XVBOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES—SUMMER

The Meadow Sweet.

The Burnet Saxifrage (Pimpinella Saxifraga), of the orderUmbelliferæ, is a common plant in dry pastures, and is very generally distributed. Its stem is from one to two feet high, and but littlebranched; and the leaves are very variable in form—the radical ones usually pinnate, with from three to nine oval or round leaflets that are either lobed or deeply toothed; and the upper also pinnate, with the segments of the leaflets few and very narrow. The umbels are terminal, with from eight to sixteen slender rays, and no bracts. The flowers are small and white, and appear from July to September.

The Wild Carrot (Daucus Carota) of the same order is also common in pastures. It is an erect plant, with a tap root, and a branching stem from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are two or three times pinnate, with segments pinnately divided into narrow lobes. The upper leaves are much smaller, with narrower divisions. The umbels are large and terminal, on long stalks. The rays are numerous and crowded; the middle ones being shorter, with pale purple flowers; and the outer ones longer, with white flowers. After flowering the rays close together, forming a dense, globular mass, or an inverted cone, concave at the top, thus more or less covering the fruits, in which they are aided by the long, narrow lobes of both the primary and secondary bracts. The fruits are covered with little hooked prickles.

The Burnet Saxifrage.

The Devil's-bit Scabious (Scabiosa succisa—orderDipsaceæ) is very common in the pastures of almost all parts of Britain, and much resembles the Field Scabious (p.290) in general habit. Its stem is erect, branching, from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are stalked, ovate or oblong, and generally quite entire; and the stem-leaves, which are few, are of the same general form, but are sessile, and sometimes slightly toothed. The heads of purple-blue flowers are on long peduncles, and each one is surroundedat the base by about three whorls of bracts which decrease in length inwards, the outer and longest being about as long as the flowers. The flowers of the head are all nearly of the same size and form. Each one is enclosed in a tubular whorl of united bracts with small teeth. This whorl might easily be mistaken for a calyx by those who are not acquainted with the general features of the flowers of this order, but the calyx is really combined with the ovary, its four bristly teeth being very conspicuous round the top of the fruit. The corolla is tubular, deeply cleft into four lobes; and four stamens are inserted into its tube. The fruit is small and seedlike, and does not split. This plant flowers from July to September or October.

The Wild Carrot.

Coming now to theCompositæ, we have a considerable numberof meadow flowers to describe; and we assume that the reader has already made himself acquainted with the nature of the flowers of this order as given on p.175. If such is not the case, we advise him to refresh his memory with regard to them, in order that the terms used in the following descriptions may be thoroughly understood.

The Devil's-Bit Scabious.

Our first species is the Rough Hawkbit (Leontodon hispidus), which is very abundant in all parts of Britain except the extreme north, its rather large, yellow flower-heads being often mistakenfor those of the Dandelion that are frequently seen in company with them on pasture land. Its specific name is due to the short, stiff hairs, often more or less branched, that clothe all parts of the plant. The leaves are all radical, long and narrow, decreasing in width towards the base, and either coarsely toothed or deeply cut into pointed lobes. The flower-stalk widens immediately below its solitary head, which is surrounded by hairy bracts—two or three whorls of short ones without, and a whorl of long ones within. All the florets are ligulate or strap-shaped, and yellow. The fruits are long achenes, narrower towards the top; and the pappus consists of a few short, outer hairs, surrounding about twice the number of brown, feathered ones three or four times as long. The flower stalks vary from a few inches to a foot or more in height, and the flowers bloom from June to September.

The Rough Hawkbit.

Equally abundant is the Autumnal Hawkbit (Leontodon autumnalis), which is also found in pastures. It is a very similar plant in many respects, but may be easily distinguished by its smaller heads of flowers on branching stalks. The flowering stems are erect, from six to eighteen inches high, each with one or two branches bearing a few small scales and a single head of flowers. The involucre consists of several rows of smooth, closely-overlapping bracts, and is narrowed at the base into the enlarged upper part of the stalk. The florets are all ligulate, as in the last species;and the pappus consists of brown, feathery hairs, all of the same length. The flowers appear during August and September.

