XVIIIN THE CORN FIELD

The Wild Thyme.

On moist heaths, especially in the west of Britain, we commonly meet with the Lesser Skull-cap (Scutellaria minor), another of the Labiates. It is a little plant, seldom more than six inches high, with pale pink flowers that bloom from July to October. The stemis rather slender, and branched; and the paired leaves are broadly ovate below, narrower above, obtuse, very shortly stalked, and either entire or slightly toothed. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch long, shortly stalked, and usually placed singly in the axils of the leaves. The calyx has two lips, the upper of which bears, on the middle of its back, a prominent hollow scale; and the corolla has a long tube with two small lips, the lower of which is divided into three lobes.

The Autumnal Lady's Tresses.

The Dwarf Silky Willow (Salix repens—orderSalicaceæ) is very common on heaths. It is a small, straggling shrub, from one to three feet high, sometimes erect, but more commonly procumbent and rooting at the base, with slender branches. Its leaves are often less than an inch in length, oblong or narrow, with recurved margins, shining above and silky below. When young, the leaves are silky on both sides; and the young twigs and the buds are also clothed with a silky down. The flowers are imperfect, and are in short, sessile, erect, oblong catkins, which appear in April and early May, before the leaves. The male and female flowers grow on different shrubs; but in both cases the catkins are about half an inch long, with a few leafy bracts at the base, and the flowers are intermixed with silky scales. The capsules split when ripe, liberating numerous minute seeds that are tufted with long, white, silky hairs.

The Juniper (Juniperus communis), one of the few Britishconifers, is not uncommon on dry, gravelly or chalky downs, more especially in the North. It is a profusely-branched, evergreen shrub, either erect or procumbent, and usually from one to five feet high. Its leaves are very narrow, half an inch or less in length, concave above, terminating in a very sharp point, and arranged three in a whorl. The male and female flowers grow on separate shrubs, and are clustered in minute catkins, about a twelfth of an inch long, sessile in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a bluish-black, berrylike cone, about a third of an inch in diameter. The Juniper flowers during May and June.

The Butcher's Broom, in Fruit.

Passing now to theOrchidaceæwe have to note two species, the first of which is the Autumnal Lady's Tresses (Spiranthes autumnalis), a moderately common plant on the dry downs of South Britain, flowering from August to October. It has two or three thick, oval tubers; and a slender stem, from four to eight inches high, with sheathing, acute scales. The radical leaves, four or five in number, are about an inch long, ovate, sharp, and form a tuft by the side of the stem. The flowers are small, white, scented, and form a single, spiral line on the stem; but while each flower is turned to one side, its bract is erect on the other side of the stem. The sepals and petals are much alike. The upper sepals are joined to the petals, and the lateral ones curve over the base of the lip of the corolla.

The other plant of this order is the very common Spotted Palmate Orchis (Orchis maculata), abundant on the moist heathsand commons of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its root has two or three flattened tubers with long, finger-like lobes; and the stem is solid, erect, from six inches to more than a foot high. The leaves are ovate below, narrow above, and usually marked with many dark spots. The spike of flowers is dense, oblong or pyramidal in form, and two or three inches long. At the base of each flower is a bract usually shorter than the ovary. The flowers are pale purple, lilac, or (occasionally) white, and are generally conspicuously marked with irregular lines and spots of a deeper tint. The sepals are spreading, about a quarter of an inch long; and the petals are arched over the column. The lip is broad, deeply three-lobed, more or less toothed, either flat or with the lateral lobes slightly turned back. The spur is slender and a little shorter than the ovary. This Orchis is represented on Fig. 6 ofPlate VI.

The Common Quaking Grass.

Our single example of theLiliaceæis the Butcher's Broom (Ruscus aculeatus), the only British monocotyledonous shrub. It is of a very dark green colour, varies from one to four feet in height, and is occasionally met with on the wooded heaths of the southern counties. Its rigid, evergreen, leaflike appendages, which are ovate in form, terminating in a sharp spine, are not really leaves, but leaflike branches orcladodes; for, it will be observed, they bear the flowers and fruits, which areattached to their centres. The only leaves possessed by the plant are the minute, deciduous scales, from the axils of which the cladodes grow. The flowers are white, very small, with a deeply six-cleft, persistent perianth, each one attached to the centre of a cladode by a very minute stalk. They are always on the upper side of the cladode, though it generally happens that they are turned downwards by a twisting of the base of the leaflike branch. The flowers are always imperfect, the male and female blossoms growing on separate shrubs, and both have a small bract at the base. The ovary of the latter develops into a rather large, scarlet, berry-like fruit containing one or two seeds. The flowers appear during March and April.

