11. Foundation recipes for pastry.1. Proportions.(1)Plain crust.This crust is more digestible and more economical than the “short” or rich crust and may be used for English deep apple pie, or meat or chicken pies.Flour2cupsBaking powder2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulFat (butter or lard,or half of each)1⁄2cup (measured solid)Ice water1⁄4cup(2)Short crust.Flour2cupsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulFat (equal partsbutter and lard)2⁄3cupIce water1⁄2cup(3)Rich flaky crust.Same as (2) (more fat is to be added later)2. Method of mixing for all.Have all the ingredients and utensils icy cold. Mix the dry ingredients and cut in the fat with two knives. Stir in the ice water until the dough will just hold together. Toss upon a floured board and roll to1⁄4inch or less in thickness. Roll this up. If not ready to be used, this pie crust may be covered with moist cheesecloth and put on the ice until wanted. This amount of crust will make two medium-sized pies with two crusts each.3. Method of shaping.For plain crust.—Cut off1⁄2of the roll of crust. Roll out to about1⁄8inch thickness. Have a deep dish ready containing either the apple or meat fillings (see recipes below) and with the edge of dish buttered. Invert a small cup in the center of the dish to hold up the crust if apples are used. Lay the rolled-out crust over the top, having rolled it a littlelarger than the dish. Turn under the edges of the crust and crimp them down on the dish. Make several small cuts in the top of the crust to let the steam escape. Bake in a moderate oven until the filling (if apples) is cooked and the crust brown.For short crust.—Cut off1⁄4of the roll of crust and roll very thin, keeping the shape round. Line a buttered pie plate with the crust. Fill this with the desired filling, moisten the edge of bottom crust with water, and cover with another round of crust rolled as before. Crimp down the edges of the top crust and make cuts in the top as before. Bake until the filling is cooked and the crust is brown.For rich crust.—Roll the crust to1⁄2inch thickness. Have ready1⁄3cup ice-cold fat. Cut off small bits of this and spread it in dabs over the rolled-out crust. Roll this again and then proceed as for the “short” crust (2).12. Apple pie filling.Use juicy, tart apples. Pare, cut in quarters, core, and slice apples into pie dish, filling it heaping full. Add1⁄4cup water and1⁄2cup sugar. Any flavor desired may be used, lemon rind, or spices. A little butter gives an agreeable flavor.13. Lemon pie filling.Ingredients.1 heaping tablespoonful cornstarchmixed with a little cold water1 egg whole, or yolks of 2 eggsLarge cup hot waterJuice and rind of 1 lemonPiece butter the size of walnutA very little salt1 cup sugarWhites of 2 eggsPowdered sugar, 1 tablespoonfulMethod.Mix the starch with the cold water, add the boiling water and cook until it thickens, and add the butter and sugar. Beat the egg (or yolks) and add the other ingredients. Add the lemon last. When the pie is done, if two yolks were used, beat the whites with a tablespoonful of powdered sugar, place on the top, and brown in a moderate oven.14. Meat or chicken pie.Use left-over, cooked meat. Cut the meat into dice or small bits and fill the dish. Sprinkle with salt and moisten with gravy, if possible. If not, add 1 cup hot water and dredge lightly with flour. Have top crust only.How would the time for cooking this pie compare with that for deep apple pie?
11. Foundation recipes for pastry.
1. Proportions.
(1)Plain crust.
This crust is more digestible and more economical than the “short” or rich crust and may be used for English deep apple pie, or meat or chicken pies.
Flour2cupsBaking powder2teaspoonfulsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulFat (butter or lard,or half of each)1⁄2cup (measured solid)Ice water1⁄4cup
(2)Short crust.
Flour2cupsSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulFat (equal partsbutter and lard)2⁄3cupIce water1⁄2cup
(3)Rich flaky crust.
Same as (2) (more fat is to be added later)
2. Method of mixing for all.
Have all the ingredients and utensils icy cold. Mix the dry ingredients and cut in the fat with two knives. Stir in the ice water until the dough will just hold together. Toss upon a floured board and roll to1⁄4inch or less in thickness. Roll this up. If not ready to be used, this pie crust may be covered with moist cheesecloth and put on the ice until wanted. This amount of crust will make two medium-sized pies with two crusts each.
3. Method of shaping.
For plain crust.—Cut off1⁄2of the roll of crust. Roll out to about1⁄8inch thickness. Have a deep dish ready containing either the apple or meat fillings (see recipes below) and with the edge of dish buttered. Invert a small cup in the center of the dish to hold up the crust if apples are used. Lay the rolled-out crust over the top, having rolled it a littlelarger than the dish. Turn under the edges of the crust and crimp them down on the dish. Make several small cuts in the top of the crust to let the steam escape. Bake in a moderate oven until the filling (if apples) is cooked and the crust brown.
For short crust.—Cut off1⁄4of the roll of crust and roll very thin, keeping the shape round. Line a buttered pie plate with the crust. Fill this with the desired filling, moisten the edge of bottom crust with water, and cover with another round of crust rolled as before. Crimp down the edges of the top crust and make cuts in the top as before. Bake until the filling is cooked and the crust is brown.
