Chapter 8

“Was Mahomet inspired with a dove?”

Duck.A barbarous pastime in Shakespeare’s time was hunting a tame duck in the water with spaniels. For the performance of this amusement[203]it was necessary to haverecourse to a pond of water sufficiently extensive to give the duck plenty of room for making its escape from the dogs when closely pursued, which it did by diving as often as any of them came near it, hence the following allusion in “Henry V.” (ii. 3):

“And hold-fast is the only dog, my duck.”[204]

“To swim like a duck” is a common proverb, which occurs in “The Tempest” (ii. 2), where Trinculo, in reply to Stephano’s question how he escaped, says: “Swam ashore, man, like a duck; I can swim like a duck, I’ll be sworn.”

Eagle.From the earliest time this bird has been associated with numerous popular fancies and superstitions, many of which have not escaped the notice of Shakespeare. A notion of very great antiquity attributes to it the power of gazing at the sun undazzled, to which Spenser, in his “Hymn of Heavenly Beauty” refers:

“And like the native brood of eagle’s kind,On that bright sun of glory fix thine eyes.”

In “Love’s Labour’s Lost” (iv. 3) Biron says of Rosaline:

“What peremptory eagle-sighted eyeDares look upon the heaven of her brow,That is not blinded by her majesty?”[205]

And in “3 Henry VI.” (ii. 1) Richard says to his brother Edward:

“Nay, if thou be that princely eagle’s bird,Show thy descent by gazing ’gainst the sun.”

The French naturalist, Lacepede,[206]has calculated that the clearness of vision in birds is nine times more extensive than that of the farthest-sighted man. The eagle, too, has alwaysbeen proverbial for its great power of flight, and on this account has had assigned to it the sovereignty of the feathered race. Aristotle and Pliny both record the legend of the wren disputing for the crown, a tradition which is still found in Ireland:[207]“The birds all met together one day, and settled among themselves that whichever of them could fly highest was to be the king of them all. Well, just as they were starting, the little rogue of a wren perched itself on the eagle’s tail. So they flew and flew ever so high, till the eagle was miles above all the rest, and could not fly another stroke, for he was so tired. Then says he, ‘I’m the king of the birds,’ says he; ‘hurroo!’ ‘You lie,’ says the wren, darting up a perch and a half above the big fellow. The eagle was so angry to think how he was outwitted by the wren, that when the latter was coming down he gave him a stroke of his wing, and from that day the wren has never been able to fly higher than a hawthorn bush.” The swiftness of the eagle’s flight is spoken of in “Timon of Athens,” (i. 1):

“an eagle flight, bold, and forth on,Leaving no tract behind.”[208]

The great age, too, of the eagle is well known; and the words of the Psalmist are familiar to most readers:

“His youth shall be renewed like the eagle’s.”

Apemantus, however, asks of Timon (“Timon of Athens,” iv. 3):

“will these moss’d trees,That have outlived the eagle, page thy heels,And skip when thou point’st out?”

Turbervile, in his “Booke of Falconrie,” 1575, says that the great age of this bird has been ascertained from the circumstance of its always building its eyrie or nest in the same place. The Romans considered the eagle a bird of goodomen, and its presence in time of battle was supposed to foretell victory. Thus, in “Julius Cæsar” (v. 1) we read:

“Coming from Sardis, on our former ensignTwo mighty eagles fell; and there they perch’d,Gorging and feeding from our soldiers’ hands.”

It was selected for the Roman legionary standard,[209]through being the king and most powerful of all birds. As a bird of good omen it is mentioned also in “Cymbeline” (i. 1):

“I chose an eagle,And did avoid a puttock;”

and in another scene (iv. 2) the Soothsayer relates how

“Last night the very gods show’d me a vision,... thus:—I saw Jove’s bird, the Roman eagle, wing’dFrom the spungy south to this part of the west,There vanish’d in the sunbeams: which portends(Unless my sins abuse my divination),Success to the Roman host.”

The conscious superiority[210]of the eagle is depicted by Tamora in “Titus Andronicus” (iv. 4):

“The eagle suffers little birds to sing,And is not careful what they mean thereby,Knowing that with the shadow of his wing,He can at pleasure stint their melody.”