The Common Mat Grass.

Two of the Rushes (orderJuncaceæ) are very common on heaths and moors. One of these is the Heath Rush (Juncus squarrosus), which appears onPlate VI. This is a rigid Rush, varying from four to ten inches high, flowering in June and July. Its stems are stout, solid, and generally leafless; and the leaves are narrow, grooved, usually less than half the length of the stem. The flowers are brown, either distinct or in clusters of two or three, arranged in a compound raceme, with a perianth of shining segments membranous at the margins, and about a sixth of an inch long. The capsules are blunt, but terminate in a pointed bristle.

The other is the Field Woodrush (Luzula campestris), a small plant, usually from four to six inches high, flowering from March to June, and often very abundant among the grass of hilly pastures and heaths. Its leaves are fringed with long, soft, white hairs; and the flowers, which are of a very dark brown colour, are arranged in three or four round or oval spikes. The segments of the perianthare very sharp, about an eighth of an inch long, with membranous margins; and the capsules are blunt.

We conclude this chapter with a brief notice of two of the Grasses of heaths and downs. One of these is the Common Quaking Grass or Totter Grass (Briza media).—A very pretty, erect grass, rather rigid, from six to eighteen inches high, common on dry downs except in the extreme North of Britain, flowering during June and July. Its stems are tufted, or sometimes slightly creeping; and its leaves are narrow and flat. The spikelets are round or broadly ovate, nearly a quarter of an inch long, more or less tinged with purple, on the long, slender branches of a loose, spreading panicle three or four inches long. The broad glumes are all similar in shape, but decrease in size upwards, and are not bristled.

The other is the Common Mat Grass (Nardus stricta), a densely tufted, wiry grass, from four inches to a foot in height, common on heaths and moors, flowering in June and July. The leaves are very fine and stiff, quite bristle-like. The flowers are in a one-sided spike, from one to three inches long, the one-flowered spikelets being placed alternately in two rows, in the notches of the central axis. The spikelets are often of a reddish or purplish colour, and each has a single, narrow, pointed glume, about a third of an inch long, an inner glume with a short bristle, three stamens, and a single style.

Plate VII.FLOWERS OF THE CORNFIELD.1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy.2. Field Scabious.3. Corn Cockle.4. Corn Marigold.5. Flax.6. Corn Pheasant's-eye.

Plate VII.

FLOWERS OF THE CORNFIELD.

The flowers included in the present chapter are to be found principally in cultivated fields; but since they are more particularly associated with corn crops, or occur so commonly in those fields in which grain is one of the products included in the rotation adopted, we separate them from the other flowers of the field, and consider them under the above head.

It will be observed that the majority of the flowers thus dealt with are summer-bloomers that flower while the ears of corn are filling out, and consequently are in fruit at the time of harvest. Hence, when the corn is cut, their seeds are shaken from the ripe fruits, or the fruits are themselves levelled to the ground, with the result that those which are not ploughed too deeply into the soil spring up almost in the same position in the following season.

Starting with the species of the Buttercup family (orderRanunculaceæ), we take first the beautiful Pheasant's Eye (Adonis autumnalis), which is sometimes seen among the corn, especially in the fields of the southern counties. The plant is not a native, but has become well established as a wild flower in several parts, though it is common in only a few localities. It is erect, from six to twelve inches high, and flowers in summer and autumn. The coloured illustration onPlate VII, Fig. 6, renders a written description unnecessary.