The Meadow Thistle (Carduus pratensis) is abundant in some of the southern counties of Britain and Ireland, but is rarely seen in the north. Nearly all the leaves of this plant are radical, and these are long, narrow, and covered with cottony hairs. The few leaves of the stem are narrow, with short teeth that are only slightly prickly. The stem itself grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and is usually unbranched, with a single head of flowers; sometimes, however, it has one or two branches, each terminating in a flower-head. The involucre is globular in form, covered with cottony hairs, and composed of closely-placed bracts. The flowers are purple. The plant grows chiefly in moist pastures, and flowers from June to August.

The Autumnal Hawkbit.

The Black Knapweed or Hardhead (Centaurea nigra) is a very common flower of meadows and pastures, flowering from June to September. Its stem is erect, tough, branched, from a few inches to three feet in height. The leaves are long and narrow; the upper ones entire or nearly so, and clasping the stem; and the lower coarsely toothed or divided into lobes. The flower-head has somewhat the appearance of a purple thistle, but the involucre is not prickly. The latter consists of an almost globular mass ofclosely-overlapping bracts, the visible portions of which are dark brown or black fringes. The florets are generally all equal, but the outer ones are sometimes larger than the others, and sterile.

The Meadow Thistle.

The Great Knapweed (Centaurea Scabiosa) is a somewhat similar plant, but usually larger, its stout, branched stem being generally two or three feet high. It may be easily distinguished by its larger flower-heads, the outer, neuter florets of which are considerably enlarged. As a rule the florets are all purple, but occasionally all are white, or the outer ones white and the others purple. The bracts of the involucre are broad, with a green centre and a dark, downy margin. The fruit is surmounted by a pappus of stiff, bristly hairs of about its own length. This plant is common in the south of Britain, and flowers during July and August.

Two species of Fleabane have to be noticed. They belong to the genusInula, and are distinguished by a distinct division of the flower-head into disc and ray, and also by two minute 'tails' at the bottom of the anthers.

One of these is the Common Fleabane (I. dysenterica)—a woolly plant, abundant in the moist pastures of the southern counties, flowering from July to September. Its erect stem is loosely branched, from six inches to two feet high. The leaves are oblong and wavy—the lower ones stalked, and the upper clasping the stem with rounded lobes at the base. The flower-heads are yellow, aboutthree-quarters of an inch in diameter, arranged singly on the tips of the branches, or on stalks arising from the axils of the upper leaves. The florets of the ray are spreading, and much longer than those of the disc; and the fruits have a minute cup at the top, from the inside of which spring the hairs of the pappus. The smoke arising from the burning Fleabanes was supposed to kill fleas and other vermin; and the specific namedysentericais due to the fact that this species has been used as a medicine in cases of dysentery.

The Black Knapweed.

The Great Knapweed.

The Small Fleabane (I. Pulicaria) is a similar plant, but smaller (from six to twelve inches high) and less woolly. Its flower-heads are yellow, much smaller, on terminal and axillary stalks; and the florets of the ray are only slightly longer than those of the disc. The hairs of the pappus are not surrounded at the base by a little cup, but by a few minute and distinct scales. This species grows in the south-easterncounties of England, and flowers during August and September.

The White Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum) is one of the largest and most conspicuous of our composite flowers, and is abundant in dry pastures all over Britain. The plant is generally smooth; and its erect stem, either simple or slightly branched, is from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are obovate, coarsely toothed, on long stalks; and the upper ones are narrow and sessile, with a few teeth. The flower-heads are large, and placed singly on long, terminal stalks. The bracts are closely overlapping, with narrow, brown margins; the ray florets white, strap-shaped, over half an inch long; and the disc florets numerous and tubular. The flowers bloom from June to August.

The Common Fleabane.

Our last composite flower is the Sneezewort (Achillea Ptarmica), which is common in the hilly pastures and meadows of most parts of Britain. It has an erect stem, one to two feet high. The leaves are sessile, narrow, with fine, regular teeth, and a smooth surface. The flower-heads are arranged in a loose, terminal, flat-topped corymb. Each is surrounded by an involucre of overlapping bracts; and consists of numerous little disc-florets, intermixed with small scales, and about twelve short, broad, white florets of the ray. The time of flowering is July and August.