For rich crust.—Roll the crust to1⁄2inch thickness. Have ready1⁄3cup ice-cold fat. Cut off small bits of this and spread it in dabs over the rolled-out crust. Roll this again and then proceed as for the “short” crust (2).
12. Apple pie filling.
Use juicy, tart apples. Pare, cut in quarters, core, and slice apples into pie dish, filling it heaping full. Add1⁄4cup water and1⁄2cup sugar. Any flavor desired may be used, lemon rind, or spices. A little butter gives an agreeable flavor.
13. Lemon pie filling.
Ingredients.
1 heaping tablespoonful cornstarchmixed with a little cold water1 egg whole, or yolks of 2 eggsLarge cup hot waterJuice and rind of 1 lemonPiece butter the size of walnutA very little salt1 cup sugarWhites of 2 eggsPowdered sugar, 1 tablespoonful
Method.
Mix the starch with the cold water, add the boiling water and cook until it thickens, and add the butter and sugar. Beat the egg (or yolks) and add the other ingredients. Add the lemon last. When the pie is done, if two yolks were used, beat the whites with a tablespoonful of powdered sugar, place on the top, and brown in a moderate oven.
14. Meat or chicken pie.
Use left-over, cooked meat. Cut the meat into dice or small bits and fill the dish. Sprinkle with salt and moisten with gravy, if possible. If not, add 1 cup hot water and dredge lightly with flour. Have top crust only.
How would the time for cooking this pie compare with that for deep apple pie?
1. What are the chief ingredients of batter mixtures and doughs?
2. Explain leavening by air.
3. Why is steam a leavening agent?
4. How is gas formed for leavening purposes?
5. How does the presence of butter or other fat affect the stiffness of a mixture?
6. What are the important points to remember in mixing ingredients?
7. Why are baking-powder biscuits mixed differently from popovers?
8. What are the most practical oven tests?
9. Why is a loaf cake baked longer than cookies?
10. How many muffins, average size, can be made from a pint of flour?
11. Compare the cost of homemade cake with bakers’ cake.
12. What are the advantages of the homemade over the bakers’, or the bakers’ over the homemade?
YEAST BREAD
Yeast bread when well made is a food of which the palate never tires, and it is usually recognized as a part of every well-planned meal. The quick breads are a convenient substitute at times, but they are not the staff of life in the same sense, and are, on the whole, less widely used.
The making of a perfect loaf of bread is the goal of all those who aspire to excel in cookery; and the art of bread making requires not only a clear understanding of the underlying principles, but patience and persistence in experimentation and practice until a uniformly perfect product is achieved. The fact that in yeast we have a living organism with which to deal makes the whole process a delicate one, in which every detail is of importance, whether it be a matter of ingredients, proportions, methods of mixing, or temperature.
The standard of good bread.—There will always be some difference of opinion in regard to a desirable quality in bread, and individual preference will control the final result, whether the crumb of the bread shall be dry and porous or somewhat more moist and finer in grain. French bread is of the former type, the English preferring a close grain and solid loaf. Allowing for these differences, it is still possible to standardize bread, and to state in percentages the different points to be considered in judging a loaf.
We must consider thesizeandsymmetryof the loaf, in order that the interior of the bread may be baked to the verycenter, without overbaking or burning the crust, and therefore very large loaves should be avoided. Thecrustshould be uniform in color, the shade ranging from a light golden to a darker brown, and the quality may be soft or crisp, but never tough. Thecrumbshould be light, the cavities evenly distributed throughout the loaf and of uniform size. It should also be elastic, tender, and yet not pasty, evenly baked without streaks and heavy portions near the crust, and the color should be creamy rather than a snowy white. (Fig. 55.)
The following score cards will be useful in judging loaves, and in the bread contests which are interesting and helpful.
BREAD SCORE CARD 1
I. General Appearance15%1. Shape2.5%2. Size2.5%3. Crust10.0%(a) Color(b) SmoothnessII. Internal Appearance55%1. Depth of crust10%2. Texture (lightness)15%3. Crumb30%(a) Moisture, Elasticity (25%)(b) Color (5%)III. Flavor30%———100%
BREAD SCORE CARD 2
I. External Appearance20%1. Shape5%2. Size5%3. Crust10%(a) Color(b) SmoothnessII. Internal Factors50%1. Depth of crust10%2. Texture20%3. Crumb20%(a) Moisture (15%)(b) Color (5%)III. Flavor30%———100%Note.—These two score cards are the average of the work of sixty students in judging bread in experimental cookery, Department of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College, Columbia University. See also Bulletin 25, University of Illinois.
I. External Appearance20%1. Shape5%2. Size5%3. Crust10%(a) Color(b) SmoothnessII. Internal Factors50%1. Depth of crust10%2. Texture20%3. Crumb20%(a) Moisture (15%)(b) Color (5%)III. Flavor30%———100%
Note.—These two score cards are the average of the work of sixty students in judging bread in experimental cookery, Department of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College, Columbia University. See also Bulletin 25, University of Illinois.