Goose.This bird was the subject[211]of many quaint proverbial phrases often used in the old popular writers. Thus, atailor’s goosewas a jocular name for his pressing-iron, probably from its being often roasting before the fire, an allusion to which occurs in “Macbeth” (ii. 3): “come in, tailor; here you may roast your goose.” The “wild-goose chase,” which is mentioned in “Romeo and Juliet” (ii. 4)—“Nay, if thy wits run the wild-goose chase, I have done”—was a kind of horse-race, which resembled the flight of wildgeese. Two horses were started together, and whichever rider could get the lead, the other was obliged to follow him over whatever ground the foremost jockey chose to go. That horse which could distance the other won the race. This reckless sport is mentioned by Burton, in his “Anatomy of Melancholy,” as a recreation much in vogue in his time among gentlemen. The term “Winchester goose” was a cant phrase for a certain venereal disease, because the stews in Southwark were under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Winchester, to whom Gloster tauntingly applies the term in the following passage (“1 Henry VI.,” i. 3):

“Winchester goose! I cry—a rope! a rope!”

In “Troilus and Cressida” (v. 10) there is a further allusion:

“Some galled goose of Winchester would hiss.”

Ben Jonson[212]calls it:

“the Winchestrian goose,Bred on the banke in time of Popery,When Venus there maintain’d the mystery.”

“Plucking geese” was formerly a barbarous sport of boys (“Merry Wives of Windsor,” v. 1), which consisted in stripping a living goose of its feathers.[213]

In “Coriolanus” (i. 4), the goose is spoken of as the emblem of cowardice. Marcius says:

“You souls of geese,That bear the shapes of men, how have you runFrom slaves that apes would beat!”

Goldfinch.The Warwickshire name[214]for this bird is “Proud Tailor,” to which, some commentators think, the words in “1 Henry IV.” (iii. 1) refer:

“Lady P.I will not sing.Hotsp.’Tis the next way to turn tailor, or be red-breast teacher.”

“Lady P.I will not sing.

Hotsp.’Tis the next way to turn tailor, or be red-breast teacher.”

It has, therefore, been suggested that the passage should beread thus: “’Tis the next way to turn tailor, or red-breast teacher,”i. e., “to turn teacher of goldfinches or redbreasts.”[215]Singer,[216]however, explains the words thus: “Tailors, like weavers, have ever been remarkable for their vocal skill. Percy is jocular in his mode of persuading his wife to sing; and this is a humorous turn which he gives to his argument, ‘Come, sing.’ ‘I will not sing.’ ‘’Tis the next [i. e., the readiest, nearest] way to turn tailor, or redbreast teacher’—the meaning being, to sing is to put yourself upon a level with tailors and teachers of birds.”

Gull.Shakespeare often uses this word as synonymous with fool. Thus in “Henry V.” (iii. 6) he says:

“Why, ’tis a gull, a fool.”

The same play upon the word occurs in “Othello” (v. 2), and in “Timon of Athens” (ii. 1). In “Twelfth Night” (v. 1) Malvolio asks:

“Why have you suffer’d me to be imprison’d,Kept in a dark house, visited by the priest,And made the most notorious geck and gullThat e’er invention played on? tell me why.”

It is also used to express a trick or imposition, as in “Much Ado About Nothing” (ii. 3): “I should think this a gull, but that the white-bearded fellow speaks it.”[217]“Gull-catchers,” or “gull-gropers,” to which reference is made in “Twelfth Night” (ii. 5), where Fabian, on the entry of Maria, exclaims: “Here comes my noble gull-catcher,” were the names by which sharpers[218]were known in Shakespeare’s time.[219]The “gull-catcher” was generally an old usurer,who lent money to a gallant at an ordinary, who had been unfortunate in play.[220]Decker devotes a chapter to this character in his “Lanthorne and Candle-light,” 1612. According to him, “the gull-groper is commonly an old mony-monger, who having travailed through all the follyes of the world in his youth, knowes them well, and shunnes them in his age, his whole felicitie being to fill his bags with golde and silver.” The person so duped was termed a gull, and the trick also. In that disputed passage in “The Tempest” (ii. 2), where Caliban, addressing Trinculo, says:

“sometimes I’ll get theeYoung scamels from the rock.”

