WATER AND OTHER BEVERAGES
Although water does not supply energy to the body, it plays an important part in nutrition. As building material, it constitutes about two thirds of the body weight, and as a regulator of body processes it serves as a solvent and carrier of nutritive material and waste, keeps the blood and digestive fluids of proper concentration, and helps to regulate the temperature of the body. It is contained in nearly all food materials and is the basis of all beverages.
Water as a beverage.—Water is being given off all the time from the body through the lungs, skin, and kidneys. The exact amount depends partly upon atmospheric conditions and the amount of exercise, which affect the loss through the lungs and skin, and partly on the amount taken in, for water passes through the body rather quickly. We can endure lack of food for weeks, but can exist only a few days without water.
A drink of water taken the first thing in the morning tends to clean out the digestive tract and put one in good condition for breakfast. Water with meals aids digestion, provided it is not used to wash down food but is taken when the mouth is empty. It should not be extremely cold nor hot. Two glasses at a single meal are usually all that are desirable. When there is much water in the food, as in soups, milk, fruits, and some vegetables, or when other beverages are taken, less will be taken as plain water. When one feelshungry and uncomfortable between meals a drink of water will often relieve the sensation.
Water is eithersoftorhard. Rain water is perfectly soft, but as it passes through the earth after falling, it sometimes becomes laden with mineral substances, that affect its cleansing properties, and that may affect its physiological action. Such water is calledhard.
Temporary hardnessis caused by a soluble lime compound which is precipitated by boiling. If the teakettle is incrusted inside by a layer of lime, the hardness is of this character. Such water should be boiled and cooled for drinking.Permanent hardnessis due to other compounds of lime and magnesia which are not precipitated by boiling, but which can be counteracted for cleansing purposes by the addition of some substance like ammonia, borax, or soda. If the excess of salts has some undesirable physiological effect, this water should be distilled, or bottled water for drinking brought from elsewhere.
Of much greater importance is the question of the freedom of the water supply from harmful bacteria and organic matter. Never use a well without having the water tested by an expert. This will sometimes be done by the local or state Board of Health or Experiment Station. All water sources should be guarded from contamination. (See “Shelter and Clothing,” Chapter V.) Filters may be used, and are effective in straining out sediment, but the home filter is seldom to be relied upon to remove actual bacterial contamination. If used at all, the filter should be frequently cleaned and sterilized in boiling water. In case the supply is suspected, the water for drinking should be boiled for at least ten minutes, allowed to settle, if necessary, and poured off into bottles for cooling. This is a practice to be commended after a heavy rainfall, and especially in the autumn. These bottles may be placed on the ice.
Ice must be used with caution always in drinking water, and it is the safer way to cool the water beside the ice. The freezing of water in pond and river does not purify or sterilize it. Natural ice is usually questionable. Artificial ice, if properly manufactured, is much safer.
Always have a supply of water in covered pitcher or water bottle, with clean glasses at hand, where it may be taken freely when wanted. Remember that the individual cup or glass is an absolute necessity. The dipper or glass in common must not be countenanced. In a large family of many children it would save labor to use paper cups between meals.
Water should be swallowed slowly, and ice-cold water should not be taken when one is overheated. When one is overthirsty, control must be exercised in regard to quantity and rapidity of drinking.
Water in cooking.—Water is necessary to the softening of fiber, and the cooking of starch. It acts as a solvent for sugar and salt and for gelatin, and is the basis of meat soups, certain substances in the meat dissolving in the water. The flavors of tea and coffee are extracted by water.
As a medium in cooking it supplies heat in the steaming, boiling, and stewing processes, and in the form of melting ice with salt it acts as a freezing medium.
It is not necessary to lift the cover of a kettle to see if the water boils, if one is familiar with the action of water nearing and at the boiling point. A simple experiment with the boiling of water in a Florence flask is always interesting, and from it one gains practical knowledge.