Digestibility and nutritive value.—Bread of the standard described is readily digestible when at least twelve hours old and stands high in nutritive value. Figure 51 compares the composition of several varieties.
Fig. 51.—Composition of bread.
Like the cereals, it has considerable protein, and some fat, but is highest in starch. The white bread, unless made with milk, has very little ash. A slice almost one inch thick weighing 1.38 ounces, from a baker’s five-cent loaf, will yield 100 Calories.
The cost of bread.—The table in Chapter XVII states the amount of protein and energy obtained for ten cents from bread as compared with other common foods, and makes the fact clear that bread is essentially one of the cheapest foods, remaining relatively so whatever the general fluctuations in food prices may be.
A pound loaf of bread at the bakery should cost five cents, the cost being slightly less when the bread is made at home, even taking the fuel into account. It is an open question, however, whether bread should be made at home or bought at the bakery, all the circumstances being weighed in the balance by the individual. (See Chapter XVII.) In America, we need to learn to dictate and control the methods in thepublic bakeries because bakers’ bread is being used more and more, although it is said that 50 per cent is still made at home. If bread is to be bought, it is necessary for the housekeeper to understand the bread-making process and the standard of good bread that she may criticize intelligently, and force the public bakeries to furnish bread made under ideal conditions. Such bread is supplied in France, where the housekeepers in the city, though noted for their thrift, do not think of bread making at home as a practical or economical procedure. It must be understood that the baker’s oven is fitted to do better work than the small oven of the average kitchen, and if the public through laws and inspection will control the quality of the materials used and the cleanliness of the process, baker’s bread will be a useful “ready-cooked” food.
The ingredients of bread.—The essential ingredients are flour, water, and yeast. The liquid may be milk, or milk and water, the milk changing the flavor slightly and increasing the nutritive value, while the cream in the milk increases the tenderness of the crumb and crust. The non-essentials include salt to develop flavor, sugar sometimes added to hasten fermentation and also for flavor, and a fat to increase tenderness, as, for instance, butter or some cheaper fat. Spices and dried fruits are used in sweet breads, and when eggs are added sweet bread becomes a plain cake having a delicious and characteristic flavor.
The characteristics of good flour.—The average composition of flour is as follows:
Protein11.4per centFat1.0per centCarbohydrate75.1per centFuel value1610Cal. per pound100-Calorie portion28grams (1 ounce)
The protein occurs in the form of gluten, which has the property of stretching and expanding, and which makes the framework of the loaf of bread, since it retains the air and carbon dioxide, and hardens when baked. The protein of oats and corn lacks this property, and therefore oatmeal and corn meal give a very different type of bread. Rye flour contains gluten, and the rye loaf therefore resembles the wheat loaf. Wheat and flour differ largely on account of the difference in the amount of gluten, and the gluten itself varies in quality with the variety of wheat.
Fig. 52.—Experiment illustrating the effect of the kind of wheat upon the size of the loaf.Courtesy of Utah Agricultural College.
Figure 52 shows the result of an experiment with flour made from different kinds of wheat, all the other factors in the bread making being identical. This effect of the difference in the composition of the flour is very striking. Again, the same variety of wheat will differ from season to season,and the time of planting, also, affects the quality of the grain. The time of planting and reaping gives us two classes of wheat and flour, the winter and spring. Winter wheat is sown in the fall and obtains its first growth before winter, living through the winter in those latitudes where the climate is sufficiently mild, being harvested in early summer. Spring wheat is sown in the spring and harvested late and it is the wheat of the great flour-producing state, Minnesota. The difference in the composition of the two wheats is shown in this table.[13]
WaterProteinFatCarbo-hydrateAshWheatSpring varieties10.412.52.273.1.9Winter varieties10.511.82.173.81.8
Note that the spring wheat contains more protein and therefore more gluten. The flour from spring wheat is creamy in color, granular to the touch, has more gluten, and is known as astrongflour. Flour from winter wheat is somewhat whiter in color and smoother to the touch, feeling more like cornstarch, and if a portion is squeezed in the hand, it retains the imprint of the fingers. It has less gluten, more starch, and is known as asoftflour. This type of flour is sometimes called “pastry flour,” the smaller percentage of gluten making it more desirable for pastry or cake than the stronger flour.
Flour manufacturers and bakers are constantly experimenting to find the best possible varieties and combinations of varieties for bread flour. Some difference of opinion exists,but a combination of winter and spring wheat in flour is considered the best for bread by some authorities.
We must learn to like a creamy color in bread, for this means the presence of more gluten. To summarize: a good bread flour contains a large percentage of gluten, is creamy in color, and granular to the touch.
Manufacture of flour.—Modern machinery has taken the place of the old-time stones in the grinding of flour, although the two main divisions of the process remain the same, these being the crushing of the grain and the sifting out of the coarse portion. Milling now includes many stages in the process not possible with the cruder machinery of former times, and the present effects a greater number of separations and permits the miller to make a greater variety of products.
Fig. 53.—A dissected grain of wheat.Courtesy of Washburn Crosby Co.
