view. The misinterpretation probably arose at first from my defending (after Renouvier) the indeterminism of our efforts. ‘Free will’ was supposed by my critics to involve a supernatural agent. As a matter of plain history the only ‘free will’ I have ever thought of defending is the character of novelty in fresh activity-situations. If an activity-process is the form of a whole ‘field of consciousness,’ and if each field of consciousness is not only in its totality unique (as is now commonly admitted) but has its elements unique (since in that situation they are all dyed in the total) then novelty is perpetually entering the world and what happens there is not purerepetition, as the dogma of the literal uniformity of nature requires. Activity-situations come, in short, each with an original touch. A ‘principle’ of free will if there were one, would doubtless manifest itself in such phenomena, but I never saw, nor do I now see, what the principle could do except rehearse the phenomenon beforehand, or why it ever should be invoked.

[102]I have found myself more than once accused in print of being the assertor of a metaphysical principle of activity. Since literary misunderstandings retard the settlement of problems, I should like to say that such an interpretation of the pages I have published on Effort and on Will is absolutely foreign to what I meant to express. [Principles of Psychology, vol.ii, ch.xxvi.] I owe all my doctrines on this subject to Renouvier; and Renouvier, as I understand him, is (or at any rate then was) an out and out phenomenist, a denier of ‘forces’ in the most strenuous sense. [Cf. Ch. Renouvier:Esquisse d’une Classification Systématique des Doctrines Philosophiques(1885), vol.ii, pp. 390-392;Essais de Critique Générale(1859), vol.ii, §§ ix, xiii. For an acknowledgment of the author’s general indebtedness to Renouvier, cf.Some Problems of Philosophy, p. 165, note.Ed.] Single clauses in my writing, or sentences read out of their connection, may possibly have been compatible with a transphenomenal principle of energy; but I defy anyone to show a single sentence which, taken with its context, should be naturally held to advocate that view. The misinterpretation probably arose at first from my defending (after Renouvier) the indeterminism of our efforts. ‘Free will’ was supposed by my critics to involve a supernatural agent. As a matter of plain history the only ‘free will’ I have ever thought of defending is the character of novelty in fresh activity-situations. If an activity-process is the form of a whole ‘field of consciousness,’ and if each field of consciousness is not only in its totality unique (as is now commonly admitted) but has its elements unique (since in that situation they are all dyed in the total) then novelty is perpetually entering the world and what happens there is not purerepetition, as the dogma of the literal uniformity of nature requires. Activity-situations come, in short, each with an original touch. A ‘principle’ of free will if there were one, would doubtless manifest itself in such phenomena, but I never saw, nor do I now see, what the principle could do except rehearse the phenomenon beforehand, or why it ever should be invoked.

[103]Mind, N. S., vol.vi, 1897; cf. pp. 392-393.

[103]Mind, N. S., vol.vi, 1897; cf. pp. 392-393.

[104][Cf.A Pluralistic Universe, Lect.vi(on Bergson); H. Bergson:Creative Evolution, trans. by A. Mitchell; C. A. Strong:Why the Mind has a Body, ch.xii.Ed.]

[104][Cf.A Pluralistic Universe, Lect.vi(on Bergson); H. Bergson:Creative Evolution, trans. by A. Mitchell; C. A. Strong:Why the Mind has a Body, ch.xii.Ed.]

Humanism is a ferment that has ‘come to stay.’[106]It is not a single hypothesis or theorem, and it dwells on no new facts. It is rather a slow shifting in the philosophic perspective, making things appear as from a new centre of interest or point of sight. Some writers are strongly conscious of the shifting, others half unconscious, even though their own vision may have undergone much change. The result is no small confusion in debate, the half-conscious humanists often taking part against the radical ones, as if they wished to count upon the other side.[107]

If humanism really be the name for such a shifting of perspective, it is obvious that the whole scene of the philosophic stage will change in some degree if humanism prevails. The emphasis of things, their foreground and background distribution, their sizes and values, will not keep just the same.[108]If such pervasive consequences be involved in humanism, it is clear that no pains which philosophers may take, first in defining it, and then in furthering, checking, or steering its progress, will be thrown away.

It suffers badly at present from incomplete definition. Its most systematic advocates, Schiller and Dewey, have published fragmentary programs only; and its bearing on many vital philosophic problems has not been traced except by adversaries who, scenting heresies in advance, have showered blows on doctrines—subjectivism and scepticism, for example—that no good humanist finds it necessary to entertain. By their still greater reticences, the anti-humanists have, in turn, perplexed the humanists. Much of the controversy has involved the word ‘truth.’ It is always good in debate to know your adversary’s point of view authentically. But the critics of humanism never define exactly what the word ‘truth’ signifies when they use it themselves. The humanists have to guess at their view; and the result has doubtless been much beating of the air. Add to all this, great individual differences in both camps, and it becomes clear that nothing is so urgently needed, at the stage which things have reached at present, as a sharper definition by each side of its central point of view.

Whoever will contribute any touch of sharpness will help us to make sure of what’swhat and who is who. Anyone can contribute such a definition, and, without it, no one knows exactly where he stands. If I offer my own provisional definition of humanism[109]now and here, others may improve it, some adversary may be led to define his own creed more sharply by the contrast, and a certain quickening of the crystallization of general opinion may result.

The essential service of humanism, as I conceive the situation, is to have seen thatthough one part of our experience may lean upon another part to make it what it is in any one of several aspects in which it may be considered, experience as a whole is self-containing and leans on nothing.

Since this formula also expresses the main contention of transcendental idealism, it needs abundant explication to make itunambiguous. It seems, at first sight, to confine itself to denying theism and pantheism. But, in fact, it need not deny either; everything would depend on the exegesis; and if the formula ever became canonical, it would certainly develop both right-wing and left-wing interpreters. I myself read humanism theistically and pluralistically. If there be a God, he is no absolute all-experiencer, but simply the experiencer of widest actual conscious span. Read thus, humanism is for me a religion susceptible of reasoned defence, though I am well aware how many minds there are to whom it can appeal religiously only when it has been monistically translated. Ethically the pluralistic form of it takes for me a stronger hold on reality than any other philosophy I know of—it being essentially asocialphilosophy, a philosophy of ‘co,’ in which conjunctions do the work. But my primary reason for advocating it is its matchless intellectual economy. It gets rid, not only of the standing ‘problems’ that monism engenders (‘problem of evil,’ ‘problem of freedom,’ and thelike), but of other metaphysical mysteries and paradoxes as well.