The little Mouse-tail (Myosurus minimus) of the same order is a very different kind of plant. It seldom exceeds a height of five or six inches, and is commonly only two inches high. Its leaves are all radical, very narrow, fleshy, and measure only from one to three inches, including the stalk; and the little yellowish-green flowers, which bloom from April to June, are solitary on radical stalks. Each flower has five spreading sepals which are prolongeddownward at the base into a short spur; five very narrow, tubular petals; a few stamens; and a spike-like cluster of many carpels in the centre. As the fruit ripens the cluster of carpels lengthens into a slender spike from an inch to an inch and a half long. This species is rather common in the South and South-East of England, and is to be seen most frequently in moist fields.

The Corn Crowfoot (R. arvensis) is a slightly hairy plant, with a branched stem from six to eighteen inches in height. The whole is of a pale green colour, and the leaves are deeply cut into narrow, lobed segments. The flowers are pale yellow, about half an inch in diameter, with spreading sepals; and are usually placed opposite the leaves. Their carpels are few in number, comparatively large, flattened, and covered with hooked spines. This is an abundant species, especially in the southern counties, and is most common in weedy fields in which corn-crops have been previously raised. It flowers from May to July.

The Mouse-Tail.

The same order (Ranunculaceæ) includes the Field Larkspur (Delphinium Ajacis) which sometimes grows wild in corn-fields. It is not indigenous, but has been introduced from South Europe; and the wild plants are probably escapes from cultivation. The stem is from nine to eighteen inches high, with a few spreading branches; and the leaves are all deeply cut into very narrow segments. The flowers are blue, pink or white, and are arranged in a long, terminal raceme. The five sepals are coloured, the posterior one prolonged into a narrow, hollow spur about half an inch long.There are only two petals, and these are united into a narrow spur which lies within that of the calyx. The fruit consists of a single, downy follicle that contains several seeds. This plant flowers during June and July.

We have now to notice a few of the favourite Poppies (orderPapaveraceæ); and although these are generally easily distinguished, even by the tyro, from the flowers of other orders, we think it advisable to call attention to the leading features of the group. These plants have a milky sap, and leaves without stipules. Their flowers are large, regular, on long stalks, and droop when in the bud. There are only two sepals, and they generally drop very early. The petals, four in number, are very thin and delicate, crumpled in the bud; and the stamens are numerous. The ovary is peculiar, consisting of one cell that is partially divided by a number of membranes (placentas) which pass from the wall towards the centre. It is surmounted by a disc on which are several radiating stigmas, corresponding in number with the membranes within. The fruit opens when ripe by the formation of pores just under the edge of the disc.

The most abundant species is undoubtedly the Common Red Poppy (Papaver Rhæas), which is to be found in almost every corn-field, as well as in other fields and waste places in cultivated districts, flowering from May to July. It is from one to two feet high, covered with rather stiff spreading hairs; and its leaves are pinnately divided into narrow, pointed lobes which are themselves more or less cut. The beautiful, rich scarlet flowers are about three inches in diameter, often with a black patch at the base of each petal, and are solitary on long peduncles that are covered with hairs. The fruit is almost globular, tapering towards the bottom; and on its disc are from eight to twelve radiating stigmas.

The Long-headed Poppy (P. dubium) is a very similar plant, but is generally rather more slender, with hairs that do not spread so much; and its leaves are often more deeply cut into narrower lobes. Its flowers are a little smaller, with two opposite petals larger than the other two; and the hairs of the peduncles lie close against the surface. The fruit is oblong, tapering towards the bottom, the length being nearly three times the greatest width. This poppy also flowers from May to July. It is represented in Fig. 1. ofPlate VII.

A third species—the Long Prickly-headed Poppy (P. Argemone), also known as the Pale Poppy, is a small, weak plant, seldomexceeding nine inches in height, with leaves divided into a few narrow segments. The flowers are of a pale red colour, usually less than two inches in diameter; and, like those of the commonest species, have usually a dark patch at the base of each petal. The fruit is narrow-oblong, tapering below, in fact, almost club-shaped, and is clothed with a few stiff, bristly hairs. The time of flowering is the same as that of the preceding species.

The Common Red Poppy.

In the corn-fields of several parts of England we may meet with the White or Opium Poppy (P. somniferum) which is largely grown in warmer countries for the opium it produces, and which wasprobably introduced into Britain from the Mediterranean region. It is generally about two feet in height, and quite smooth with the exception of a few spreading, stiff hairs on the flower stalks. The whole plant is of a glaucous green colour. The flowers are large, generally of a bluish white colour, often with a purple patch at the base of each petal; and the fruit is large, globular and smooth. This species flowers from June to August.