Figure 53 shows a dissected kernel of wheat, with its five layers of bran. Within these atBis a shell of glutinous matter, yellowish and of flinty hardness, and within this, but not sharply divided from it, lie the starch granules in a network of woody fiber, the germ lying atA. The milling process must remove the bran coats and the germ, and crush and roll the remaining portions to the necessary fineness. The germ if allowed to remain affects the color and keeping properties. The breaking and rolling are accomplished by steel machinery, and the final sifting is done through silk bolting cloth. Bythe new machinery about 70 per cent of the wheat is saved for food, 30 per cent being bran, “shorts,” and other by-products used chiefly for cattle feeding.
Figure 54 shows the vertical section of a mill, simplified in the drawing that all the steps of the process may be clear. The diagram does not, of course, show the actual arrangement of the mill.[14]
Fig. 54.—Simplified diagram of a flour mill.Courtesy of the Washburn Crosby Co.
The typical parts in a modern flour mill are as follows: (1) Scales, for weighing wheat as it is received. (2) Receiving separator, for separating other kinds of seeds from wheat. (3) Storage bins, for reserve supply of wheat in advance of mill requirements. (4) Mill separator, for further separating foreign seeds from wheat. (5) Scourer, for removing dust from wheat kernels. (6) Cockle cylinder, for removing all round seeds. (7) Wheat washer, for thoroughly cleansing the wheat. (8) Wheat dryer, for drying wheat after washing. (9) 1st break rolls, for rupturing bran, enabling bran and germ to be separated from interior. (10) 1st break scalper, for sifting middlings through bolting cloth to separate from bran. (11) 2d break rolls, for further loosening the middlings from bran. (12) 2d break scalper, for separating more middlings from bran. (13) 3d break rolls, for further loosening middlings from bran. (14) 3d break scalper, for final separation of middlings from bran. (15) Bran duster, for dusting low grade flour from bran. (16) Bran bin, for packing bran for shipment. (17) Grading reel, for separating middlings by sifting through various sizes of bolting cloth. (18) Dust collector and purifier, for cleaning and purifying middlings by air and sifting. (19) Smooth rolls, for grinding purified middlings very fine to flour. (20) Flour bolter, for sifting flour from purified middlings. (21) 2d reductionrolls, for further grinding of purified middlings. (22) Flour bolter, for separating flour from purified middlings of second grading. (23) Flour bin and packer, for packing flour for shipment. (24) Elevator, for raising products to the various machines.
Other forms of flour.—There has been much discussion of entire wheat flourversuswhite flour, and the practical conclusions are as follows: the bread from whole wheat flour compares favorably with that from white flour (see Fig. 51), but this material is slightly less available for digestion than the material of the white flour. The mineral content is higher, and when the income is so limited that this cannot be furnished in milk, green vegetables, and fruit, whole wheat bread should be used. It makes a pleasing variety, too, for any table.
Graham flouris a coarse flour, containing the outer bran. It is useful for its effect upon the intestines in case of constipation, but has to be avoided by some people on account of its irritating effect. White flour may have coarser material mixed with it, for variety in bread making, such as rye or Indian meal, or graham flour.
Yeast in bread.—Yeast is put into bread dough in order to produce carbon dioxide gas to lighten the whole mass. It is studied in the chapter on preservation of fruit, but in bread making we need to foster its growth instead of destroying it as, you will recall, we found necessary in preserving. You can easily reason out for yourself just how this should be done, especially after performing the experiments with yeast.
If yeast is in good condition, it has little effect on the flavor of bread, even if used in a rather large quantity to hasten the process.
The best forms of yeast now in use are the compressed and dried cakes, the former needing to be fresh, the latterkeeping the vitality of the yeast cells for a long time. Liquid yeast may be made at home, but it is somewhat uncertain unless made with great exactness, and less easy to manage on the whole than the other forms.
Proportions of the ingredients.—One part of water to three of flour, or one cup to three of flour for a loaf, is an average proportion. The practiced bread maker will vary this slightly to suit the variations in the flour from time to time, but it is a safe rule for the beginner to follow. Spring wheat flour requires somewhat more water than the winter wheat, or the blend of the two.Saltshould be used sparingly, for although it improves the flavor of the loaf, salt is a preservative which retards or prevents the growth of lower organisms, and in the case of bread it acts therefore as a check to fermentation. One teaspoonful to a loaf is the largest amount that it is best to use.
The quantity ofyeastdepends upon several conditions. The larger the amount of yeast used, the shorter is the time of rising, and as many as two compressed yeast cakes may be used to one loaf if it is necessary to hasten the process, without any perceptible effect on the color, texture or flavor. If a very large amount of yeast is used, the bread is “crumbly,” and a difference in flavor will be noticed. A smaller amount may be used if time is allowed for the rising, even1⁄8cake of compressed yeast to a loaf, if the bread is to rise over night in warm weather. It must be remembered that, if the rising process is too prolonged, other organisms have a chance to work, and the bread may sour.
A small amount ofsugarhastens fermentation, and from one to two teaspoonfuls to a loaf may be used. Many people prefer the flavor of bread with no sugar, however. Some bakers use malt extract both as a yeast food to hasten fermentation and for its effect upon the flavor.