The Common Centaury (Erythræa Centaurium), of the orderGentianaceæ, is a very common plant in dry pastures. Its stem is erect, simple below, freely branched towards the top, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are ovate, spreading and closely placed below, narrow and more distant above. The flowers are rose-red or pink, in a dense corymb, with a calyx of five very narrow segments, and a corolla consisting of a narrow tube and five spreading lobes.

The Ox-Eye Daisy.

Of the orderConvolvulaceæwe shall note one species—the Small Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), so well known as a troublesome weed in cultivated fields. It has a creeping rootstock, and a twining stem, from a few inches to two feet in length, thatsometimes climbs, but more commonly trails along the ground and over low-growing plants. The leaves are stalked, arrow-shaped, about an inch and a half long, with sharp, spreading lobes at the base. The axillary peduncles are usually forked, with a single flower on each of the two branches; and there are two small bracts at the angle of the fork, and another one or a pair above these, but some distance below the flower, on each branch. The calyx is very small, but the salver-shaped corolla is usually over an inch in diameter, either pink or pinkish white. The plant flowers from June to August.

The Sneezewort.

The Meadow Clary (Salvia pratensis—orderLabiatæ), shown onPlate IV, Fig. 6, is a rather rare plant, apparently to be seen only in the dry fields of Oxfordshire, Kent, Surrey, and the extreme south-west of England; but it is one of the most handsome of the Labiates. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are large, stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, and much wrinkled; and the stem-leaves few, ovate or lanceolate, acute, the upper ones sessile. The flowers are arranged in whorls of from four to six at regular distances, the whole forming a long, simple or branched spike. The calyx is divided into two lips, the upper of which hasoften three small teeth, while the lower is divided into two lobes; and the corolla is of a bright blue colour, about three times as long as the calyx, with a long, arched upper lip and a three-lobed lower lip. There are two stamens, each with a fertile and an abortive anther connected by a thin stalk which is fastened to the short filament in such a manner that it rocks. This plant flowers from June to August.

The Small Bindweed.

The peculiar arrangement of the stamens above described is sufficient in itself to distinguish the genusSalviafrom all the other Labiates, and the importance of the peculiarity in connexion with the pollination of the flower is so interesting that we may well spend a few minutes in studying it before passing on to other species. In the first place it should be mentioned that the stamens ofSalviaare mature before the stigma, and that, as a consequence, self-pollination is impossible. The lower, abortive anthers of the two stamens are joined together and form a little valve which closes the throat of the corolla tube. Each one, however, has a notch in its inner side, and the two notches, meeting in the middle, form a little hole. When a bee visits the flower, it alights on the lower lipof the corolla, and thrusts its tongue through the hole to reach the nectar at the base of the tube. In doing this it pushes the abortive anthers backwards, and the upper, fertile anther cells, which rest under the arched upper lip, are thus made to swing downwards and forwards so that they touch the bee's back; and, if they are ripe, to deposit some pollen. After the pollen has been thus removed, the style lengthens and curves downward, bringing the stigma, which is now mature, to the position previously occupied by the fertile anther cells at the time they were made to swing downwards by the bee. Thus, if a bee which has previously visited a flower with mature anthers now comes to one in which the stigma is ripe, the pollen dusted on its back by the former is rubbed against the stigma of the latter, and cross-fertilisation is the result.

Section of the Flower ofSalvia.1. Stigma--not yet mature. 2. Stamen

The Self-Heal

The Common Marjoram (Origanum vulgare) is an aromatic plant that often grows in great abundance on dry hilly pastures, especially in limestone and chalky districts. Its stem is thin and hairy, a foot or more in height; and the leaves are stalked, ovate, blunt, slightly toothed, downy, and about an inch in length. The flowers, which bloom from July to September, are of a rosy purple colour, in numerous globular clusters, the whole inflorescence forming a leafy panicle. The overlapping bracts are about as long as the calyx, and usually tinged with red or purple; the calyx has five, short, equal teeth, and is very hairy in the throat; the corollais about twice the length of the calyx, and has four lobes, the upper of which is a little broader than the others; and the stamens are in two pairs, one pair longer than the other. It will be noticed that some of the flowers are larger than others, and that these are perfect, while the smaller ones have no stamens.