some think that the sea-mew, or sea-gull, is intended,[221]sea-mall, or sea-mell, being still a provincial name for this bird. Mr. Stevenson, in his “Birds of Norfolk” (vol. ii. p. 260), tells us that “the female bar-tailed godwit is called a ‘scammell’ by the gunners of Blakeney. But as this bird is not a rock-breeder,[222]it cannot be the one intended in the present passage, if we regard it as an accurate description from a naturalist’s point of view.” Holt says that “scam” is a limpet, and scamell probably a diminutive. Mr. Dyce[223]reads “scamels,”i. e., the kestrel, stannel, or windhover, which breeds in rocky situations and high cliffs on our coasts. He also further observes that this accords well with the context “from the rock,” and adds that staniel or stannyel occurs in “Twelfth Night” (ii. 5), where all the old editions exhibit the gross misprint “stallion.”

Hawk.The diversion of catching game with hawks was very popular in Shakespeare’s time,[224]and hence, as might be expected, we find many scattered allusions to it throughouthis plays. The training of a hawk for the field was an essential part of the education of a young Saxon nobleman; and the present of a well-trained hawk was a gift to be welcomed by a king. Edward the Confessor spent much of his leisure time in either hunting or hawking; and in the reign of Edward III. we read how the Bishop of Ely attended the service of the church at Bermondsey, Southwark, leaving his hawk in the cloister, which in the meantime was stolen—the bishop solemnly excommunicating the thieves. On one occasion Henry VIII. met with a serious accident when pursuing his hawk at Hitchin, in Hertfordshire. In jumping over a ditch his pole broke, and he fell headlong into the muddy water, whence he was with some difficulty rescued by one of his followers. Sir Thomas More, writing in the reign of Henry VIII., describing the state of manhood, makes a young man say:

“Man-hod I am, therefore I me delyghtTo hunt and hawke, to nourish up and fedeThe greyhounde to the course, the hawke to th’ flight,And to bestryde a good and lusty stede.”

In noticing, then, Shakespeare’s allusions to this sport, we have a good insight into its various features, and also gain a knowledge of the several terms associated with it. Thus frequent mention is made of the word “haggard”—a wild, untrained hawk—and in the following allegory (“Taming of the Shrew,” iv. 1), where it occurs, much of the knowledge of falconry is comprised:

“My falcon now is sharp, and passing empty;And, till she stoop, she must not be full-gorged,[225]For then she never looks upon her lure.Another way I have to man my haggard,To make her come, and know her keeper’s call;That is, to watch her, as we watch these kitesThat bate, and beat, and will not be obedient.She eat no meat to-day, nor none shall eat;Last night she slept not, nor to-night she shall not.”[226]

Further allusions occur in “Twelfth Night” (iii. 1), where Viola says of the Clown:

“This fellow is wise enough to play the fool;And to do that well craves a kind of wit:He must observe their mood on whom he jests,The quality of persons, and the time;And, like the haggard, check at every featherThat comes before his eye.”

In “Much Ado About Nothing” (iii. 1), Hero, speaking of Beatrice, says that:

“her spirits are as coy and wildAs haggards of the rock.”

And Othello (iii. 3), mistrusting Desdemona, and likening her to a hawk, exclaims:

“if I do prove her haggard,—I’d whistle her off.”[227]

The word “check” alluded to above was a term in falconry applied to a hawk when she forsook her proper game and followed some other of inferior kind that crossed her in her flight[228]—being mentioned again in “Hamlet” (iv. 7), where the king says:

“If he be now return’dAs checking at his voyage.”[229]

Another common expression used in falconry is “tower,” applied to certain hawks, etc., which tower aloft, soar spirallyto a height in the air, and thence swoop upon their prey. In “Macbeth” (ii. 4) we read of

“A falcon, towering in her pride of place;”

in “2 Henry VI.” (ii. 1) Suffolk says,

“My lord protector’s hawks do tower so well;”

and in “King John” (v. 2) the Bastard says,

“And like an eagle o’er his aery[230]towers.”

The word “quarry,” which occurs several times in Shakespeare’s plays, in some instances means the “game or prey sought.” The etymology has, says Nares, been variously attempted, but with little success. It may, perhaps, originally have meant the square, or enclosure (carrée), into which the game was driven (as is still practised in other countries), and hence the application of it to the game there caught would be a natural extension of the term. Randle Holme, in his “Academy of Armory” (book ii. c. xi. p. 240), defines it as “the fowl which the hawk flyeth at, whether dead or alive.” It was also equivalent to a heap of slaughtered game, as in the following passages. In “Coriolanus” (i. 1), Caius Marcius says:

“I’d make a quarryWith thousands of these quarter’d slaves.”