Fat, orshortening, should be sparingly used, not more than one or two teaspoonfuls being allowed to a loaf. If you study a number of bread recipes, you will see that this ingredient varies more than the others. As a matter of fact, if the flour is of good quality and the bread well made, this ingredient is not necessary (in loaf bread at least), although it seems to improve the quality of biscuit and rolls.
Methods of mixing and the rising of bread.—Dissolve the yeast in a portion of the liquid, stir this mixture into the remaining liquid, add half the flour, and beat the mixture thoroughly at this stage. Add the sugar if any is to be used. When this soft mixture, called the “sponge,” becomes full of bubbles, add the salt, the shortening if used, and the remaining flour. Knead the dough by the hand, or by the machine, for about ten minutes, or until it is smooth and elastic. Put it into a greased bowl, cover the bowl, and allow the dough to remain until it doubles its bulk. Some bread makers knead in all the flour at the first, and obtain a good result. The first rising is more rapid, however, and experience seems to prove that the results are better on the whole with the sponge. Cut the dough down, knead again, using as little flour as possible. Shape into loaves, place the loaves in greased pans, cover, and leave again until the loaves double their bulk, when they are ready for baking. If left too long, the bubbles of gas become too large.
Temperatureandtimeare important, in this matter of mixing and rising. The process may be shortened to five or six hours, including the baking, or lengthened to twenty-four by the choice of the amount of yeast and the temperature. The shorter process is the better, on the whole. After reading over the sections of the chapter on preservation of fruit, performing the yeast experiments, and discussing the results, you will be able to answer these questions:
1. What should be the temperature of the ingredients when the bread is mixed?2. If milk is used, how may the souring of the milk be prevented?3. What temperature will you secure for the bread while it is rising?4. If an emergency occurs, and the dough cannot be kneaded or baked at the moment it is ready, what can be done? Can you think of two expedients?
1. What should be the temperature of the ingredients when the bread is mixed?
2. If milk is used, how may the souring of the milk be prevented?
3. What temperature will you secure for the bread while it is rising?
4. If an emergency occurs, and the dough cannot be kneaded or baked at the moment it is ready, what can be done? Can you think of two expedients?
A few suggestions.—The kneading stretches the gluten and long kneading gives a fine grain. In such a recipe as that for the making of Parker House rolls, a very delicate quality results from a protracted process; one old-fashioned housekeeper recommends a half hour’s kneading three times. Fortunately a sufficiently good bread or roll may be made by ten or fifteen minutes’ kneading at a time.
Bread dough may be cut or stirred with a large knife in place of the kneading, and this is a good method to teach to those who live in crowded space and find it difficult to have a perfectly clean kitchen and proper utensils. With this method the dough must be softer, and it remains in the bowl until it is turned into the baking pan. The resulting loaf is somewhat moist, and not fine-grained, but the flavor is good.
Brushing the surface of the dough in the bowl or pan with water or milk will prevent the formation of a dry crust on the top.
Baking the bread.—The temperature of the oven should be steady, and about 380° F. An authority recommends 180° C. (355° F.) when the loaf is put in, rising to 220° C. (425° F.).[15]The amount of flour for one loaf has been given. A loaf this size should be baked in a pan 81⁄2to 9 inches × 31⁄2to 4 × 3 to 31⁄2. The material of the pan is not of great consequence. Tin gives good results, a longer time beingrequired for baking in a granite pan. A loaf should bake about one hour. (See Fig. 55.)
Fig. 55.—A few loaves of bread.Courtesy of the Dept. of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College.
Rolls and biscuitmay be shaped in many ways. (See Fig. 56.) How will the baking differ from that of the loaf?
Fig. 56.—Rolls of different shapes.Courtesy of the Dept. of Foods and Cookery, Teachers College.
Care of bread after baking.—Remove from the pans, cool on a rack, place in tin box or stone jar, and cover with paraffin paper.
Uses of stale bread.—Bread that has become too dry may be freshened by moistening the surface and heating in the oven. Bread may be used for toast, croutons for soup, escalloped dishes, puddings, crumbs for coating other food materials, and may be made into cups for holding other materials.