The White or Opium Poppy.

The pretty little Fumitory (Fumaria officinalis—orderFumariaceæ) is abundant in most of the cornfields and other cultivated placesof most parts of Britain, flowering from June to September. It is a very variable plant, quite smooth, and of a delicate, pale green colour. Its stem varies from six inches to over two feet in length, sometimes erect, with spreading branches, but often climbing among the neighbouring vegetation, supported by the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are pinnately divided into stalked leaflets which are further cut into three-lobed segments; and the flowers are in racemes that are either terminal or opposite the leaves. At first the racemes are short, but they lengthen out considerably as upper flowers open and the lower ones fruit. Each flower has a short pedicel that arises from the axil of a whitish or coloured bract; and the two small sepals are either white or coloured like the bracts. The corolla is oblong, tubular, formed of four petals in two pairs, with a short, blunt spur at the base; and its colour is very variable—usually cream-coloured or pink, and often tipped with crimson.

Some of the Mustards are very common weeds in corn-fields. They belong to the genusBrassica, of the orderCruciferæ, and are distinguished by their long siliquas, almost cylindrical in form, terminating in a 'beak' which is formed entirely of the persistent style, or of this together with a modified portion of the fruit containing one or more seeds.

One of the commonest of these is the Wild Mustard or Charlock (Brassica arvensisorB. Sinapis), a very abundant weed in most cultivated fields, probably introduced originally from South Europe. It is a very coarse plant, with scattered, bristly, spreading hairs, growing from one to two feet high, and bearing racemes of yellow flowers that generally exceed a diameter of half an inch. The leaves are ovate, with short, stiff hairs; all are pinnately lobed, and the lower ones have generally a large oval lobe, with coarsely-toothed segments, and a few narrower segments along the stalk. The fruits are spreading, many-angled pods, usually about an inch in length, constricted between the seeds when ripe, with a beak about a third the length of the whole pod enclosing a single seed at its base. The plant flowers from May to August.

The White Mustard (Brassica albaorSinapis alba) is not so common; but it is somewhat largely cultivated for its seedlings, which are used, with those of cress, as salad; and the plant is not unfrequently found as a weed in corn-fields and on other cultivated ground. The whole plant is clothed with rather stiff hairs that are directed downwards, and its height varies from one to two feet. Its leaves are pinnately divided into ovate, coarsely-toothed segments,the terminal one largest. The flowers are bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, in racemes. The pods are usually near an inch long, on spreading stalks; with a stout, flattened beak, longer than the pod itself, containing a single seed. They are constricted between the seeds, and both valves and beak are clothed with stiff, whitish hairs. The plant flowers during June and July.

The Fumitory.

A third member of the same genus—the Black Mustard (Brassica nigraorSinapis nigra)—is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used in the preparation of table mustard, and it is also a moderately common weed of cultivation in many parts. It is a hairy plant,from one to three feet high. Its lower leaves are rough, and deeply divided into a large terminal and small lateral lobes; and the upper ones are small, very narrow, smooth and undivided. The flowers are yellow, usually less than half an inch across, in long, narrow racemes; and the shortly-stalked pods are four-angled, smooth, and about half an inch long. They do not spread much, and the short beak consists only of the narrow style. This species flowers from June to August.

The Black Mustard.

The Wild Radish or White Charlock (Raphanus Raphanistrum) is a common corn-field weed, somewhat resembling the mustards just described in general appearance, but its pods are distinctly constricted between the seeds, and often split when ripe into from three to seven one-seeded joints. The plant is bristly, and grows from one to two feet high, flowering from May to September. The petals are either white with purplish veins, or pale yellow, or lilac; and the pods, over an inch long, are tipped by the conical style, which is about twice as long as the last joint.

Coming now to the orderCaryophyllaceæwe have to note the pretty Corn Cockle (Lychnis Githago), which is commonly seen in the midst of the corn, often growing so tall that its pale purple flowers peep above the ears. Its stem is clothed with long, soft, white hairs; and the leaves are all long, narrow and entire. The flowers, which appear during July and August, are usually over an inch in diameter, and are solitary on long, leafless peduncles. This flower appears onPlate VII.