Experiments with the boiling temperature of water.A.Apparatus: A ring stand, a Florence flask, a square of wire net, a chemical thermometer, a Bunsen burner.Method: Place the Florence flask, half full of water, on the square of wire net upon the large ring of the ring standover the Bunsen burner. Put the chemical thermometer in the Florence flask, clamping it in such a way that the bulb is covered by the water and yet does not touch the bottom of the flask.Make record in the notebook as follows:(1) The temperature when the first small bubbles appear on the side of the flask.(2) Temperature when the first large bubbles appear on the bottom.(3) Temperature when many bubbles rise rapidly to the top.(4) Point at which temperature ceases to rise.(5) Temperature when vapor first appears at the mouth of the flask.(6) What differences are apparent in the amount and motion of the vapor before and after boiling?(7) Lift the thermometer above the water and note the temperature just above the surface, when the water is rapidly boiling.The small bubbles are bubbles of air. The large are bubbles of steam. A complete study of the boiling process should be made in the Physics class. The boiling point is the point at which water becomes steam, and also the point at which steam condenses again to water. The temperature of boiling water and steam are the same. Under pressure steam may be heated to a higher temperature.B.Boil water in a small saucepan closely covered.(1) Note thesoundsof the water just before boiling, and the change in sound as the boiling begins.(2) Note the difference between the vapor escaping, before boiling, and after. This experiment is best performed in a teakettle.C.Test the temperature of the inner part of the double boiler, when the water boils rapidly below. To be exact, a hole should be bored in the cover of the boiler, a cork with a hole inserted, the thermometer run through the cork. An approximate result is obtained by putting in the thermometer, setting on the cover tilted, and covering the opening with a cloth.D.Stir salt into rapidly boiling water in the lower part of thedouble boiler until no more salt will dissolve (a saturated solution). Test the temperature.E.Put the inner part of the double boiler containing water into this boiling solution of saturated salt, being sure that the inner part is sufficiently deep in the salt solution. Note the temperature of the water in the inner boiler when it becomes heated.
Experiments with the boiling temperature of water.
A.Apparatus: A ring stand, a Florence flask, a square of wire net, a chemical thermometer, a Bunsen burner.
Method: Place the Florence flask, half full of water, on the square of wire net upon the large ring of the ring standover the Bunsen burner. Put the chemical thermometer in the Florence flask, clamping it in such a way that the bulb is covered by the water and yet does not touch the bottom of the flask.
Make record in the notebook as follows:
(1) The temperature when the first small bubbles appear on the side of the flask.
(2) Temperature when the first large bubbles appear on the bottom.
(3) Temperature when many bubbles rise rapidly to the top.
(4) Point at which temperature ceases to rise.
(5) Temperature when vapor first appears at the mouth of the flask.
(6) What differences are apparent in the amount and motion of the vapor before and after boiling?
(7) Lift the thermometer above the water and note the temperature just above the surface, when the water is rapidly boiling.
The small bubbles are bubbles of air. The large are bubbles of steam. A complete study of the boiling process should be made in the Physics class. The boiling point is the point at which water becomes steam, and also the point at which steam condenses again to water. The temperature of boiling water and steam are the same. Under pressure steam may be heated to a higher temperature.
B.Boil water in a small saucepan closely covered.
(1) Note thesoundsof the water just before boiling, and the change in sound as the boiling begins.
(2) Note the difference between the vapor escaping, before boiling, and after. This experiment is best performed in a teakettle.
C.Test the temperature of the inner part of the double boiler, when the water boils rapidly below. To be exact, a hole should be bored in the cover of the boiler, a cork with a hole inserted, the thermometer run through the cork. An approximate result is obtained by putting in the thermometer, setting on the cover tilted, and covering the opening with a cloth.
D.Stir salt into rapidly boiling water in the lower part of thedouble boiler until no more salt will dissolve (a saturated solution). Test the temperature.
E.Put the inner part of the double boiler containing water into this boiling solution of saturated salt, being sure that the inner part is sufficiently deep in the salt solution. Note the temperature of the water in the inner boiler when it becomes heated.