In “Macbeth” (iv. 3)[231]we read “the quarry of these murder’d deer;” and in “Hamlet” (v. 2), “This quarry cries on havock.”

Another term in falconry is “stoop,” or “swoop,” denoting the hawk’s violent descent from a height upon its prey.In “Taming of the Shrew” (iv. 1) the expression occurs, “till she stoop, she must not be full-gorged.” In “Henry V.” (iv. 1), King Henry, speaking of the king, says, “though his affections are higher mounted than ours, yet, when they stoop, they stoop with the like wing.” In “Macbeth” (iv. 3), too, Macduff, referring to the cruel murder of his children, exclaims, “What! ... at one fell swoop?”[232]Webster, in the “White Devil,”[233]says:

“If she [i. e., Fortune] give aught, she deals it in small parcels,That she may take away all at one swoop.”

Shakespeare gives many incidental allusions to the hawk’s trappings. Thus, in “Lucrece” he says:

“Harmless Lucretia, marking what he tellsWith trembling fear, as fowl hear falcon’s bells.”

And in “As You Like It” (iii. 3),[234]Touchstone says, “As the ox hath his bow, sir, the horse his curb, and the falcon her bells, so man hath his desires.” The object of these bells was to lead the falconer to the hawk when in a wood or out of sight. In Heywood’s play entitled “A Woman Killed with Kindness,” 1617, is a hawking scene, containing a striking allusion to the hawk’s bells. The dress of the hawk consisted of a close-fitting hood of leather or velvet, enriched with needlework, and surmounted with a tuft of colored feathers, for use as well as ornament, inasmuch as they assisted the hand in removing the hood when the birds for the hawk’s attack came in sight. Thus in “Henry V.” (iii. 7), the Constable of France, referring to the valor of the Dauphin, says, “’Tis a hooded valour; and when it appears, it will bate.”[235]And again, in “Romeo and Juliet” (iii. 2), Juliet says:

“Hood my unmann’d[236]blood, bating in my cheeks.”

The “jesses” were two short straps of leather or silk, which were fastened to each leg of a hawk, to which was attached a swivel, from which depended the leash or strap which the falconer[237]twisted round his hand. Othello (iii. 3) says:

“Though that her jesses were my dear heart-strings.”

We find several allusions to the training of hawks.[238]They were usually trained by being kept from sleep, it having been customary for the falconers to sit up by turns and “watch” the hawk, and keep it from sleeping, sometimes for three successive nights. Desdemona, in “Othello” (iii. 3), says:

“my lord shall never rest;I’ll watch him tame and talk him out of patience;His bed shall seem a school, his board a shrift;I’ll intermingle everything he doesWith Cassio’s suit.”

So, in Cartwright’s “Lady Errant” (ii. 2):

“We’ll keep you as they do hawks,Watching until you leave your wildness.”

In “The Merry Wives of Windsor” (v. 5), where Page says,

“Nay, do not fly: I think we have watch’d you now,”

the allusion is, says Staunton, to this method employed to tame or “reclaim” hawks.

Again, in “Othello” (iii. 3),[239]Iago exclaims:

“She that, so young, could give out such a seeming,To seel her father’s eyes up close as oak;”

in allusion to the practice of seeling a hawk, or sewing up her eyelids, by running a fine thread through them, in order to make her tractable and endure the hood of which we have already spoken.[240]King Henry (“2 Henry IV.” iii. 1), in his soliloquy on sleep, says:

“Wilt thou upon the high and giddy mastSeal up the ship-boy’s eyes, and rock his brainsIn cradle of the rude imperious surge.”

In Spenser’s “Fairy Queen” (I. vii. 23), we read:

“Mine eyes no more on vanity shall feed,But sealed up with death, shall have their deadly meed.”