In the same order (Labiatæ) there is the Self-Heal (Prunella vulgaris), a very common plant in moist meadows, flowering from July to the end of the summer. The lower portion of the stem of this plant usually rests on the ground and roots at the nodes, but from this arises the erect branches, four to ten inches high, bearing pairs of oval or oblong, slightly-toothed leaves; and a dense terminal spike of whorled flowers immediately above the last pair. The lipped corolla is of a violet or purple colour, usually about half an inch long. During the flowering stage the spike is very short, but as the fruits ripen it lengthens out to about an inch and a half or two inches.

The Ribwort Plantain.

Coming now to the Plantains (orderPlantaginaceæ) we have two species to note, both of which are very abundant on pasture land. One is the Greater Plantain (Plantago major)—a very low plant, with a short, thick rootstock, and a radical cluster of spreading or ascending leaves with grooved stalks. These leaves are ovate, nearly as broad as long, and traversed by five, seven, or nine strong parallel veins which converge into the stalk at the base. Each little flower of the long, slender spike has four sepals; a corolla with a tube and four spreading lobes; and four stamens that project beyond the corolla. The fruit is a small capsule whichsplits transversely when ripe. The plant flowers from June to August.

The other is the Ribwort Plantain (P. lanceolata), a somewhat similar plant, the leaves of which are narrow, tapering at both ends, with three or five strong, parallel ribs. Each flower-stalk bears a globular or oval spike from half an inch to an inch in length. This species also flowers from June to August.

The Butterfly Orchis

1. Cat's-Tail Grass. 2. Meadow Barley.

There are a few summer-flowering species of Orchids that are more or less common in fields and pastures. One of these is the Marsh Orchis (Orchis latifolia), a plant so closely resembling the Spotted Orchis (p.277) that it is sometimes regarded as a variety of the latter. Its tubers are palmately divided; and its stem, which is hollow, is usually from twelve to eighteen inches high. The leaves are large, sometimes spotted; and the spike of flowers is large, with leafy bracts longer than the ovaries. The flowersvary in colour from white to a deep purple, have a spur usually thicker than that of the Spotted Orchis, and a lip indistinctly divided into three lobes, with its sides curved backwards. The flower, which is represented on, grows in moist meadows, marshes, and on moors, flowering during June and July.

Rye Grass or Darnel.

Sheep's Fescue.

Another species—the Butterfly Orchis (Habenaria bifolia)—has (usually) undivided tubers; a stem from six to twelve inches high with two broad leaves near the base, and surrounded below by a few sheathing scales; and a rather loose spike of white or greenish flowers with narrow bracts about as long as the ovaries. Thepetals and upper sepals are arched, the lateral sepals spreading, the lip narrow and undivided, and the spur about twice as long as the ovary. This flower is not uncommon in moist meadows, where it blooms from June to August. A large variety, with greener flowers, is sometimes known as the Great Butterfly Orchis.

A considerable number of summer-flowering grasses are more or less common in fields and meadows. We have not space for the descriptions of these, but introduce illustrations of a few, including the Cock's-foot Grass (Dactylis glomerata) which appears onPlate IV.

The Crowfoot group of theRanunculaceæcontains two bog-plants popularly known as Spearworts on account of their spear-like leaves. One of these—the Lesser Spearwort (Ranunculus Flammula)—is abundant in wet places, especially the edges of muddy pools and ditches, where its buttercup-like flowers may be seen from June to September. It is a slender, smooth plant, with a branched stem, more or less decumbent at the base, from four to twelve inches high. Its leaves are narrow-oval in form, stalked, and either slightly toothed or quite entire; and the yellow flowers are about half an inch in diameter, on long peduncles.

The other is the Greater Spearwort (R. Lingua), a much larger species, varying from two to four feet in height, and flowering during the same months. It has stout, hollow, erect stems which throw off whorls of root fibres from the lowest joints; and the glossy, yellow flowers vary from one to one and a half inches in diameter. This species is not nearly so common as the other, but occurs more or less in most parts of Britain.