Boiling at high altitudes.—When the air pressure upon the surface of the water is lessened, the water boils at a lower temperature. As the altitude increases, the air pressure decreases, as many a mountain traveler knows to his cost. The boiling temperature of water is so much lowered that the dwellers in high regions of several thousand feet find it difficult to cook starchy vegetables well. A heavy iron pot is made with clamps for fastening down a tight cover, which increases the temperature somewhat. ExperimentsDandEindicate a method that can be used to a small extent. The baking process should be largely used, and boiling avoided. For meat, eggs, and fish the lower temperature is not undesirable. (See the chapters relating to these foods.)
The uses of ice.—Water freezes and ice melts at the same point, 32° F., or 0° C. If ice is mixed with salt, the temperature is reduced far below the freezing point, nearly to 0° F. This process reduces any watery substance which it surrounds to its freezing point, the heat being used in the melting of the ice. This is an interesting topic to discuss in the Physics class.
Ice at its ordinary temperature of 32° F. is used for cooling food agreeably. Its most important function in the refrigerator is as preserver of food for a short time at least. For this it is invaluable, and cheap ice is really necessary in summer to the health of a great city.
Ice substitutes.—Where the supply fails or the price is exorbitant, one property of water makes it a partial aid.The rapid evaporation of water will absorb heat so rapidly as to reduce the temperature of adjacent bodies. In the tropics when ice is lacking, water is hung in porous jars in the breeze, and the temperature of the water in the jar is reduced.
To keep milk and butter cool wrap a wet cloth about the containing jar, and set the jar upon the window sill, keeping one end of the towel in a vessel of water; or the cloth may be wrapped directly around the butter. This method is surprisingly effective.
Fruit beverages.—Fruit juices with water and sugar make refreshing beverages and have nutritive value as well. (See the next chapter.)
Cocoa and chocolate, coffee, and tea.—These are the three most important non-alcoholic beverages used by man. They are used because of the agreeable flavor given them by volatile oils, and also because they have a stimulating effect. The stimulating property is due to an alkaloid, a crystallizable substance known in cocoa as theobromine, in coffee as caffeine, and in tea as theine. Chemical investigation indicates that caffeine and theine are the same and theobromine is a closely related substance. These substances have a recognized stimulating effect upon the nervous system, and the beverages containing them should therefore be used with caution by all. In the opinion of the writers, tea and coffee should not be taken by young people under twenty-five years of age. Tea and coffee also contain tannin, an astringent substance giving a disagreeable flavor to coffee and tea when these are improperly made, and having an undesirable effect upon digestion. Chocolate contains a non-volatile fat (cocoa butter) in large amount, and should be classed as a food as well as a beverage.
The plants from which cocoa, coffee, and tea are derived are natives of semi-tropical or tropical Africa, Asia, andAmerica, having been introduced to Europe by early travelers in these lands.
The introduction of these beverages is an interesting bit of history. The Spaniards found cocoa in tropical America, and carried it back to Spain, and it was not used in England until 1657. It was sold in Danvers, Massachusetts, in 1771, the raw material having been brought by Gloucester fishermen from the West Indies. Coffee is said to have originated in Abyssinia, reaching Europe by way of Arabia, and being sold in England in 1650. Coffee-houses were licensed in America in 1715. A Chinese tradition places the discovery of the use of tea at 2700B.C.It was first used in England in 1657, and was imported into America in 1711. An amusing story is told of the first tea party in a town of western Connecticut, where the tea was boiled violently in a large iron kettle and served on a platter with the leaves, as a form of soup, the leaves themselves being eaten.
The introduction of these beverages is an interesting bit of history. The Spaniards found cocoa in tropical America, and carried it back to Spain, and it was not used in England until 1657. It was sold in Danvers, Massachusetts, in 1771, the raw material having been brought by Gloucester fishermen from the West Indies. Coffee is said to have originated in Abyssinia, reaching Europe by way of Arabia, and being sold in England in 1650. Coffee-houses were licensed in America in 1715. A Chinese tradition places the discovery of the use of tea at 2700B.C.It was first used in England in 1657, and was imported into America in 1711. An amusing story is told of the first tea party in a town of western Connecticut, where the tea was boiled violently in a large iron kettle and served on a platter with the leaves, as a form of soup, the leaves themselves being eaten.