The Corn Spurrey.

The same order includes the Corn Spurrey (Spergula arvensis), a low, procumbent plant, with small, white flowers that bloom from June to August. Its slender stem varies from six to eighteen inches long, and the narrow, whorled leaves from one to two inches. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch in diameter, with sepals usually a little shorter than the petals.

In the orderLinaceæwe have the Common Flax or Linseed (Linum usitatissimum), which is cultivated in some districts, and often appears as a weed in fields. It is an erect, smooth plant, with a slender stem about a foot high, and very narrow, entire, acute leaves, about an inch long. The flowers are in a loose, terminal corymb, and have five acute sepals; five bright blue petals over half an inch long, which fall early; five perfect and five imperfect stamens; and an ovary with five styles. It flowers during July. (SeePlate VII.)

The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb (Scandix Pecten-Veneris) of the orderUmbelliferæderives its name from the long, flat, needle-like beaks of the fruits that are placed almost parallel like the teethof a coarse comb. The plant is erect, branched, from three to twelve inches high; and the general character of its leaves and inflorescence may be gathered from our illustration. The flowers are small, white, with larger outer petals; and the carpels of the fruit are cylindrical, about a third of an inch long, with beaks about an inch and a half. The plant flowers from June to September.

The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb.

Of the orderRubiaceæwe shall include the common Field Madder (Sherardia arvensis), a little plant, varying from five to ten inches high, the minute lilac flowers of which may be seen from April to October. Its branched stems are often decumbent; and the little, narrow, sharply-pointed leaves, rough on the edges, are placed in whorls of from four to six. The umbels are very small, terminal, and surrounded by a leafy involucre that is divided into several lobes longer than the flowers. The corolla consists of an exceedingly slender tube, at the top of which are four spreading lobes; and the fruit is crowned by the five or six teeth of the calyx, which enlarges as the former ripens.

The Field Knautia or Field Scabious (Knautia arvensisorScabiosa arvensis), shown onPlate VII, is very common on cultivated ground, particularly in corn-growing districts. It is a slightly-branched plant, from one to four feet high, clothed with stiff, bristly hairs. Its lower leaves are stalked, simple, narrow, and usually but little cut; and the upper ones sessile, broader at the base, and either coarsely toothed or deeply cut. The flower-heads are large, lilac, on long peduncles. The outer florets are much larger than the inner, and all have four-lobed corollas. The fruit is angular, and issurmounted by the eight or ten bristles of the calyx. This plant flowers from June to August.

The Venus's Looking-Glass or Corn Bellflower.

Two of the Sow Thistles (orderCompositæ) have already been noticed among the flowers of waste places (p.179), and a third, known as the Corn Sow-Thistle (Sonchus arvensis), falls within the range of the present chapter, being a very common corn-field weed. It is an erect plant, from one to four feet high, with a hollow, angular stem, branched only towards the top. Its lower leaves are large, stalked, more or less divided into triangular, sharply-toothed lobes that are curved downwards; and the upper ones are sessile, less divided, with broad lobes which clasp the stem. The flower-heads are bright yellow, large, and arranged in a loose, terminal corymb. Their stalks and bracts are rough with stiff brown or black hairs; and the pappus of the wrinkled fruits consists of a dense mass of white, silky hairs. The plant blooms during August and September.

The Bluebottle or Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus) is a pretty cornfield Composite, not uncommon in many parts, blooming from June to August. The plant, represented onPlate IV, is covered with loose, cottony hairs, and grows from one to two feet high. The heads of flowers are about an inch in diameter, solitary on long, terminal stalks, surrounded by an oval involucre of closely-overlapping bracts with sharp points and toothed, membranous margins. The receptacle is flat, with silvery bristles between the florets. All the florets are tubular; the central ones of a bluish-purple colour, with purple anthers;and the outer ones much larger, curved, irregular, and bright blue. The fruit is surmounted by a pappus of short, simple hairs.

One of the most beautiful of the corn-field flowers is the Corn Marigold or Yellow Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum segetum), easily distinguished by its rather large flower-heads, solitary on terminal peduncles, with bright golden-yellow ray and disc. It grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and flowers from May to July. It may be identified by the aid of the coloured illustration onPlate VII.