A. Experiment with gluten.Materials.—1 cup of flour, a 10-inch square of cheesecloth, a piece of string, a pan or tin or granite plate.Method.—Tie the flour in the cheesecloth, and wash it, preferably under the faucet, until the starch is washed out. Remove the gluten, stretch and knead into a ball. Place the ball on a pan in the oven. Note results. Note temperature of oven, if possible.B. Experiments with yeast.1.Materials, (a) 1 cake of yeast dissolved in1⁄3of a cupful of lukewarm water with water added to make1⁄2cupful, (b)1⁄4cup water and1⁄4cup flour stirred together + 1 tablespoonful of molasses. Divide this mixture into three parts.Method.—Add 2 tablespoonfuls of (a) to each of two thirds of (b). Put remaining portion of (a) into a saucepan and bring it to the boiling point and then add it to the third part of (b). Number these bowls 1, 2, 3.(1) Surround bowl No. 1 with lukewarm water and keep the water at this temperature by adding warmer water from time to time. Note result.(2) Surround bowl No. 2 with cracked ice and salt. Note result.(3) Surround bowl No. 3 with lukewarm water as in No. 1. Note result.(4) Before the end of the hour remove bowl No. 2 from the ice water and surround it with water at 100° F. and watch results.State conclusions as to effect of temperature upon the growth of the yeast cell.2.Materials.—1 yeast cake dissolved in1⁄2cup of water 80° F. + 1 tablespoonful molasses. Limewater. 4 small wide-mouthed bottles, or test tubes, 4 saucers or beakers.Method.—Fill the small bottle, cover with a saucer and invert; or the same with the test tubes. Keep the bottles at a temperature of 80° F. until they are emptied. Test for carbon dioxide with a match, and with limewater.1. Plain bread.—You should be able to make your own recipe for plain bread from the foregoing pages. Write this out in detail.2. Milk bread.Proportions.Milk2cupsButter2tablespoonfulsSugar1tablespoonfulSalt11⁄2teaspoonfulsYeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm waterSifted flour6cupsSpecial method.—Scald milk and add to this the butter, sugar, and salt. Cool this until it is just lukewarm. Add the dissolved yeast and stir in the flour beating thoroughly. Proceed as in general directions.3. Entire wheat bread.Proportions.Scalded milk2 cupsSugar1⁄4cuporMolasses1⁄3cupSalt1 teaspoonfulYeast1 cake dissolvedin1⁄4cup lukewarm waterEntire wheat flour42⁄3cupsSpecial method.—Add sweetening and salt to scalded milk and cool until lukewarm. Add dissolved yeast and beat in the flour. Cover with cloth and let rise to double its bulk. Again beat and turn into greased bread pans, filling half full. Let this rise to not quite double its bulk, and bake same as white bread. This mixture may also be baked in gem pans.4. Parker House rolls.Proportions.Scalded milk2cupsButter3tablespoonfulsSugar2tablespoonfulsSalt1teaspoonfulYeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm waterFlourSpecial method.—Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk. When lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and three cups of flour. Beat thoroughly, cover and let rise until light. Cut down and add enough flour to knead (it will take about 21⁄2cups). Let rise again, toss on floured board and knead, pat and roll out to1⁄3inch thickness. Shape with a biscuit cutter first dipped in flour. Dip the handle of a case knife in flour and make a crease through the middle of each round. Brush over1⁄2of each piece with melted butter, fold over, and press edges together. Place in greased pan, one inch apart, cover, let rise, and bake in hot oven twelve to fifteen minutes. As the rolls rise they will part slightly, and if hastened in rising are apt to lose their shape.5. Buns.Proportions.Scalded milk1cupButter1⁄3cupSugar1⁄3cupSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulRaisins cutin quarters1cupYeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm waterExt. lemon1teaspoonfulSpecial method.—Add1⁄2sugar and salt to milk. When lukewarm, add dissolved yeast and 11⁄2cups flour. Cover and let rise until light. Add butter, remaining sugar, raisins, lemon, and flour enough to make a stiff batter. Let rise, shape like biscuits, let rise again and bake. If wanted glazed, brush over with beaten egg before baking.6. German coffee bread.Proportions.Scalded milk1cupButter1⁄3cupSugar1⁄4cupSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulEgg1Yeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm milkRaisins stoned andcut in pieces1⁄2cupFlourSpecial method.—Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk. When lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake, egg well beaten, flour to make a stiff batter, and raisins. Cover and let rise. When light spread in buttered pan one half inch thick. Cover andlet rise again. Before baking brush over with well beaten egg and cover with following mixture. Melt 3 tablespoonfuls butter, add1⁄3cup sugar and 1 teaspoonful cinnamon. When sugar is partially melted, add 3 tablespoonfuls flour and remove from fire.Laboratory management.—For individual work or for work in groups of two, the use of1⁄2cup of liquid will be found to make as small an amount of dough as it is desirable to handle. In making the white bread two portions may be baked in one tin, brushing with butter where the two portions touch each other, so that the loaves will separate when baked.Where it is necessary to hurry the process not less than1⁄2yeast cake should be used with this quantity.It is impossible in an ordinary school period to complete the entire process. A number of solutions will occur to the teacher. One of these is to arrange the lessons as follows:Lesson I.Yeast experiments, summary, bread mixed in groups and set to rise, demonstration by teacher of kneading, using dough previously prepared.Lesson II.Quantity of dough set to rise by volunteer pupils before class. Dough kneaded, shaped and set to rise by pupils. Review of yeast experiments. Baking of bread.Lesson III.Parker House rolls or sweet breads mixed and set to rise, completed by volunteers after class.In recipes where three risings are called for one may be omitted, if necessary.7. Toast.