It gets rid, for example, of the whole agnostic controversy, by refusing to entertain the hypothesis of trans-empirical reality at all. It gets rid of any need for an absolute of the Bradleyan type (avowedly sterile for intellectual purposes) by insisting that the conjunctive relations found within experience are faultlessly real. It gets rid of the need of an absolute of the Roycean type (similarly sterile) by its pragmatic treatment of the problem of knowledge [a treatment of which I have already given a version in two very inadequate articles].[110]As the views of knowledge, reality and truth imputed to humanism have been those so far most fiercely attacked, it is in regard to these ideas that a sharpening of focus seems most urgently required. I proceed therefore to bring the views whichIimpute to humanism in these respects into focus as briefly as I can.

If the central humanistic thesis, printed above in italics, be accepted, it will follow that, if there be any such thing at all as knowing, the knower and the object known must both be portions of experience. One part of experience must, therefore, either

(1) Know another part of experience—in other words, parts must, as Professor Woodbridge says,[111]representone anotherinstead of representing realities outside of ‘consciousness’—this case is that of conceptual knowledge; or else

(2) They must simply exist as so many ultimatethatsor facts of being, in the first instance; and then, as a secondary complication, and without doubling up its entitative single-ness, any one and the samethatmust figure alternately as a thing known and as a knowledge of the thing, by reason of two divergent kinds of context into which, in the general course of experience, it gets woven.[112]

This second case is that of sense-perception. There is a stage of thought that goes beyond common sense, and of it I shall say more presently; but the common-sense stage is a perfectly definite halting-place of thought, primarily for purposes of action; and, so long as we remain on the common-sense stage of thought, object and subjectfusein the fact of ‘presentation’ or sense-perception—the pen and hand which I nowseewriting, for example,arethe physical realities which those words designate. In this case there is no self-transcendency implied in the knowing. Humanism, here, is only a more comminutedIdentitätsphilosophie.[113]

In case (1), on the contrary, the representative experience does transcend itself in knowing the other experience that is its object. No one can talk of the knowledge of the one by the other without seeing them as numerically distinct entities, of which the one lies beyond the other and away from it, along some directionand with some interval, that can be definitely named. But, if the talker be a humanist, he must also see this distance-interval concretely and pragmatically, and confess it to consist of other intervening experiences—of possible ones, at all events, if not of actual. To call my present idea of my dog, for example, cognitive of the real dog means that, as the actual tissue of experience is constituted, the idea is capable of leading into a chain of other experiences on my part that go from next to next and terminate at last in vivid sense-perceptions of a jumping, barking, hairy body. Thosearethe real dog, the dog’s full presence, for my common sense. If the supposed talker is a profound philosopher, although they may notbethe real dog for him, theymeanthe real dog, are practical substitutes for the real dog, as the representation was a practical substitute for them, that real dog being a lot of atoms, say, or of mind-stuff, that liewherethe sense-perceptions lie in his experience as well as in my own.

The philosopher here stands for the stage of thought that goes beyond the stage of common sense; and the difference is simply that he ‘interpolates’ and ‘extrapolates,’ where common sense does not. For common sense, two men see the same identical real dog. Philosophy, noting actual differences in their perceptions, points out the duality of these latter, and interpolates something between them as a more real terminus—first, organs, viscera, etc.; next, cells; then, ultimate atoms; lastly, mind-stuff perhaps. The original sense-termini of the two men, instead of coalescing with each other and with the real dog-object, as at first supposed, are thus held by philosophers to be separated by invisible realities with which, at most, they are conterminous.

Abolish, now, one of the percipients, and the interpolation changes into ‘extrapolation.’ The sense-terminus of the remaining percipient is regarded by the philosopher as not quite reaching reality. He has only carried the procession of experiences, the philosopher thinks,to a definite, because practical, halting-place somewhere on the way towards an absolute truth that lies beyond.

The humanist sees all the time, however, that there is no absolute transcendency even about the more absolute realities thus conjectured or believed in. The viscera and cells are only possible percepts following upon that of the outer body. The atoms again, though we may never attain to human means of perceiving them, are still defined perceptually. The mind-stuff itself is conceived as a kind of experience; and it is possible to frame the hypothesis (such hypotheses can by no logic be excluded from philosophy) of two knowers of a piece of mind-stuff and the mind-stuff itself becoming ‘confluent’ at the moment at which our imperfect knowing might pass into knowing of a completed type. Even so do you and I habitually represent our two perceptions and the real dog as confluent, though only provisionally, and for the common-sense stage of thought. If my pen be inwardly made of mind-stuff, there is no confluencenowbetweenthat mind-stuff and my visual perception of the pen. But conceivably there might come to be such confluence; for, in the case of my hand, the visual sensations and the inward feelings of the hand, its mind-stuff, so to speak, are even now as confluent as any two things can be.

There is, thus, no breach in humanistic epistemology. Whether knowledge be taken as ideally perfected, or only as true enough to pass muster for practice, it is hung on one continuous scheme. Reality, howsoever remote, is always defined as a terminus within the general possibilities of experience; and what knows it is defined as an experiencethat ‘represents’ it, in the sense of being substitutable for it in our thinkingbecause it leads to the same associates,or in the sense of ‘pointing to it’through a chain of other experiences that either intervene or may intervene.

Absolute reality here bears the same relation to sensation as sensation bears to conception or imagination. Both are provisional or final termini, sensation being only the terminus at which the practical man habitually stops,while the philosopher projects a ‘beyond’ in the shape of more absolute reality. These termini, for the practical and the philosophical stages of thought respectively, are self-supporting. They are not ‘true’ of anything else, they simplyare, arereal. They ‘lean on nothing,’ as my italicized formula said. Rather does the whole fabric of experience lean on them, just as the whole fabric of the solar system, including many relative positions, leans, for its absolute position in space, on any one of its constituent stars. Here, again, one gets a newIdentitätsphilosophiein pluralistic form.[114]

If I have succeeded in making this at all clear (though I fear that brevity and abstractness between them may have made me fail), the reader will see that the ‘truth’ of our mental operations must always be an intra-experiential affair. A conception is reckoned true by common sense when it can be made to lead to asensation. The sensation, which for common sense is not so much ‘true’ as ‘real,’ is held to beprovisionallytrue by the philosopher just in so far as itcovers(abuts at, or occupies the place of) a still more absolutely real experience, in the possibility of which to some remoter experient the philosopher finds reason to believe.