The Scarlet Pimpernel

The Corn Chamomile (Anthemis arvensis), of the same order, is not unfrequently seen in corn fields, flowering from June to August. It is much like the Scentless Mayweed (p.188) and the Common Chamomile (p.268) in general appearance, but may be easily distinguished with a little care. It is a rather coarse plant, more or less clothed with a silky down; and its freely-branched stem is usually erect, and from one to two feet high. The leaves are pinnate,with leaflets divided into very narrow, almost hairlike segments; and the flower-heads are rather large, with white ray and yellow disc, solitary on the tops of leafy stalks. The involucre bracts are acute; the receptacle conical; and ray florets always possess a style.

The Climbing Bistort.

The Stinking Chamomile or Stinking Mayweed (Anthemis Cotula) is another similar corn-field plant, but it may be readily recognised by the minute glands dotted over its surface, the acrid secretion of which emits a fœtid odour when rubbed, and often blisters the hand. The plant is generally smooth, with an erect, branched stem, from nine to fifteen inches high; and pinnate leaves with leaflets divided into short, narrow, pointed lobes. The flowers are similar to those of the previous species, on the tops of long, leafy stalks; but the receptacle, at first convex, lengthens to a tall cone; and the white ray-florets have no style. The involucre bracts are also very narrow, bristly at the top; and the fruits are rendered rough by numerous little glandular projections. This plant flowers from June to September.

The Corn Bellflower or Wild Venus's Looking-glass (Campanula hybrida), of the orderCampanulaceæ, is not uncommon in the cornfields of the chalky districts of South and East England. It is an erect plant, from six to ten inches high, bearing purple, blue, or (occasionally) white flowers from July to September. In addition to the general features shown in our illustration we may note that its long, inferior ovary is three-angled; and that the fruit splits, when ripe, by the formation of slits near the top.

In the orderBoraginaceæwe have the Small Bugloss (Lycopsis arvensis), a branched plant, from six inches to two feet in height, covered all over with stiff bristles that are swollen at the base. Its leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, and sometimes toothed; the upper ones sessile and often clasping the stem; and the lower frequently shortly stalked. The flowers are small, pale blue, in simple or branched, one-sided spikes. They have a deeply-cleft calyx of five segments; and the species may be distinguished from other, somewhat similar plants of the same order by the form of the tube of the corolla, which is always bent in the middle. This plant is very common in the corn fields of most parts; and flowers during June and July.

The Dwarf Spurge.

Our next flower is the pretty little Scarlet Pimpernel or Poor Man's Weather Glass (Anagallis arvensis) of the Primrose order (Primulaceæ), which is very common in cornfields and on other cultivated ground, flowering from May to very late in the autumn. The stem of this plant is procumbent and much branched, the branches sometimes reaching a length of considerably more than a foot; and its leaves are opposite, sessile, broadly ovate, undivided, and dotted beneath. The little flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, on long, slender peduncles that are always curved backwards as the fruits ripen. The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments; and the bright scarlet (occasionally pink or white) corolla, fringed with minute hairs, spreads its five lobesonly in sunny weather. The fruit is a little globular capsule, enclosed in the persistent calyx, splitting transversely into two hemispheres when ripe.

The Climbing Bistort (Polygonum convolvulus—orderPolygonaceæ), also known as the Climbing Buckwheat, Climbing Persicaria, and Black Bindweed, is a very troublesome corn-field weed, with the climbing habit of the Convolvulus, often strangling the plants round which it twines its angular stem. It varies from one to four feet in height; and its alternate leaves are heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, pointed, with short membranous stipules at the base of the stalk. The flowers are small, pale green, in little loose clusters of from four to twelve. The lower clusters are stalked in the axils of the leaves, and the upper ones form irregular, terminal racemes. The five segments of the calyx are bluntly keeled, and occasionally winged; and the three outer ones closely envelop the fruit—a triangular nut. The plant flowers from July to September.