—Directions for making toast will be found in Chapter IV.To serve toast.—Toast should be served as soon as it is made, if possible, and if not must be kept hot. Fold it in a napkin. Toast may also be buttered, piled neatly on a plate, and kept hot in the oven until it is time for serving.For milk toast the bread is cut somewhat thicker than for buttered toast. The milk is prepared by thickening, No. 1 under White Sauce. Dip each slice of toast in the thickened milk and then put the slices in a dish for serving and pour the thickened milk over. To moisten toast that is too dry, or when moist toast is wanted to serve under some other food, place it in a steamer or colander over boiling water a few minutes beforebuttering it. This is much better than toast moistened with boiling water.8. The sandwich.—The sandwich is a convenient way of serving bread and other foods away from the table, for picnics, teas, and receptions.To prepare the bread.—Either white or brown bread may be used. Select a well-shaped loaf of fine grain that will not crumb when it is sliced. Cut off the end of the loaf, spread the loaf evenly with butter, cut a thin slice, butter again, and so on. The butter should be softened. Be careful to spread it evenly and see that it is near the edge of the bread. Sandwiches may be made either with or without the crust. If the crust is to be removed, cut it off the loaf before buttering and slicing.The filling.—There is an endless variety of filling possible for sandwiches, from slices of meat and poultry, which make a substantial luncheon for picnics, to the dainty fillings used for afternoon teas and receptions. A crisp bit of lettuce leaf with Mayonnaise dressing is always acceptable. Cream cheese mixed with nuts and raisins is a good filling. For a sweet sandwich, jam or jelly may be spread on the slices and possibly a small amount of cream cheese put between. You can invent many combinations.The shape of the sandwichmay be oblong, triangular, or round. The round sandwich is cut with a sharp cooky cutter. The pieces remaining may be dried and used for bread crumbs. The crusts may always be utilized in this way.9. Croutons.—Cut a slice of bread a day old1⁄2inch thick. Spread with soft butter, cut off the crust, put the slices in a pan, cut in cubes and set the pan in the oven until the croutons are brown.
A. Experiment with gluten.
Materials.—1 cup of flour, a 10-inch square of cheesecloth, a piece of string, a pan or tin or granite plate.
Method.—Tie the flour in the cheesecloth, and wash it, preferably under the faucet, until the starch is washed out. Remove the gluten, stretch and knead into a ball. Place the ball on a pan in the oven. Note results. Note temperature of oven, if possible.
B. Experiments with yeast.
1.Materials, (a) 1 cake of yeast dissolved in1⁄3of a cupful of lukewarm water with water added to make1⁄2cupful, (b)1⁄4cup water and1⁄4cup flour stirred together + 1 tablespoonful of molasses. Divide this mixture into three parts.
Method.—Add 2 tablespoonfuls of (a) to each of two thirds of (b). Put remaining portion of (a) into a saucepan and bring it to the boiling point and then add it to the third part of (b). Number these bowls 1, 2, 3.
(1) Surround bowl No. 1 with lukewarm water and keep the water at this temperature by adding warmer water from time to time. Note result.
(2) Surround bowl No. 2 with cracked ice and salt. Note result.
(3) Surround bowl No. 3 with lukewarm water as in No. 1. Note result.
(4) Before the end of the hour remove bowl No. 2 from the ice water and surround it with water at 100° F. and watch results.
State conclusions as to effect of temperature upon the growth of the yeast cell.
2.Materials.—1 yeast cake dissolved in1⁄2cup of water 80° F. + 1 tablespoonful molasses. Limewater. 4 small wide-mouthed bottles, or test tubes, 4 saucers or beakers.
Method.—Fill the small bottle, cover with a saucer and invert; or the same with the test tubes. Keep the bottles at a temperature of 80° F. until they are emptied. Test for carbon dioxide with a match, and with limewater.
1. Plain bread.—You should be able to make your own recipe for plain bread from the foregoing pages. Write this out in detail.
2. Milk bread.
Proportions.
Milk2cupsButter2tablespoonfulsSugar1tablespoonfulSalt11⁄2teaspoonfulsYeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm waterSifted flour6cups
Special method.—Scald milk and add to this the butter, sugar, and salt. Cool this until it is just lukewarm. Add the dissolved yeast and stir in the flour beating thoroughly. Proceed as in general directions.
3. Entire wheat bread.
Proportions.
Scalded milk2 cupsSugar1⁄4cuporMolasses1⁄3cupSalt1 teaspoonfulYeast1 cake dissolvedin1⁄4cup lukewarm waterEntire wheat flour42⁄3cups
Special method.—Add sweetening and salt to scalded milk and cool until lukewarm. Add dissolved yeast and beat in the flour. Cover with cloth and let rise to double its bulk. Again beat and turn into greased bread pans, filling half full. Let this rise to not quite double its bulk, and bake same as white bread. This mixture may also be baked in gem pans.
4. Parker House rolls.
Proportions.
Scalded milk2cupsButter3tablespoonfulsSugar2tablespoonfulsSalt1teaspoonfulYeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm waterFlour
Special method.—Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk. When lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and three cups of flour. Beat thoroughly, cover and let rise until light. Cut down and add enough flour to knead (it will take about 21⁄2cups). Let rise again, toss on floured board and knead, pat and roll out to1⁄3inch thickness. Shape with a biscuit cutter first dipped in flour. Dip the handle of a case knife in flour and make a crease through the middle of each round. Brush over1⁄2of each piece with melted butter, fold over, and press edges together. Place in greased pan, one inch apart, cover, let rise, and bake in hot oven twelve to fifteen minutes. As the rolls rise they will part slightly, and if hastened in rising are apt to lose their shape.