Meanwhile what actuallydoescount for true to any individual trower, whether he be philosopher or common man, is always a result of hisapperceptions. If a novel experience, conceptual or sensible, contradict too emphatically our pre-existent system of beliefs, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred it is treated as false. Only when the older and the newer experiences are congruous enough to mutually apperceive and modify each other, does what we treat as an advance in truth result. [Having written of this point in an article in reply to Mr. Joseph’s criticism of my humanism, I will say no more about truth here, but refer the reader to that review.[115]] In no case, however, need truthconsist in a relation between our experiences and something archetypal or trans-experiential. Should we ever reach absolutely terminal experiences, experiences in which we all agreed, which were superseded by no revised continuations, these would not betrue, they would bereal, they would simplybe, and be indeed the angles, corners, and linchpins of all reality, on which the truth of everything else would be stayed. Only suchotherthings as led to these by satisfactory conjunctions would be ‘true.’ Satisfactory connection of some sort with such termini is all that the word ‘truth’ means. On the common-sense stage of thought sense-presentations serve as such termini. Our ideas and concepts and scientific theories pass for true only so far as they harmoniously lead back to the world of sense.

I hope that many humanists will endorse this attempt of mine to trace the more essential features of that way of viewing things. I feel almost certain that Messrs. Dewey andSchiller will do so. If the attackers will also take some slight account of it, it may be that discussion will be a little less wide of the mark than it has hitherto been.

FOOTNOTES:[105][Reprinted fromThe Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol.ii, No. 5, March 2, 1905. Also reprinted, with slight changes inThe Meaning of Truth, pp. 121-135. The author’s corrections have been adopted for the present text.Ed.][106][Writtenaproposof the appearance of three articles inMind, N. S., vol.xiv, No. 53, January, 1905: “‘Absolute’ and ‘Relative’ Truth,” H. H. Joachim; “Professor James on ‘Humanism and Truth,’” H. W. B. Joseph; “Applied Axioms,” A. Sidgwick. Of these articles the second and third “continue the humanistic (or pragmatistic) controversy,” the first “deeply connects with it.”Ed.][107]Professor Baldwin, for example. His address ‘On Selective Thinking’ (Psychological Review, [vol.v], 1898, reprinted in his volume,Development and Evolution) seems to me an unusually well-written pragmatic manifesto. Nevertheless in ‘The Limits of Pragmatism’ (ibid., [vol.xi], 1904), he (much less clearly) joins in the attack.[108]The ethical changes, it seems to me, are beautifully made evident in Professor Dewey’s series of articles, which will never get the attention they deserve till they are printed in a book. I mean: ‘The Significance of Emotions,’Psychological Review, vol.ii, [1895], p. 13; ‘The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,’ibid., vol.iii, [1896], p. 357; ‘Psychology and Social Practice,’ibid., vol.vii, [1900], p. 105; ‘Interpretation of Savage Mind,’ibid., vol.ix, [1902], p. 217; ‘Green’s Theory of the Moral Motive,’Philosophical Review, vol.i, [1892], p. 593; ‘Self-realization as the Moral Ideal,’ibid., vol.ii, [1893], p. 652; ‘The Psychology of Effort,’ibid., vol.vi, [1897], p. 43; ‘The Evolutionary Method as Applied to Morality,’ibid., vol.xi, [1902], pp. 107, 353; ‘Evolution and Ethics,’Monist, vol.viii, [1898], p. 321; to mention only a few.[109][The author employs the term ‘humanism’ either as a synonym for ‘radical empiricism’ (cf.e.g., above, p.156); or as that general philosophy of life of which ‘radical empiricism’ is the theoretical ground (cf. below, p.194). For other discussions of ‘humanism,’ cf. below, essayxi, andThe Meaning of Truth, essayiii.Ed.][110][Omitted from reprint inMeaning of Truth. The articles referred to are ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ and ‘A World of Pure Experience,’ reprinted above.][111]InScience, November 4, 1904, p. 599.[112]This statement is probably excessively obscure to any one who has not read my two articles, ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ and ‘A World of Pure Experience.’[113][Cf. above, p.134; and below, p.202.][114][Cf. above, pp.134,197.][115][Omitted from reprint inMeaning of Truth. The review referred to is reprinted below, pp.244-265, under the title “Humanism and Truth Once More.”Ed.]

[105][Reprinted fromThe Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol.ii, No. 5, March 2, 1905. Also reprinted, with slight changes inThe Meaning of Truth, pp. 121-135. The author’s corrections have been adopted for the present text.Ed.]

[105][Reprinted fromThe Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol.ii, No. 5, March 2, 1905. Also reprinted, with slight changes inThe Meaning of Truth, pp. 121-135. The author’s corrections have been adopted for the present text.Ed.]

[106][Writtenaproposof the appearance of three articles inMind, N. S., vol.xiv, No. 53, January, 1905: “‘Absolute’ and ‘Relative’ Truth,” H. H. Joachim; “Professor James on ‘Humanism and Truth,’” H. W. B. Joseph; “Applied Axioms,” A. Sidgwick. Of these articles the second and third “continue the humanistic (or pragmatistic) controversy,” the first “deeply connects with it.”Ed.]

[106][Writtenaproposof the appearance of three articles inMind, N. S., vol.xiv, No. 53, January, 1905: “‘Absolute’ and ‘Relative’ Truth,” H. H. Joachim; “Professor James on ‘Humanism and Truth,’” H. W. B. Joseph; “Applied Axioms,” A. Sidgwick. Of these articles the second and third “continue the humanistic (or pragmatistic) controversy,” the first “deeply connects with it.”Ed.]

[107]Professor Baldwin, for example. His address ‘On Selective Thinking’ (Psychological Review, [vol.v], 1898, reprinted in his volume,Development and Evolution) seems to me an unusually well-written pragmatic manifesto. Nevertheless in ‘The Limits of Pragmatism’ (ibid., [vol.xi], 1904), he (much less clearly) joins in the attack.

[107]Professor Baldwin, for example. His address ‘On Selective Thinking’ (Psychological Review, [vol.v], 1898, reprinted in his volume,Development and Evolution) seems to me an unusually well-written pragmatic manifesto. Nevertheless in ‘The Limits of Pragmatism’ (ibid., [vol.xi], 1904), he (much less clearly) joins in the attack.