Taking next the cruciferous plants (Cruciferæ), we have first to note a few species of theNasturtiumgenus, including the Water-cress and the Yellow-cress. These are all smooth plants, with small yellow or white flowers. They may be distinguished from other crucifers by their loose calyx; simple, rounded stigma on a very short style; and their oblong or narrow pods with the seeds arranged in two rows on each side of the membranous partition. The species with which we are at present concerned are:—

1. The Water-cress (Nasturtium officinale).—A succulent plant, with a branched stem rooting at the base, growing freely in ditches, shallow streams and muddy places, and flowering from May or June to the end of the summer. Its leaves are pinnately divided intofrom seven to eleven wavy or slightly-toothed segments, the terminal one of which is usually larger than the others and nearly round. The flowers are small, white, in short, crowded racemes; and the pods are spreading, more than half an inch long.

Plate V.FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES.1. Marsh Gentian.2. Marsh Marigold.3. Marsh Orchis.4. Marsh Mallow.5. Marsh Vetchling.6. The Marsh St. John's-wort.7. Bog Pimpernel.

Plate V.

FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES.

The Lesser Spearwort.

2. The Marsh Yellow Cress (N. palustre), common in muddy places.—A slender plant with a fibrous root, and pinnate leaves with irregularly-toothed segments which are smaller towards the base. The flowers are yellow, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, with petals no longer than the sepals. They bloom from June to September. The pods are oblong, swollen, slightly curved, a quarter of an inch long.

3. The Amphibious Yellow Cress (N. amphibium).—An erect plant, two or three feet high, with fibrous root and creeping runners,flowering from June to September, moderately common on the banks of muddy streams. Its leaves are narrow-oblong, three or four inches long, deeply toothed, or cut into narrow lobes; and the flowers are yellow, similar to those of the other species, and similarly arranged, but with petals twice as long as the sepals. The pods are broad, only about a sixth of an inch long, with a rather long style.

In the marshes of the South of England we may often see the Marsh Mallow (Malva officinalisorAlthæa officinalis), of the orderMalvaceæ, flowering during August and September. Its stem is hairy, with erect flowering branches two or three feet high; and the leaves are shortly stalked, thick, velvety, broadly ovate, and sometimes divided into three or five lobes. The flowers are shortly stalked in the axils of the upper leaves, or sometimes collected into a terminal raceme. Round each one is a whorl of several narrow bracts, shorter than the calyx, and united at their bases. The calyx is five-lobed; and the corolla consists of five broad, rose-coloured petals. This plant is shown onPlate V, Fig. 4.

The Great Hairy Willow-Herb.

The Marsh St. John's-wort (Hypericum Elodes—orderHypericaceæ) is a somewhat shaggy little plant, common in the bogs of many parts of Britain, more especially in West England and Ireland. It varies from a few inches to a foot in length; with prostrate stems rooting at the base; and rounded, opposite leaves without stipules. Both stem and leaves are clothed with white, woolly hairs, the latter on both surfaces. The flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a pale yellow colour, and form a few-flowered, terminal panicle. They have five small, oval sepals, fringed withlittle red-stalked glands; five petals, about three times as long as the sepals; and many stamens, united to more than half way up into three bundles. (SeePlate V, Fig. 6.)

The Blue Marsh Vetchling or Marsh Pea (Lathyrus palustris—orderLeguminosæ) is occasionally to be met with in boggy places, flowering from June to August. It is a smooth plant, with a weak, winged stem, two or three feet long; and pinnate leaves consisting of from two to four pairs of narrow, sharp leaflets, and terminating in a branched tendril. At the base of each leafstalk are two narrow, half arrow-shaped stipules. The flowers are of a bluish purple colour, and are arranged in one-sided racemes, of from two to six flowers on long stalks. The pods are smooth and about an inch in length. This plant is represented onPlate V, Fig. 5.

The Purple Loosestrife.