5. Buns.
Proportions.
Scalded milk1cupButter1⁄3cupSugar1⁄3cupSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulRaisins cutin quarters1cupYeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm waterExt. lemon1teaspoonful
Special method.—Add1⁄2sugar and salt to milk. When lukewarm, add dissolved yeast and 11⁄2cups flour. Cover and let rise until light. Add butter, remaining sugar, raisins, lemon, and flour enough to make a stiff batter. Let rise, shape like biscuits, let rise again and bake. If wanted glazed, brush over with beaten egg before baking.
6. German coffee bread.
Proportions.
Scalded milk1cupButter1⁄3cupSugar1⁄4cupSalt1⁄2teaspoonfulEgg1Yeast1cake dissolved in1⁄4cup lukewarm milkRaisins stoned andcut in pieces1⁄2cupFlour
Special method.—Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk. When lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake, egg well beaten, flour to make a stiff batter, and raisins. Cover and let rise. When light spread in buttered pan one half inch thick. Cover andlet rise again. Before baking brush over with well beaten egg and cover with following mixture. Melt 3 tablespoonfuls butter, add1⁄3cup sugar and 1 teaspoonful cinnamon. When sugar is partially melted, add 3 tablespoonfuls flour and remove from fire.
Laboratory management.—For individual work or for work in groups of two, the use of1⁄2cup of liquid will be found to make as small an amount of dough as it is desirable to handle. In making the white bread two portions may be baked in one tin, brushing with butter where the two portions touch each other, so that the loaves will separate when baked.
Where it is necessary to hurry the process not less than1⁄2yeast cake should be used with this quantity.
It is impossible in an ordinary school period to complete the entire process. A number of solutions will occur to the teacher. One of these is to arrange the lessons as follows:
Lesson I.
Yeast experiments, summary, bread mixed in groups and set to rise, demonstration by teacher of kneading, using dough previously prepared.
Lesson II.
Quantity of dough set to rise by volunteer pupils before class. Dough kneaded, shaped and set to rise by pupils. Review of yeast experiments. Baking of bread.
Lesson III.
Parker House rolls or sweet breads mixed and set to rise, completed by volunteers after class.
In recipes where three risings are called for one may be omitted, if necessary.
7. Toast.—Directions for making toast will be found in Chapter IV.
To serve toast.—Toast should be served as soon as it is made, if possible, and if not must be kept hot. Fold it in a napkin. Toast may also be buttered, piled neatly on a plate, and kept hot in the oven until it is time for serving.
For milk toast the bread is cut somewhat thicker than for buttered toast. The milk is prepared by thickening, No. 1 under White Sauce. Dip each slice of toast in the thickened milk and then put the slices in a dish for serving and pour the thickened milk over. To moisten toast that is too dry, or when moist toast is wanted to serve under some other food, place it in a steamer or colander over boiling water a few minutes beforebuttering it. This is much better than toast moistened with boiling water.
8. The sandwich.—The sandwich is a convenient way of serving bread and other foods away from the table, for picnics, teas, and receptions.
To prepare the bread.—Either white or brown bread may be used. Select a well-shaped loaf of fine grain that will not crumb when it is sliced. Cut off the end of the loaf, spread the loaf evenly with butter, cut a thin slice, butter again, and so on. The butter should be softened. Be careful to spread it evenly and see that it is near the edge of the bread. Sandwiches may be made either with or without the crust. If the crust is to be removed, cut it off the loaf before buttering and slicing.
The filling.—There is an endless variety of filling possible for sandwiches, from slices of meat and poultry, which make a substantial luncheon for picnics, to the dainty fillings used for afternoon teas and receptions. A crisp bit of lettuce leaf with Mayonnaise dressing is always acceptable. Cream cheese mixed with nuts and raisins is a good filling. For a sweet sandwich, jam or jelly may be spread on the slices and possibly a small amount of cream cheese put between. You can invent many combinations.
The shape of the sandwichmay be oblong, triangular, or round. The round sandwich is cut with a sharp cooky cutter. The pieces remaining may be dried and used for bread crumbs. The crusts may always be utilized in this way.
9. Croutons.—Cut a slice of bread a day old1⁄2inch thick. Spread with soft butter, cut off the crust, put the slices in a pan, cut in cubes and set the pan in the oven until the croutons are brown.
1. What is a standard for good bread?
2. Describe a perfect loaf.
3. How do climate and method of raising affect the composition of wheat and flour?
4. What are the essentials of good bread flour?
5. Why is it so necessary to control temperature in bread making?
6. What is the best temperature and why?
7. Explain the part played by gluten in bread making.
8. State the underlying principles of bread making.
9. Explain the advantage of a bread machine over the hand in kneading.
10. What is the best temperature for baking a loaf? For baking biscuit?
11. What are the principles and practical points in toast-making? (See Chapter IV.)
12. What is the argument in connection with homemade breadversusbaker’s bread?
13. How can the public insure good quality baker’s bread?
14. What is the nutritive value and digestibility of bread?
15. How much bread in the 100-Calorie portion?