[108]The ethical changes, it seems to me, are beautifully made evident in Professor Dewey’s series of articles, which will never get the attention they deserve till they are printed in a book. I mean: ‘The Significance of Emotions,’Psychological Review, vol.ii, [1895], p. 13; ‘The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,’ibid., vol.iii, [1896], p. 357; ‘Psychology and Social Practice,’ibid., vol.vii, [1900], p. 105; ‘Interpretation of Savage Mind,’ibid., vol.ix, [1902], p. 217; ‘Green’s Theory of the Moral Motive,’Philosophical Review, vol.i, [1892], p. 593; ‘Self-realization as the Moral Ideal,’ibid., vol.ii, [1893], p. 652; ‘The Psychology of Effort,’ibid., vol.vi, [1897], p. 43; ‘The Evolutionary Method as Applied to Morality,’ibid., vol.xi, [1902], pp. 107, 353; ‘Evolution and Ethics,’Monist, vol.viii, [1898], p. 321; to mention only a few.

[108]The ethical changes, it seems to me, are beautifully made evident in Professor Dewey’s series of articles, which will never get the attention they deserve till they are printed in a book. I mean: ‘The Significance of Emotions,’Psychological Review, vol.ii, [1895], p. 13; ‘The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,’ibid., vol.iii, [1896], p. 357; ‘Psychology and Social Practice,’ibid., vol.vii, [1900], p. 105; ‘Interpretation of Savage Mind,’ibid., vol.ix, [1902], p. 217; ‘Green’s Theory of the Moral Motive,’Philosophical Review, vol.i, [1892], p. 593; ‘Self-realization as the Moral Ideal,’ibid., vol.ii, [1893], p. 652; ‘The Psychology of Effort,’ibid., vol.vi, [1897], p. 43; ‘The Evolutionary Method as Applied to Morality,’ibid., vol.xi, [1902], pp. 107, 353; ‘Evolution and Ethics,’Monist, vol.viii, [1898], p. 321; to mention only a few.

[109][The author employs the term ‘humanism’ either as a synonym for ‘radical empiricism’ (cf.e.g., above, p.156); or as that general philosophy of life of which ‘radical empiricism’ is the theoretical ground (cf. below, p.194). For other discussions of ‘humanism,’ cf. below, essayxi, andThe Meaning of Truth, essayiii.Ed.]

[109][The author employs the term ‘humanism’ either as a synonym for ‘radical empiricism’ (cf.e.g., above, p.156); or as that general philosophy of life of which ‘radical empiricism’ is the theoretical ground (cf. below, p.194). For other discussions of ‘humanism,’ cf. below, essayxi, andThe Meaning of Truth, essayiii.Ed.]

[110][Omitted from reprint inMeaning of Truth. The articles referred to are ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ and ‘A World of Pure Experience,’ reprinted above.]

[110][Omitted from reprint inMeaning of Truth. The articles referred to are ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ and ‘A World of Pure Experience,’ reprinted above.]

[111]InScience, November 4, 1904, p. 599.

[111]InScience, November 4, 1904, p. 599.

[112]This statement is probably excessively obscure to any one who has not read my two articles, ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ and ‘A World of Pure Experience.’

[112]This statement is probably excessively obscure to any one who has not read my two articles, ‘Does Consciousness Exist?’ and ‘A World of Pure Experience.’

[113][Cf. above, p.134; and below, p.202.]

[113][Cf. above, p.134; and below, p.202.]

[114][Cf. above, pp.134,197.]

[114][Cf. above, pp.134,197.]

[115][Omitted from reprint inMeaning of Truth. The review referred to is reprinted below, pp.244-265, under the title “Humanism and Truth Once More.”Ed.]

[115][Omitted from reprint inMeaning of Truth. The review referred to is reprinted below, pp.244-265, under the title “Humanism and Truth Once More.”Ed.]

Je voudrais vous communiquer quelques doutes qui me sont venus au sujet de la notion de Conscience qui règne dans tous nos traités de psychologie.

On définit habituellement la Psychologie comme la Science des faits de Conscience, ou desphénomènes, ou encore desétatsde la Conscience. Qu’on admette qu’elle se rattache à desmoipersonnels, ou bien qu’on la croie impersonnelle à la façon du “moi transcendental” de Kant, de laBewusstheitou duBewusstsein überhauptde nos contemporains en Allemagne, cette conscience est toujours regardée comme possédant une essence propre, absolument distincte de l’essence des choses matérielles, qu’elle a le don mystérieux de représenter et deconnaître. Les faits matériels, pris dans leur matérialité, ne sont paséprouvés, ne sont pas objetsd’expérience, ne serapportentpas. Pour qu’ils prennent la forme du système dans lequel nous nous sentons vivre, il faut qu’ilsapparaissent, et ce fait d’apparaître, surajouté à leur existence brute, s’appelle la conscience que nous en avons, ou peut-être, selon l’hypothèse panpsychiste, qu’ils ont d’eux-mêmes.

Voilà ce dualisme invétéré qu’il semble impossible de chasser de notre vue du monde. Ce monde peut bien exister en soi, mais nous n’en savons rien, car pour nous il est exclusivement un objet d’expérience; et la condition indispensable à cet effet, c’est qu’il soit rapporté à des témoins, qu’il soit connu par un sujet ou par des sujets spirituels. Objet et sujet, voilà les deux jambes sans lesquelles il semble que la philosophie ne saurait faire un pas en avant.

Toutes les écoles sont d’accord là-dessus, scolastique, cartésianisme, kantisme, néo-kantisme, tous admettent le dualisme fondamental. Le positivisme ou agnosticisme de nosjours, qui se pique de relever des sciences naturelles, se donne volontiers, il est vrai, le nom de monisme. Mais ce n’est qu’un monisme verbal. Il pose une réalité inconnue, mais nous dit que cette réalité se présente toujours sous deux “aspects,” un côté conscience et un côté matière, et ces deux côtés demeurent aussi irréductibles que les attributs fondamentaux, étendue et pensée, du Dieu de Spinoza. Au fond, le monisme contemporain est du spinozisme pur.