Cocoa and chocolate.—Cocoa and chocolate are manufactured from the seed of a tree,Theobroma cacao, grown in tropical America. The seeds, when removed from the containing pod, are fermented to improve the flavor, dried, cleaned, roasted, and finally ground. The outer husk is loosened in the roasting, and is then removed, and sold as “cocoa shells.” It is the basis of a cheap beverage with an agreeable flavor. The first crushing of the seeds gives cocoa “nibs,” and these are further ground in a mill, and finally molded into the cake of plain chocolate. The addition of sugar, vanilla, cinnamon, and sometimes other spices gives a variety of sweet chocolates. Powdered cocoa is prepared by the removal of the fat, which is a valuable product in itself, sugar and flavorings are added and sometimes a starch. The Dutch manufacturers use alkalies for removing the crude fiber and improving the color, and the consequent loss of flavor is balanced by the use of other flavoring matter. The adulterations of cocoa are largelystarch in excess. The French and American cocoas are flavored with vanilla, the Dutch manufacturers using cinnamon as well.
The so-called soluble cocoas are very finely ground, and therefore mix readily with water, remaining in suspension for some time, but the cocoa itself is not dissolved. Powdered cocoa is bought in tin cans, is cheap, and is even more economical if bought in large cans than in small. Chocolate is more expensive always than the cocoa, and may be bought in cakes in pound packages, or in powdered form for immediate use.
Coffeeis the inner seed of a berry from a tree,Coffea arabica, the process of manufacture consisting of the removal of the outer pulp, fermentation, washing, drying, and roasting. The first stages of the process are carried on at the coffee plantation, the raw berries being imported, and roasted shortly before using. The roasting in cocoa, coffee, and tea is necessary for desirable flavors, the heat developing volatile, aromatic principles, caramelizing the sugar, and causing other chemical changes. The differences in the flavor of coffees are due to the variety, the soil and climate, and methods of production and manufacture. No coffee grown in the western hemisphere has excelled, and scarcely has any equaled, the original Mocha and Java coffees, and these have long been trade names for coffee from other places, because of the popular liking for these brands. Brazil is now the great coffee producing country of the world, and from South and Central America and the West Indies we obtain coffee of excellent flavor.
The adulterations of coffee should be noted, although these are of the kind that gives the buyer something cheaper in place of coffee, rather than a substance that is injurious. Ground chicory root is sometimes mixed with coffee, butcannot be classed strictly as an adulterant, because many people, notably the French, add it openly, preferring its flavor. Among adulterants are rye meal, bran, beans and peas, cocoa shells, and even sawdust. Artificial beans have been made of bran, molasses, and water, sometimes with the addition of chicory and coloring matter. If ground coffee is put into a glass of cold water, it floats on the top and remains hard, while several of the adulterants named soften and sink to the bottom of the glass. Highly roasted coffee, however, will sometimes sink. Coffee beans from which coffee extract has been made are sometimes mixed with other coffee.
Coffee extracts and crystallized coffee are manufactured to simplify the coffee-making process, but the flavor is not equal to that of coffee infusion made directly from the bean. A preparation of coffee is also offered with the caffeine removed by some chemical process, but it is expensive in this country.
Buy coffee in the bean, and see that it is freshly roasted. Coffee, whole or ground, is sold extensively by the pound in tin cans, with a fancy label and name, and in this form it is usually expensive. Good coffee may be bought for twenty-five cents a pound of many reliable dealers, and may be purchased in five or ten pound packages, or bought in bulk to be kept in a tightly closed can.
Teais the dried leaf of a shrub,Camellia thea, growing in the comparatively high lands of Japan, China, India, and Ceylon. A tea plantation exists in South Carolina, U.S.A., and furnishes a very pleasing grade of tea, somewhat resembling Japan tea in flavor. We are familiar with the fact that there are many kinds and grades of tea, the tea shrub varying as does the coffee tree, and the methods of curing affecting both color and flavor. The teas from the countries named have characteristic flavors, and eachcountry has different varieties and grades. Russian tea is not grown in Russia, but is Chinese tea carried across the continent of Asia.