Some of the Willow-herbs (Onagraceæ) are very partial to wet and boggy places. A few species of other habitats are described in ChaptersXandXI, and these, together with the members that come within the range of the present chapter, are readily distinguished by their willow-like leaves and the very long inferior ovaries of their flowers. We shall here note three species—

1. The Great Hairy Willow-herb or Codlins and Cream (Epilobium hirsutum).—A large, erect, hairy plant, from three to six feet high, with numerous underground suckers, and a stout, round, branched stem. Its leaves are opposite, sessile, often clasping the stem,narrow, and finely toothed. The flowers are nearly an inch in diameter, of a deep rose colour, arranged in terminal, leafy racemes. They have four broad, notched, spreading petals; eight erect stamens; and a four-lobed stigma. The plant is common in wet places, and flowers during July and August.

2. The Narrow-leaved or Marsh Willow-herb (E. palustre).—A smaller plant, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in height, frequent in bogs and marshes, flowering during June and July. Its stem is round, with two lines of downy hairs on opposite sides; and its leaves are sessile, opposite, very narrow, tapering towards the base, and sometimes slightly toothed. The flowers are small, pink, nodding when in bud, arranged in a terminal raceme. Both flowers and fruit resemble those of the last species except that the stigmas of the former are not divided.

3. The Square-stalked Willow-herb (E. tetragonumorE. adnatum).—A similar plant, from one to two feet high, common in bogs and ditches, and easily distinguished from other species of the genus by the four angles of the stem formed by the downward continuation of the margins of the leaves. The flowers are small, in terminal, leafy racemes, and erect when in bud. The petals are of a rose-pink colour, deeply notched; and the stigma is not divided. This species flowers in July and August.

Our next flower is the beautiful Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum Salicaria—orderLythraceæ), which is abundant in the marshes, ditches, and wet places of most parts of Great Britain. It has a creeping rootstock; a stout, erect, slightly-branched, four-angled stem, from two to four feet high; and sessile, narrow, clasping, entire, acute leaves, two or three inches long, arranged in opposite pairs or in whorls of three or four. The flowers are of a reddish purple or pink colour, nearly an inch across, arranged in whorls on a long, tapering, leafy spike. They have a toothed and ribbed, tubular calyx, with broad inner, and narrow outer segments; oblong, wavy, wrinkled petals; twelve stamens in two whorls of different lengths; and a superior ovary. The time of flowering of this species is July to September.

We have now to note several species of umbelliferous plants that grow in bogs and other wet places. The general features of the order (Umbelliferæ) will be found on p.167, and the reader should refer to these, if necessary, before attempting to identify the following:—

The Procumbent Marsh-wort (Helosciadium nodiflorumorApium nodiflorum) is a creeping plant, abundant in ditches andother wet places, rooting at the base, with erect flowering stems that are sometimes very short, but often reach a height of three feet. The whole plant is smooth, with hollow stems; pinnate leaves with from three to nine or more pairs of ovate, bluntly-toothed leaflets; and almost sessile umbels of small, white flowers either opposite the leaves or in the angles of the upper branches. These umbels are compound, with about five or six rays, usually without primary bracts, but with several, narrow, secondary ones. The petals have their points turned inwards; and the carpels are oval, each with five narrow ribs. This plant is commonly seen growing in company with the Water-cress and the Brooklime, and blooms in July and August.

The Water Hemlock.

In ditches we occasionally meet with the Water Hemlock or Cowbane (Cicuta virosa)—a tall plant, from three to four feet high, bearing large, flat umbels of small, white flowers from June to August. Its stem is hollow, furrowed, and branched; and the leaves are large, twice pinnate or ternate, with lanceolate, acute leaflets, generally over an inch in length, the margins serrate or (sometimes) doubly serrate. Comparing this plant with the Common Hemlock (p.169), we should note that the secondary bracts of the latter are three in number, almost invariably turned to the outside; and that its calyx teeth arevery indistinct, while in the present species they are prominent above the ovary.

Next follow three species of Water Dropwort (genusŒnanthe)—smooth plants, with much-divided leaves and compound umbels of white flowers, with secondary, and sometimes also primary, narrow bracts. In all three species the central flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and shortly stalked, while the outer ones are on longer stalks, and usually staminate. The petals are notched, with points turned inwards; and the fruits have two rather long styles, are crowned by the five minute teeth of the calyx, and their carpels have each five blunt ribs. The three species referred to are:—

The Common Water Dropwort.