Or, comment se représente-t-on cette conscience dont nous sommes tous si portés à admettre l’existence? Impossible de la définir, nous dit-on, mais nous en avons tous une intuition immédiate: tout d’abord la conscience a conscience d’elle-même. Demandez à la première personne que vous rencontrerez, homme ou femme, psychologue ou ignorant, et elle vous répondra qu’ellese sentpenser, jouir, souffrir, vouloir, tout comme elle se sent respirer. Elle perçoit directement sa vie spirituelle comme une espèce de courant intérieur, actif, léger, fluide, délicat, diaphane pour ainsidire, et absolument opposé à quoi que ce soit de matériel. Bref, la vie subjective ne paraît pas seulement être une condition logiquement indispensable pour qu’il y ait un monde objectif quiapparaisse, c’est encore un élément de l’expérience même que nous éprouvons directement, au même titre que nous éprouvons notre propre corps.

Idées et Choses, comment donc ne pas reconnaître leur dualisme? Sentiments et Objets, comment douter de leur hétérogénéité absolue?

La psychologie soi-disant scientifique admet cette hétérogénéité comme l’ancienne psychologie spiritualiste l’admettait. Comment ne pas l’admettre? Chaque science découpe arbitrairement dans la trame des faits un champ où elle se parque, et dont elle décrit et étudie le contenu. La psychologie prend justement pour son domaine le champ des faits de conscience. Elle les postule sans les critiquer, elle les oppose aux faits matériels; et sans critiquer non plus la notion de ces derniers, elle les rattache à la conscience par le lien mystérieux de laconnaissance, de, l’aperceptionqui, pour elle, estun troisième genre de fait fondamental et ultime. En suivant cette voie, la psychologie contemporaine a fêté de grands triomphes. Elle a pu faire une esquisse de l’évolution de la vie consciente, en concevant cette dernière comme s’adaptant de plus en plus complètement au milieu physique environnant. Elle a pu établir un parallélisme dans le dualisme, celui des faits psychiques et des événements cérébraux. Elle a expliqué les illusions, les hallucinations, et jusqu’à un certain point, les maladies mentales. Ce sont de beaux progrès; mais il reste encore bien des problèmes. La philosophie générale surtout, qui a pour devoir de scruter tous les postulats, trouve des paradoxes et des empêchements là où la science passe outre; et il n’y a que les amateurs de science populaire qui ne sont jamais perplexes. Plus on va au fond des choses, plus on trouve d’énigmes; et j’avoue pour ma part que depuis que je m’occupe sérieusement de psychologie, ce vieux dualisme de matière et de pensée, cette hétérogénéité posée comme absolue des deux essences, m’a toujours présenté desdifficultés. C’est de quelques-unes de ces difficultés que je voudrais maintenant vous entretenir.

D’abord il y en a une, laquelle, j’en suis convaincu, vous aura frappés tous. Prenons la perception extérieure, la sensation directe que nous donnent par exemple les murs de cette salle. Peut-on dire ici que le psychique et le physique sont absolument hétérogènes? Au contraire, ils sont si peu hétérogènes que si nous nous plaçons au point de vue du sens commun; si nous faisons abstraction de toutes les inventions explicatives, des molécules et des ondulations éthérées, par exemple, qui au fond sont des entités métaphysiques; si, en un mot, nous prenons la réalité naïvement et telle qu’elle nous est donnée tout d’abord, cette réalité sensible d’où dépendent nos intérêts vitaux, et sur laquelle se portent toutes nos actions; eh bien, cette réalité sensible et la sensation que nous en avons sont, au moment où la sensation se produit, absolument identiques l’une à l’autre. La réalité est l’aperception même. Les mots “murs de cette salle” ne signifient que cette blancheur fraîche et sonorequi nous entoure, coupée par ces fenêtres, bornée par ces lignes et ces angles. Le physique ici n’a pas d’autre contenu que le psychique. Le sujet et l’objet se confondent.

C’est Berkeley qui le premier a mis cette vérité en honneur.Esse est percipi.Nos sensations ne sont pas de petits duplicats intérieurs des choses, elles sont les choses mêmes en tant que les choses nous sont présentes. Et quoi que l’on veuille penser de la vie absente, cachée, et pour ainsi dire privée, des choses, et quelles que soient les constructions hypothétiques qu’on en fasse, il reste vrai que la vie publique des choses, cette actualité présente par laquelle elles nous confrontent, d’où dérivent toutes nos constructions théoriques, et à laquelle elles doivent toutes revenir et se rattacher sous peine de flotter dans l’air et dans l’irréel; cette actualité, dis-je, est homogène, et non pas seulement homogène, mais numériquement une, avec une certaine partie de notre vie intérieure.

Voilà pour la perception extérieure. Quand on s’adresse à l’imagination, à la mémoire ouaux facultés de représentation abstraite, bien que les faits soient ici beaucoup plus compliqués, je crois que la même homogénéité essentielle se dégage. Pour simplifier le problème, excluons d’abord toute réalité sensible. Prenons la pensée pure, telle qu’elle s’effectue dans le rêve ou la rêverie, ou dans la mémoire du passé. Ici encore, l’étoffe de l’expérience ne fait-elle pas double emploi, le physique et le psychique ne se confondent-ils pas? Si je rêve d’une montagne d’or, elle n’existe sans doute pas en dehors du rêve, maisdansle rêve elle est de nature ou d’essence parfaitement physique, c’estcommephysique qu’elle m’apparaît. Si en ce moment je me permets de me souvenir de ma maison en Amérique, et des détails de mon embarquement récent pour l’Italie, le phénomène pur, le fait qui se produit, qu’est-il? C’est, dit-on, ma pensée, avec son contenu. Mais encore ce contenu, qu’est-il? Il porte la forme d’une partie du monde réel, partie distante, il est vrai, de six mille kilomètres d’espace et de six semaines de temps, mais reliée à la salle où nous sommes par une foule de choses, objetset événements, homogènes d’une part avec la salle et d’autre part avec l’objet de mes souvenirs.

Ce contenu ne se donne pas comme étant d’abord un tout petit fait intérieur que je projetterais ensuite au loin, il se présente d’emblée comme le fait éloigné même. Et l’acte de penser ce contenu, la conscience que j’en ai, que sont-ils? Sont-ce au fond autre chose que des manières rétrospectives de nommer le contenu lui-même, lorsqu’on l’aura séparé de tous ces intermédiaires physiques, et relié à un nouveau groupe d’associés qui le font rentrer dans ma vie mentale, les émotions par exemple qu’il a éveillées en moi, l’attention que j’y porte, mes idées de tout à l’heure qui l’ont suscité comme souvenir? Ce n’est qu’en se rapportant à ces derniers associés que le phénomène arrive à être classé commepensée; tant qu’il ne se rapporte qu’aux premiers il demeure phénomèneobjectif.