At least two or three of the Spurges (Euphorbiaceæ) are commonly seen in cultivated fields, but one in particular—the Dwarf Spurge (Euphorbia exigua)—is common in corn fields. It is a slender, smooth plant, usually from two to ten inches high, with several ascending stems diverging from near the base. The little yellow flowers are in terminal umbels of from three to five rays, sometimes very much contracted; and their glands (see p.207) are crescent-shaped, with their fine points turned outwards. The time of flowering is July to October.

Our last example of the corn-field plants is the Wild Oat Grass or Havers (Avena fatua)—an erect grass, two or three feet high, with rough leaves, and stem hairy at the joints. Its flowers form a loose, spreading panicle, from six to nine inches long; with three-flowered spikelets, about an inch long, on very slender stalks, erect at first but afterwards drooping. The outer glumes are about three quarters of an inch long, tapering to a bristly point, often tinged with purple; and the inner ones, two or three in number, are a little shorter, cleft at the top into pointed lobes, and covered outside with yellowish-brown hairs. The awn is about twice as long as the spikelet, twisted at the base, and usually bent near the middle. This grass flowers during June and July.

While some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. This restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places, regardless of other conditions. Some plants, however, are particularly partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are consequently more strictly confined to limited districts.

We have already referred to several species which are essentially flowers of the woods, but even these are not distributed evenly in wooded districts; for while some seem to be more universally scattered throughout our wooded parts, others show a decided partiality to particular soils, being found exclusively, or almost so, either in sandy woods, clayey woods, or woods in limestone districts, &c. In fact, the nature of the soil is such an important factor in determining plant distribution that we naturally associate many species with the particular rock strata on which we almost invariably find them.

So intimately is the distribution of plants connected with that of the geological strata that when, in the course of a day's ramble, we find a more or less sudden change in the nature of the flora, we may be almost sure that there is a corresponding change in the nature of the rocks or soil over which we have strayed; and the young botanist will find much to interest him in the study of this relation between vegetable life and geological structure. Of course we do not mean that the botanist must necessarily be also a geologist, but that he should, at least, be always ready to observe the nature of the habitats of the flowers he finds, noting particularly the kind of soil on which they grow.

Plate VIII.FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS.1. Red Valerian.2. Narrow-leaved Flax.3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch.4. Spiked Speedwell.5. Pasque Flower.6. Bee Orchis.7. Yellow Oat Grass.

Plate VIII.

FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS.

Chalky districts are notably attractive to the lover of flowers; for, not only do they yield a number of species that are almost essentially the offspring of calcareous soils, but also produce other blossoms, often in rich profusion, that are less restricted in their habitats.

The Rock Rose.

In the present chapter we shall note the principal flowers that grow principally or entirely in calcareous districts, the first being the Pasque Flower (Anemone Pulsatilla—orderRanunculaceæ), rare, it is true, but too beautiful to be omitted from our selection. This flower, shown onPlate VIII, Fig. 5, may be seen on some chalky hills during May and June. It is of a silky nature, and the lovely purple blossoms often reach a diameter of an inch and a half. The leaves are doubly or trebly pinnate, with very narrow segments which increase in length after the flowers have faded. The bracts, which are some distance below the flower, have also linear segments; and the flowers droop while still in the bud, but the peduncle becomes erect as they expand. The stamens are yellow, and the fruits are provided with feathered hairs.

On chalky, sandy, and other dry soils we may meet with the Round Prickly-headed Poppy (Papaver hybridum—orderPapaveraceæ), very much like the Common Poppy in general appearance, but readily distinguished by its general hairy character, and, moreespecially, by the globular, furrowed fruit covered with spreading bristles. The flowers vary from one to two inches in diameter, and the crimson or deep scarlet petals are often black at the base.

The Bitter Candytuft (Iberis amara—orderCruciferæ), which is so well known as a border-flower of our gardens, grows freely in some of the chalk districts of the South and East of England. Unlike most of the Crucifers, the flowers are not symmetrical, the two outer petals being much larger than the others. The inflorescence is a raceme, which, like that of the Wallflower, becomes longer as the flowering proceeds; and the colour of the petals is white, lilac or red. The height of this plant varies from six to nine inches, and the flowers bloom during July and August.