It was a common notion that if a dove was let loose with its eyes so closed it would fly straight upwards, continuing to mount till it fell down through mere exhaustion.[241]

In “Cymbeline” (iii. 4), Imogen, referring to Posthumus, says:

“I grieve myselfTo think, when thou shalt be disedged by herThat now thou tir’st on,”—

this passage containing two metaphorical expressions from falconry. A bird was said to bedisedgedwhen the keenness of its appetite was taken away bytiring, or feeding upon some tough or hard substance given to it for that purpose. In “3 Henry VI.” (i. 1), the king says:

“that hateful duke,Whose haughty spirit, winged with desire,Will cost my crown, and like an empty eagleTire on the flesh of me and of my son.”

In “Timon of Athens” (iii. 6), one of the lords says:“Upon that were my thoughts tiring, when we encountered.”

In “Venus and Adonis,” too, we find a further allusion:

“Even as an empty eagle, sharp by fast,Tires with her beak on feathers, flesh, and bone,” etc.

Among other allusions to the hawk may be mentioned one in “Measure for Measure” (iii. 1):

“This outward-sainted deputy,Whose settled visage and deliberate wordNips youth i’ the head, and follies dothemmew,As falcon doth the fowl”

—the word “emmew” signifying the place where hawks were shut up during the time they moulted. In “Romeo and Juliet” (iii. 4), Lady Capulet says of Juliet:

“To-night she’s mew’d up to her heaviness;”

and in “Taming of the Shrew” (i. 1), Gremio, speaking of Bianca to Signor Baptista, says: “Why will you mew her?”

When the wing or tail feathers of a hawk were dropped, forced out, or broken, by any accident, it was usual to supply or repair as many as were deficient or damaged, an operation called “to imp[242]a hawk.” Thus, in “Richard II.” (ii. 1), Northumberland says:

“If, then, we shall shake off our slavish yoke,Imp out our drooping country’s broken wing.”

So Massinger, in his “Renegado” (v. 8), makes Asambeg say:

“strive to impNew feathers to the broken wings of time.”

Hawking was sometimes called birding.[243]In the “Merry Wives of Windsor” (iii. 3) Master Page says: “I do invite you to-morrow morning to my house to breakfast; after, we’ll a-birding together, I have a fine hawk for the bush.”In the same play (iii. 5) Dame Quickly, speaking of Mistress Ford, says: “Her husband goes this morning a-birding;” and Mistress Ford says (iv. 2): “He’s a-birding, sweet Sir John.” The word hawk, says Mr. Harting, is invariably used by Shakespeare in its generic sense; and in only two instances does he allude to a particular species. These are the kestrel and sparrow-hawk. In “Twelfth Night” (ii. 5) Sir Toby Belch, speaking of Malvolio, as he finds the letter which Maria has purposely dropped in his path, says:

“And with what wing the staniel[244]checks at it”

—staniel being a corruption of stangdall, a name for the kestrel hawk.[245]“Gouts” is the technical term for the spots on some parts of the plumage of a hawk, and perhaps Shakespeare uses the word in allusion to a phrase in heraldry. Macbeth (ii. 1), speaking of the dagger, says:

“I see thee still,And on thy blade and dudgeon gouts of blood.”

Heron.This bird was frequently flown at by falconers. Shakespeare, in “Hamlet” (ii. 2), makes Hamlet say, “I am but mad north-north-west; when the wind is southerly, I know a hawk from a handsaw;” handsaw being a corruption of “heronshaw,” or “hernsew,” which is still used, in the provincial dialects, for a heron. In Suffolk and Norfolk it is pronounced “harnsa,” from which to “handsaw” is but a single step.[246]Shakespeare here alludes to a proverbial saying, “He knows not a hawk from a handsaw.”[247]Mr. J. C. Heath[248]explains the passage thus: “The expression obviously refers to the sport of hawking. Most birds, especially one of heavy flight like the heron, when roused by thefalconer or his dog, would fly down or with the wind, in order to escape. When the wind is from the north the heron flies towards the south, and the spectator may be dazzled by the sun, and be unable to distinguish the hawk from the heron. On the other hand, when the wind is southerly the heron flies towards the north, and it and the pursuing hawk are clearly seen by the sportsman, who then has his back to the sun, and without difficulty knows the hawk from the hernsew.”

Jay.From its gay and gaudy plumage this bird has been used for a loose woman, as “Merry Wives of Windsor” (iii. 3): “we’ll teach him to know turtles from jays,”i. e., to distinguish honest women from loose ones. Again, in “Cymbeline” (iii. 4), Imogen says:

“Some jay of Italy,Whose mother was her painting,[249]hath betray’d him.”