Il est vrai que nous opposons habituellement nos images intérieures aux objets, et que nous les considérons comme de petites copies,comme des calques ou doubles, affaiblis, de ces derniers. C’est qu’un objet présent a une vivacité et une netteté supérieures à celles de l’image. Il lui fait ainsi contraste; et pour me servir de l’excellent mot de Taine, il lui sert deréducteur. Quand les deux sont présents ensemble, l’objet prend le premier plan et l’image “recule,” devient une chose “absente.” Mais cet objet présent, qu’est-il en lui-même? De quelle étoffe est-il fait? De la même étoffe que l’image. Il est fait desensations; il est chose perçue. Sonesseestpercipi, et lui et l’image sont génériquement homogènes.

Si je pense en ce moment à mon chapeau que j’ai laissé tout à l’heure au vestiaire, où est le dualisme, le discontinu, entre le chapeau pensé et le chapeau réel? C’est d’un vraichapeau absentque mon esprit s’occupe. J’en tiens compte pratiquement comme d’une réalité. S’il était présent sur cette table, le chapeau déterminerait un mouvement de ma main: je l’enlèverais. De même ce chapeau conçu, ce chapeau en idée, déterminera tantôt la direction de mes pas. J’irai le prendre.L’idée que j’en ai se continuera jusqu’à la présence sensible du chapeau, et s’y fondra harmonieusement.

Je conclus donc que,—bien qu’il y ait un dualisme pratique—puisque les images se distinguent des objets, en tiennent lieu, et nous y mènent, il n’y a pas lieu de leur attribuer une différence de nature essentielle. Pensée et actualité sont faites d’une seule et même étoffe, qui est l’étoffe de l’expérience en général.

La psychologie de la perception extérieure nous mène à la même conclusion. Quand j’aperçois l’objet devant moi comme une table de telle forme, à telle distance, on m’explique que ce fait est dû à deux facteurs, à une matière de sensation qui me pénètre par la voie des yeux et qui donne l’élément d’extériorité réelle, et à des idées qui se réveillent, vont à la rencontre de cette réalité, la classent et l’interprètent. Mais qui peut faire la part, dans la table concrètement aperçue, de ce qui est sensation et de ce qui est idée? L’externe et l’interne, l’étendu et l’inétendu, se fusionnentet font un mariage indissoluble. Cela rappelle ces panoramas circulaires, où des objets réels, rochers, herbe, chariots brisés, etc., qui occupent l’avant-plan, sont si ingénieusement reliés à la toile qui fait le fond, et qui représente une bataille ou un vaste paysage, que l’on ne sait plus distinguer ce qui est objet de ce qui est peinture. Les coutures et les joints sont imperceptibles.

Cela pourrait-il advenir si l’objet et l’idée étaient absolument dissemblables de nature?

Je suis convaincu que des considérations pareilles à celles que je viens d’exprimer auront déjà suscité, chez vous aussi, des doutes au sujet du dualisme prétendu.

Et d’autres raisons de douter surgissent encore. Il y a toute une sphère d’adjectifs et d’attributs qui ne sont ni objectifs, ni subjectifs d’une manière exclusive, mais que nous employons tantôt d’une manière et tantôt d’une autre, comme si nous nous complaisions dans leur ambiguïté. Je parle des qualités que nousapprécions, pour ainsi dire, dans leschoses, leur côté esthétique, moral, leur valeur pour nous. La beauté, par exemple, où réside-t-elle? Est-elle dans la statue, dans la sonate, ou dans notre esprit? Mon collègue à Harvard, George Santayana, a écrit un livre d’esthétique,[117]où il appelle la beauté “le plaisir objectifié”; et en vérité, c’est bien ici qu’on pourrait parler de projection au dehors. On dit indifféremment une chaleur agréable, ou une sensation agréable de chaleur. La rareté, le précieux du diamant nous en paraissent des qualités essentielles. Nous parlons d’un orage affreux, d’un homme haïssable, d’une action indigne, et nous croyons parler objectivement, bien que ces termes n’expriment que des rapports à notre sensibilité émotive propre. Nous disons même un chemin pénible, un ciel triste, un coucher de soleil superbe. Toute cette manière animiste de regarder les choses qui paraît avoir été la façon primitive de penser des hommes, peut très bien s’expliquer (et M. Santayana, dans un autre livre tout récent,[118]

l’a bien expliquée ainsi) par l’habitude d’attribuer à l’objettoutce que nous ressentons en sa présence. Le partage du subjectif et de l’objectif est le fait d’une réflexion très avancée, que nous aimons encore ajourner dans beaucoup d’endroits. Quand les besoins pratiques ne nous en tirent pas forcément, il semble que nous aimons à nous bercer dans le vague.

Les qualités secondes elles-mêmes, chaleur, son, lumière, n’ont encore aujourd’hui qu’une attribution vague. Pour le sens commun, pour la vie pratique, elles sont absolument objectives, physiques. Pour le physicien, elles sont subjectives. Pour lui, il n’y a que la forme, la masse, le mouvement, qui aient une réalité extérieure. Pour le philosophe idéaliste, au contraire, forme et mouvement sont tout aussi subjectifs que lumière et chaleur, et il n’y a que la chose-en-soi inconnue, le “noumène,” qui jouisse d’une réalité extramentale complète.

Nos sensations intimes conservent encore de cette ambiguïté. Il y a des illusions de mouvement qui prouvent que nos premièressensations de mouvement étaient généralisées. C’est le monde entier, avec nous, qui se mouvait. Maintenant nous distinguons notre propre mouvement de celui des objets qui nous entourent, et parmi les objets nous en distinguons qui demeurent en repos. Mais il est des états de vertige où nous retombons encore aujourd’hui dans l’indifférenciation première.

Vous connaissez tous sans doute cette théorie qui a voulu faire des émotions des sommes de sensations viscérales et musculaires. Elle a donné lieu à bien des controverses, et aucune opinion n’a encore conquis l’unanimité des suffrages. Vous connaissez aussi les controverses sur la nature de l’activité mentale. Les uns soutiennent qu’elle est une force purement spirituelle que nous sommes en état d’apercevoir immédiatement comme telle. Les autres prétendent que ce que nous nommons activité mentale (effort, attention, par exemple) n’est que le reflet senti de certains effets dont notre organisme est le siège, tensions musculaires au crâne et au gosier, arrêt ou passage de la respiration, afflux de sang, etc.