1. The Common Water Dropwort (Œ. fistulosa).—An erect plant, from two to three feet high, with a fleshy, fibrous root; creeping runners; and a thick, hollow, slightly-branched stem. Its radical leaves are bipinnate, with segments cut into three or five narrow lobes; and the stem leaves have long, hollow stalks, with a few narrow segments at the top. The umbels have from three to five rays, usually with no primary bracts, and a few, narrow secondary ones.

2. The Hemlock Water Dropwort (Œ. crocata) is a larger plant, from two to five feet high, with a tuberous root and a thick, branched stem. Its leaves are bipinnate, with stalked, shiningleaflets that are irregularly cut. The umbels are on long stalks, and have nearly twenty rays, several narrow secondary bracts, and sometimes a few primary ones. The middle flowers of each secondary umbel are perfect and almost sessile, but the outer ones are stalked and staminate.

3. The Fine-leaved Water Dropwort (Œ. Phellandrium) grows from one to four feet high, and has an erect, creeping or floating stem with runners at the base. The upper leaves are bipinnate, with small, cut segments; and the submerged ones are deeply cut into very narrow, almost hair-like lobes. The umbels are small, on short stalks in the angles of the branches or opposite the leaves. They have about ten rays, narrow secondary bracts, but no primary ones.

The Marsh Thistle.

All three of the above species flower from July to September.

Next follow a few composite flowers (orderCompositæ), the first of which is the Marsh Thistle (Carduus palustris) that varies from two to eight feet in height, and bears dense clusters of purple (occasionally white) heads during July and August. Its stem is stiff, hollow, slightly branched, and thickly covered with very prickly wings that are continuous with the margins of leaves above them. The leaves are narrow, wavy, deeply divided into prickly lobes, with scattered hairs on both surfaces; the lower ones often seven or eight inches long; and the upper much smaller and narrower. The flower-heads are ovoid, surrounded by an involucre of many closely-overlapping bracts with prickly tips.

The two Bur Marigolds (Bidens) are more or less common inmarshes and other wet places. They are both smooth plants with opposite leaves, and hemispherical heads of yellowish flowers surrounded by two or three rows of bracts, the outer of which are spreading. The receptacle is flat, with membranous scales between the florets; and the fruits are crowned by from two to five stiff, prickly bristles. The more abundant of these is the Nodding Bur Marigold (B. cernua), a stout plant, from one to two feet high, distinguished by its narrow, entire, sessile leaves, and its drooping flower-heads. The other—the Trifid Bur Marigold (B. tripartita)—has three-cleft, stalked leaves, and heads erect or only slightly drooping.

The Brooklime.

The Common Ragwort of waste places, described on p.187, is represented in marshes and wet places by a very similar plant called the Marsh Ragwort (Senecio aquaticus), which varies from one to three feet in height, and flowers in July and August. Its stem is more slender than that ofS. Jacobæa, and is usually more branched. The leaves are either deeply toothed, or pinnately cut into segments which decrease in size towards the base. The yellow flower-heads are not so densely crowded as in the Common Ragwort, and have longer stalks.

TheScrophulariaceæcontains three common plants of theVeronicagenus that grow in wet places. All three are similar in that they have opposite leaves; a corolla with a short tube, and four spreading limbs, of which the lowest is narrowest; two stamens; and a capsular fruit, flattened at right angles to its partition, opening by two valves, and containing a few seeds.

One of these is the Marsh Speedwell (Veronica scutellata), abundant in the marshes and ditches of most parts of Britain. It has a weak, straggling stem, from four to eight inches high, with creepingrunners at the base; narrow, smooth, sessile leaves, either uncut or only slightly toothed; and slender racemes of pale pink or white flowers on axillary peduncles arranged alternately, there being only one raceme at each node.

The second is the Water Speedwell (V. Anagallis), a smooth plant, varying from six inches to two feet high, abundant in marshes and ditches, bearing small lilac or white flowers in July and August. Its stem is stout, succulent, hollow, erect, and slightly branched; the leaves narrow, acute, toothed, sessile, sometimes clasping the stem; and the racemes axillary and opposite. The flowers are only a fifth of an inch across.

The Water Figwort.