The Wild Mignonette (Reseda lutea—orderResedaceæ) is very common in some chalky districts, generally in fields and other open ground, and may be easily recognised by its close resemblance to the well-known Sweet Mignonette (R. odorata), which is so highly valued as a garden flower on account of its pleasant perfume. It is of a shrubby nature, from one to two feet high, with scattered, stipuled leaves, the lower of which are pinnate, while the upper are three-lobed. The flowers are irregular, yellow, and arranged in short, conical racemes. The six sepals are unequal and linear; and the petals, also six in number, are very unequal, while the posterior one is divided into many parts. The flowers bloom throughout the summer.

One of the most characteristic flowers of the chalk is the pretty Rock Rose (Helianthemum vulgare—orderCistaceæ), which is often so abundant that it completely covers large patches of banks and pasture-land. The plant is of a procumbent nature, with woody stems, and opposite, flat, oval or oblong leaves, green above and hoary beneath. The yellow flowers are from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are arranged in racemes. There are five sepals, two of which are very small; and the numerous stamens are sensitive, spreading out and lying on the petals when the flower is squeezed. The time of flowering is from June to September.

An allied species—the Hoary Rock Rose (H. canumorH. marifolium)—may be found in the limestone districts of the West of England, flowering from May to July. The plant is very similar to the last, but the leaves are not stipuled, are smooth or hairy above, and very hoary beneath. The flowers, too, are much smaller.

A species of Violet—the Hairy Violet (Viola hirta—orderViolaceæ)—may be found in some limestone and chalk districts, and also on some dry soils removed from calcareous rocks. It has no runners like those of other species, and its cordate leaves are very hairy, on petioles covered with spreading hairs. The flowers are scentless, pale violet or white, with bracts below the middle of the peduncle; and the spur of the corolla is long, blunt, flattened, and hooked.

Two species of Flax (orderLinaceæ) are to be found on chalky soils. One—the Perennial Flax (Linum perenne)—grows in hilly districts, but is not at all common. It is a slender plant, with numerous wiry stems from one to two feet high; and sessile, linear, acute leaves. The petals are of a beautiful sky-blue colour, but so lightly attached that it is difficult to secure a perfect specimen. The other species—the Narrow-leaved Flax (L. angustifolium)—is moderately common on calcareous hills of the South and West of England. It is very similar to the last, and grows to about the same height, but its many stems are more irregularly branched, and the alternate leaves are linear-lanceolate. The corolla is of a lighter lilac-blue colour.L. perenneblooms during June and July, and the narrow-leaved species from June to September. The latter is shown onPlate VIII.

Quite a number of species of leguminous plants (orderLeguminosæ), may, as a rule, be met with on dry soils, but only two common ones may be described as particularly partial to chalk and limestone localities. These are the Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch (Hippocrepis comosa) and the Sainfoin or Cock's-head (Onobrychis sativa). The former, represented onPlate VIII, is a low, smooth, prostrate plant, six to eighteen inches long, with yellow flowers that bloom from May to August. This plant is sometimes confused with the Bird's-foot Trefoil, which it rather closely resembles in general appearance, but it may be readily distinguished by the pinnate leaves and the peculiar form of the pods. The latter are flattened, and break up, when ripe, into from three to six one-seeded, horse-shoe-shaped segments—a feature which has given rise to the popular name.

The Sainfoin is often cultivated in the South-East of England as fodder for cattle, but may frequently be found growing wild. It is a very pretty, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with dense racemes of rosy-red flowers beautifully striped with a darker tint. The stem is stout and downy, and the pinnate leaves have membranous stipules and numerous oblong leaflets which terminateabruptly in a point. The pod is compressed, semicircular in form, indehiscent, and toothed along the lower edge. This species flowers during June and July.

The Sainfoin.

On some chalky heaths the True Sweet-briar (Rosa rubiginosa—orderRosaceæ) is a common shrub, growing from three to six feet high, and flowering during June and July. It is an erect and compact bush, with numerous prickles of varying shapes—the larger ones being hooked, while the smaller are straight and veryunequal. The leaves are compound and stipuled, and the leaflets are rounded at the base, downy, and doubly serrate. The flowers often grow singly, but more commonly from two to four together; they are of a deep rose colour, and the persistent sepals are pinnately divided. The fruit is at first pear-shaped, but afterwards becomes almost globular, and turns red when ripe.

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