De quelque manière que se résolvent ces controverses, leur existence prouve bien clairement une chose, c’est qu’il est très difficile, ou même absolument impossible de savoir, par la seule inspection intime de certains phénomènes, s’ils sont de nature physique, occupant de l’étendue, etc., ou s’ils sont de nature purement psychique et intérieure. Il nous faut toujours trouver des raisons pour appuyer notre avis; il nous faut chercher la classification la plus probable du phénomène; et en fin de compte il pourrait bien se trouver que toutes nos classifications usuelles eussent eu leurs motifs plutôt dans les besoins de la pratique que dans quelque faculté que nous aurions d’apercevoir deux essences ultimes et diverses qui composeraient ensemble la trame des choses. Le corps de chacun de nous offre un contraste pratique presque violent à tout le reste du milieu ambiant. Tout ce qui arrive au dedans de ce corps nous est plus intime et important que ce qui arrive ailleurs. Il s’identifie avec notre moi, il se classe avec lui. Ame, vie, souffle, qui saurait bien les distinguer exactement? Même nos images et nossouvenirs, qui n’agissent sur le monde physique que par le moyen de notre corps, semblent appartenir à ce dernier. Nous les traitons comme internes, nous les classons avec nos sentiments affectifs. Il faut bien avouer, en somme, que la question du dualisme de la pensée et de la matière est bien loin d’être finalement résolue.

Et voilà terminée la première partie de mon discours. J’ai voulu vous pénétrer, Mesdames et Messieurs, de mes doutes et de la réalité, aussi bien que de l’importance, du problème.

Quant à moi, après de longues années d’hésitation, j’ai fini par prendre mon parti carrément. Je crois que la conscience, telle qu’on se la représente communément, soit comme entité, soit comme activité pure, mais en tout cas comme fluide, inétendue, diaphane, vide de tout contenu propre, mais se connaissant directement elle-même, spirituelle enfin, je crois, dis-je, que cette conscience est une pure chimère, et que la somme de réalités concrètes que le mot conscience devrait couvrir, mérite une toute autre description, description, du reste, qu’une philosophie attentive aux faits etsachant faire un peu d’analyse, serait désormais en état de fournir ou plutôt de commencer à fournir. Et ces mots m’amènent à la seconde partie de mon discours. Elle sera beaucoup plus courte que la première, parce que si je la développais sur la même échelle, elle serait beaucoup trop longue. Il faut, par conséquent, que je me restreigne aux seules indications indispensables.

Admettons que la conscience, laBewusstheit, conçue comme essence, entité, activité, moitié irréductible de chaque expérience, soit supprimée, que le dualisme fondamental et pour ainsi dire ontologique soit aboli et que ce que nous supposions exister soit seulement ce qu’on a appelé jusqu’ici lecontenu, leInhalt, de la conscience; comment la philosophie va-t-elle se tirer d’affaire avec l’espèce de monisme vague qui en résultera? Je vais tâcher de vous insinuer quelques suggestions positives là-dessus, bien que je craigne que, faute du développement nécessaire, mes idées ne répandront pas une clarté très grande. Pourvu que j’indique uncommencement de sentier, ce sera peut-être assez.

Au fond, pourquoi nous accrochons-nous d’une manière si tenace à cette idée d’une conscience surajoutée à l’existence du contenu des choses? Pourquoi la réclamons-nous si fortement, que celui qui la nierait nous semblerait plutôt un mauvais plaisant qu’un penseur? N’est-ce pas pour sauver ce fait indéniable que le contenu de l’expérience n’a pas seulement une existence propre et comme immanente et intrinsèque, mais que chaque partie de ce contenu déteint pour ainsi dire sur ses voisines, rend compte d’elle-même à d’autres, sort en quelque sorte de soi pour être sue et qu’ainsi tout le champ de l’expérience se trouve être transparent de part en part, ou constitué comme un espace qui serait rempli de miroirs?

Cette bilatéralité des parties de l’expérience,—à savoir d’une part, qu’ellessontavec des qualités propres; d’autre part, qu’elles sont rapportées à d’autres parties etsues—l’opinion régnante la constate et l’explique par un dualisme fondamental de constitutionappartenant à chaque morceau d’expérience en propre. Dans cette feuille de papier il n’y a pas seulement, dit-on, le contenu, blancheur, minceur, etc., mais il y a ce second fait de la conscience de cette blancheur et de cette minceur. Cette fonction d’être “rapporté,” de faire partie de la trame entière d’une expérience plus compréhensive, on l’érige en fait ontologique, et on loge ce fait dans l’intérieur même du papier, en l’accouplant à sa blancheur et à sa minceur. Ce n’est pas un rapport extrinsèque qu’on suppose, c’est une moitié du phénomène même.

Je crois qu’en somme on se représente la réalité comme constituée de la façon dont sont faites les “couleurs” qui nous servent à la peinture. Il y a d’abord des matières colorantes qui répondent au contenu, et il y a un véhicule, huile ou colle, qui les tient en suspension et qui répond à la conscience. C’est un dualisme complet, où, en employant certains procédés, on peut séparer chaque élément de l’autre par voie de soustraction. C’est ainsi qu’on nous assure qu’en faisant un grand effort d’abstraction introspective, nous pouvonssaisir notre conscience sur le vif, comme une activité spirituelle pure, en négligeant à peu près complètement les matières qu’à un moment donné elle éclaire.

Maintenant je vous demande si on ne pourrait pas tout aussi bien renverser absolument cette manière de voir. Supposons, en effet, que la réalité première soit de nature neutre, et appelons-la par quelque nom encore ambigu, commephénomène,donné,Vorfindung. Moi-même j’en parle volontiers au pluriel, et je lui donne le nom d’expériences pures. Ce sera un monisme, si vous voulez, mais un monisme tout à fait rudimentaire et absolument opposé au soi-disant monisme bilatéral du positivisme scientifique ou spinoziste.

Ces expériences pures existent et se succèdent, entrent dans des rapports infiniment variés les unes avec les autres, rapports qui sont eux-mêmes des parties essentielles de la trame des expériences. Il y a “Conscience” de ces rapports au même titre qu’il y a “Conscience” de leurs termes. Il en résulte que desgroupesd’expériences se font remarquer etdistinguer, et qu’une seule et même expérience, vu la grande variété de ses rapports, peut jouer un rôle dans plusieurs groupes à la fois. C’est ainsi que dans un certain contexte de voisins, elle serait classée comme un phénomène physique, tandis que dans un autre entourage elle figurerait comme un fait de conscience, à peu près comme une même particule d’encre peut appartenir simultanément à deux lignes, l’une verticale, l’autre horizontale, pourvu qu’elle soit située à leur intersection.