The third is the Brooklime (V. Beccabunga), a very abundant plant commonly seen growing in ditches in company with the Water Cress and the Marsh-wort. It is a smooth plant, with a stem from one to two feet long, procumbent at the base and rooting at the joints; erect, succulent flowering branches; thick, elliptical, blunt, slightly-toothed leaves on short stalks; and opposite, axillary racemes of blue (occasionally pink) flowers about a third of an inch across.

Two of the Figworts, belonging to the same order (Scrophulariaceæ), are abundant in wet places all over Britain. They are both tall erect plants, with opposite leaves, and peculiar greenish brown or dull purple flowers. In both the corolla is almost spherical and shortly lipped. Two of the five lobes form the upper lip; twoare at the sides; and the other, forming the lower lip, is turned down. There are five stamens, four of which are fertile and turned down, while the fifth is barren and scale-like, under the upper lip of the corolla.

The Gipsy-Wort.

One species—the Water Figwort (Scrophularia aquatica)—grows in marshes and on the banks of ditches and streams. It has a stout, angular stem, the angles of which are drawn out into narrow wings; smooth, opposite, blunt leaves, cordate at the base, with crenate or toothed margins; and long, narrow panicles of flowers with blunt bracts. The five lobes of the calyx are fringed with a conspicuous, transparent, membranous border.

The other is the Knotted Figwort (S. nodosa), which is much like the last, but emits a disagreeable odour, and may be further distinguished by the little green, fleshy knots of its rhizome. Its stem is sharply four-angled, but not winged; its leaves are acute, and doubly toothed; and the panicle has small, narrow, sharp bracts.

Passing now to the orderLabiatæ, we come first to the Gipsy-wort (Lycopus europæus), an erect, branched, slightly hairy plant, from one to three feet high, bearing dense whorls of small, white,sessile flowers from June to September. The calyx has five equal teeth with stiff points; and the corolla, which is only slightly longer than the calyx, has four nearly equal lobes. This plant is abundant in most parts of Britain, and is generally seen on the banks of ditches.

The Round-Leaved Mint.

In the same order we have the Mints (genusMentha)—strongly-scented plants with creeping rootstocks and runners; and small flowers in dense, axillary whorls, or in terminal spikes or clusters. In all the calyx has five equal teeth; and the corolla is bell-shaped, with a short tube, and four lobes of which the upper is broader. There are four erect, equal stamens; and the fruit consists of four small, smooth nuts. Three species, more or less abundant, occur in marshy or other wet places. They are:—

1. The Round-leaved Mint (Mentha rotundifolia).—A moderately common, erect, hairy plant, from one to three feet high, with a powerful but hardly agreeable odour. Its stem is green, hairy, and branched; and the leaves are sessile, broadly ovate or round, blunt, wrinkled, green above, and whitish and shaggy beneath. The flowers are small, lilac (occasionally white), in dense, cylindrical, leafy spikes from one to two inches long. The bracts are rather narrow and sharply pointed, and the corolla is hairy. The time of flowering is August and September.

2. The Water Mint (M. aquatica).—An abundant marsh plant, from one to three feet high, flowering from July to September,possessing a strong, pleasant odour. Its stem is much branched, generally clothed with soft hairs; and its leaves are stalked, ovate, serrate, the upper ones passing into bracts which are shorter than the flowers. The latter are lilac, and form dense, terminal, oblong or globular clusters, with, frequently, two or three dense, axillary whorls beneath. The calyx is tubular, about an eighth of an inch long, with very sharp teeth.

3. The Marsh Whorled Mint (M. sativa).—A very similar plant, common in wet places, flowering during July and August. It grows from two to five feet high; and its elliptical, toothed leaves are hairy on both sides. The flowers are lilac, in dense, axillary whorls, without any terminal cluster.

There is yet another marsh plant of theLabiatæto be considered, and that is the Marsh Woundwort (Stachys palustris), which is very much like the Hedge Woundwort described on p.199. It has a stout, hollow, hairy stem, from one to three feet high; and narrow, coarsely-toothed leaves, from two to four inches long, the upper ones sessile and the lower shortly stalked. The flowers are pale purple or dull, light red, arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs and five long, acute teeth; and the lower lip of the corolla has its side lobes turned back.

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