Kestrel.A hawk of a base, unserviceable breed,[250]and therefore used by Spenser, in his “Fairy Queen” (II. iii. 4), to signify base:

“Ne thought of honour ever did assayHis baser breast, but in his kestrell kyndA pleasant veine of glory he did fynd.”

By some[251]it is derived from “coystril,” a knave or peasant, from being the hawk formerly used by persons of inferior rank. Thus, in “Twelfth Night” (i. 3), we find “coystrill,” and in “Pericles” (iv. 6) “coystrel.” The name kestrel, says Singer,[252]for an inferior kind of hawk, was evidently a corruption of the Frenchquercelleorquercerelle, and originally had no connection with coystril, though in later times they may have been confounded. Holinshed[253]classes coisterelswith lackeys and women, the unwarlike attendants on an army. The term was also given as a nickname to the emissaries employed by the kings of England in their French wars. Dyce[254]also considers kestrel distinct from coistrel.

Kingfisher.It was a common belief in days gone by that during the days the halcyon or kingfisher was engaged in hatching her eggs, the sea remained so calm that the sailor might venture upon it without incurring risk of storm or tempest; hence this period was called by Pliny and Aristotle “the halcyon days,” to which allusion is made in “1 Henry VI.” (i. 2):

“Expect Saint Martin’s summer, halcyon days.”

Dryden also refers to this notion:

“Amidst our arms as quiet you shall be,As halcyons brooding on a winter’s sea.”

Another superstition connected with this bird occurs in “King Lear” (ii. 2), where the Earl of Kent says:

“turn their halcyon beaksWith every gale and vary of their masters;”

the prevalent idea being that a dead kingfisher, suspended from a cord, would always turn its beak in that direction from whence the wind blew. Marlowe, in his “Jew of Malta” (i. 1), says:

“But now how stands the wind?Into what corner peers my halcyon’s bill?”

Occasionally one may still see this bird hung up in cottages, a remnant, no doubt, of this old superstition.[255]

Kite.This bird was considered by the ancients to be unlucky. In “Julius Cæsar” (v. 1) Cassius says:

“ravens, crows, and kites,Fly o’er our heads, and downward look on us.”

In “Cymbeline” (i. 2), too, Imogen says,

“I chose an eagle,And did avoid a puttock,”

puttock, here, being a synonym sometimes applied to the kite.[256]Formerly the kite became a term of reproach from its ignoble habits. Thus, in “Antony and Cleopatra” (iii. 13), Antony exclaims, “you kite!” and King Lear (i. 4) says to Goneril, “Detested kite! thou liest.” Its intractable disposition is alluded to in “Taming of the Shrew,” by Petruchio (iv. 1). A curious peculiarity of this bird is noticed in “Winter’s Tale” (iv. 3), where Autolycus says: “My traffic is sheets; when the kite builds, look to lesser linen”—meaning that his practice was to steal sheets; leaving the smaller linen to be carried away by the kites, who will occasionally carry it off to line their nests.[257]Mr. Dyce[258]quotes the following remarks of Mr. Peck on this passage: “Autolycus here gives us to understand that he is a thief of the first class. This he explains by an allusion to an odd vulgar notion. The common people, many of them, think that if any one can find a kite’s nest when she hath young, before they are fledged, and sew up their back doors, so as they cannot mute, the mother-kite, in compassion to their distress, will steal lesser linen, as caps, cravats, ruffles, or any other such small matters as she can best fly with, from off the hedges where they are hanged to dry after washing, and carry them to her nest, and there leave them, if possible to move the pity of the first comer, to cut the thread and ease them of their misery.”

Lapwing.Several interesting allusions are made by Shakespeare to this eccentric bird. It was a common notion that the young lapwings ran out of the shell with part of it sticking on their heads, in such haste were they to be hatched. Horatio (“Hamlet,” v. 2) says of Osric: “This lapwing runs away with the shell on his head.”

It was, therefore, regarded as the symbol of a forward fellow.Webster,[259]in the “White Devil” (1857, p. 13), says:

“forward lapwing!He flies with the shell on’s head.”

The lapwing, like the partridge, is also said to draw pursuers from her nest by fluttering along the ground in an opposite direction or by crying in other places. Thus, in the “Comedy of Errors” (iv. 2), Shakespeare says:

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