Prenons, pour fixer nos idées, l’expérience que nous avons à ce moment du local où nous sommes, de ces murailles, de cette table, de ces chaises, de cet espace. Dans cette expérience pleine, concrète et indivise, telle qu’elle est là, donnée, le monde physique objectif et le monde intérieur et personnel de chacun de nous se rencontrent et se fusionnent comme des lignes se fusionnent à leur intersection. Comme chose physique, cette salle a des rapports avec tout le reste du bâtiment, bâtiment que nous autres nous ne connaissons et ne connaîtrons pas.Elle doit son existence à toute une histoire de financiers, d’architectes, d’ouvriers. Elle pèse sur le sol; elle durera indéfiniment dans le temps; si le feu y éclatait, les chaises et la table qu’elle contient seraient vite réduites en cendres.

Comme expérience personnelle, au contraire, comme chose “rapportée,” connue, consciente, cette salle a de tout autres tenants et aboutissants. Ses antécédents ne sont pas des ouvriers, ce sont nos pensées respectives de tout à l’heure. Bientôt elle ne figurera que comme un fait fugitif dans nos biographies, associé à d’agréables souvenirs. Comme expérience psychique, elle n’a aucun poids, son ameublement n’est pas combustible. Elle n’exerce de force physique que sur nos seuls cerveaux, et beaucoup d’entre nous nient encore cette influence; tandis que la salle physique est en rapport d’influence physique avec tout le reste du monde.

Et pourtant c’est de la même salle absolument qu’il s’agit dans les deux cas. Tant que nous ne faisons pas de physique spéculative,tant que nous nous plaçons dans le sens commun, c’est la salle vue et sentie qui est bien la salle physique. De quoi parlons-nous donc si ce n’est decela, de cette même partie de la nature matérielle que tous nos esprits, à ce même moment, embrassent, qui entre telle quelle dans l’expérience actuelle et intime de chacun de nous, et que notre souvenir regardera toujours comme une partie intégrante de notre histoire. C’est absolument une même étoffe qui figure simultanément, selon le contexte que l’on considère, comme fait matériel et physique, ou comme fait de conscience intime.

Je crois donc qu’on ne saurait traiter conscience et matière comme étant d’essence disparate. On n’obtient ni l’une ni l’autre par soustraction, en négligeant chaque fois l’autre moitié d’une expérience de composition double. Les expériences sont au contraire primitivement de nature plutôt simple. Ellesdeviennentconscientes dans leur entier, ellesdeviennentphysiques dans leur entier; et c’estpar voie d’additionque ce résultat se réalise. Pourautant que des expériences se prolongent dans le temps, entrent dans des rapports d’influence physique, se brisant, se chauffant, s’éclairant, etc., mutuellement, nous en faisons un groupe à part que nous appelons le monde physique. Pour autant, au contraire, qu’elles sont fugitives, inertes physiquement, que leur succession ne suit pas d’ordre déterminé, mais semble plutôt obéir à des caprices émotifs, nous en faisons un autre groupe que nous appelons le monde psychique. C’est en entrant à présent dans un grand nombre de ces groupes psychiques que cette salle devient maintenant chose consciente, chose rapportée, chose sue. En faisant désormais partie de nos biographies respectives, elle ne sera pas suivie de cette sotte et monotone répétition d’elle-même dans le temps qui caractérise son existence physique. Elle sera suivie, au contraire, par d’autres expériences qui seront discontinues avec elle, ou qui auront ce genre tout particulier de continuité que nous appelons souvenir. Demain, elle aura eu sa place dans chacun de nos passés; mais les présents divers auxquels tousces passés seront liés demain seront bien différents du présent dont cette salle jouira demain comme entité physique.

Les deux genres de groupes sont formés d’expériences, mais les rapports des expériences entre elles diffèrent d’un groupe à l’autre. C’est donc par addition d’autres phénomènes qu’un phénomène donné devient conscient ou connu, ce n’est pas par un dédoublement d’essence intérieure. La connaissance des choses leursurvient, elle ne leur est pas immanente. Ce n’est le fait ni d’un moi transcendental, ni d’uneBewusstheitou acte de conscience qui les animerait chacune.Elles se connaissent l’une l’autre, ou plutôt il y en a qui connaissent les autres; et le rapport que nous nommons connaissance n’est lui-même, dans beaucoup de cas, qu’une suite d’expériences intermédiaires parfaitement susceptibles d’être décrites en termes concrets. Il n’est nullement le mystère transcendant où se sont complus tant de philosophes.

Mais ceci nous mènerait beaucoup trop loin. Je ne puis entrer ici dans tous les replis de lathéorie de la connaissance, ou de ce que, vous autres Italiens, vous appelez la gnoséologie. Je dois me contenter de ces remarques écourtées, ou simples suggestions, qui sont, je le crains, encore bien obscures faute des développements nécessaires.

Permettez donc que je me résume—trop sommairement, et en style dogmatique—dans les six thèses suivantes:

1oLa Conscience, telle qu’on l’entend ordinairement, n’existe pas, pas plus que la Matière, à laquelle Berkeley a donné le coup de grâce;

2oCe qui existe et forme la part de vérité que le mot de “Conscience” recouvre, c’est la susceptibilité que possèdent les parties de l’expérience d’être rapportées ou connues;

3oCette susceptibilité s’explique par le fait que certaines expériences peuvent mener les unes aux autres par des expériences intermédiaires nettement caractérisées, de telle sorte que les unes se trouvent jouer le rôle de choses connues, les autres celui de sujets connaissants;

4oOn peut parfaitement définir ces deux rôlessans sortir de la trame de l’expérience même, et sans invoquer rien de transcendant;

5oLes attributions sujet et objet, représenté et représentatif, chose et pensée, signifient donc une distinction pratique qui est de la dernière importance, mais qui est d’ordreFONCTIONNELseulement, et nullement ontologique comme le dualisme classique se la représente;

6oEn fin de compte, les choses et les pensées ne sont point foncièrement hétérogènes, mais elles sont faites d’une même étoffe, étoffe qu’on ne peut définir comme telle, mais seulement éprouver, et que l’on peut nommer, si on veut, l’étoffe de l’expérience en général.


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