In general, tea may be classed as green or black, this difference in color depending upon the age of the leaf, and largely upon differences in the curing process. Green tea is made from the young leaf, and after picking is dried immediately by artificial heat, being constantly stirred for about an hour, in which time the leaves twist and curl. For black tea the leaves are allowed to wilt and ferment, before they are rolled and heated; and sometimes the heating is repeated. These details of the process vary in different localities. The leaves are finally sorted and graded for packing.
Both black and green teas are made in China. “Bohea” is one of the famous black Chinese teas. “English Breakfast Tea” is known as such only in America, and is a blend of black teas. Black tea is not so successfully made in Japan as in China. “Oolong,” from the island of Formosa, has the appearance of a black tea, with the flavor of a green. In Japan and China old-time methods prevail, with much handling of the tea leaves, but in Ceylon and India modern machinery makes the process a much more cleanly one.
Another classification of tea is that depending upon the age and size of the leaf, the young leaf making the finer grade tea. For example, in the black teas of India “flowery pekoe” is made from the youngest leaf, “orange pekoe” from the second, “pekoe” from the third, and “souchong” and “congou” come from the larger leaves.
The adulterations of tea are usually the leaves of other plants, but as a matter of fact very little adulterated tea is imported. The first grades of teas, however, and those most highly prized by the Chinese and Japanese, seldom find their way to America.
Other beverages.—Several very acceptable coffee substitutes are on the market, made from roasted and ground grain, and they give an agreeable hot drink for breakfast when served with cream or milk. In some cases they seem to have a laxative effect, which is well for some people and not for others. A pleasant hot drink of the same nature may be made from the browned crusts of bread.
The substitutes for tea are not usually satisfactory. The Indians of the western coast of the United States make a tea from a plant which they call “Buona Yerba,” but for us it has a strong resemblance to the medicinal herb teas formerly used for curative purposes, such as sage, catnip, motherwort, and the like.
1. Lemonade and fruit drinks.Utensils.—Silver knife for paring and slicing, glass lemon squeezer, a grater, a strainer, and a saucepan. Avoid the use of tin and iron utensils.Materials.—Lemon or other fruits, sugar water.Proportions.—One half lemon to a glass, or 2 or 3 to a quart of water. Other fruits “according to taste.” Experiment here, using the juice and pulp of any fruit, combining those that are very acid with those that lack acidity,—lemon and raspberry, for example. One third to1⁄2cup sugar to a quart. The proportion cannot be stated with exactness, for fruit varies in acidity, and the final result must always be tested by the taste.Method.Plain lemonade.—After deciding upon the proper amounts to be used, dissolve the sugar in a part of the water, brought to the boiling point. When cool, add the lemon juice and remaining water, ice and serve. A small portion of grated rind may be added to the boiling water.Another method is to use lump sugar, rubbing the peel of the lemon upon each lump before dissolving.The general method is the same with other fruits, pulpy fruit and berries being mashed, the water added, and strained.Cherries,strawberries, and pieces ofpulpare sometimes added before serving, when the fruit drink is ladled from a bowl as fruit punch. Be sure to cut the berries if they are large. A brightness is imparted to the fruit punch by the addition of carbonated water just before serving. A quart of fruit punch, if served in small cups, will suffice for eight people.2. Cocoa shells.Principle.—To extract the flavor from the shells, by boiling in water.Utensil.—A saucepan or coffee boiler.Proportions.—One half cup shells to 1 quart boiling water. As much as 1 cup of the shells may be used.Method.Wash the shells in a strainer under the faucet. Put the shells in the pot, pour on boiling water, and simmer gently for1⁄2hour. Strain off, and serve with cream, or milk, or evaporated milk and sugar.3. Cocoa.Principle.—To mix the particles smoothly and evenly with the liquid by stirring and by heating.Utensils.—A measuring cup, a saucepan, spoon, and beater. A double boiler, if milk only is used.Ingredients.—Powdered cocoa, sugar, water, or milk, or milk and water. Cocoa made with milk does not agree with some people, in which case it may be made with water only, and served with cream, milk, or evaporated milk.Proportions.—One teaspoonful of cocoa to1⁄2measuring cup. More or less as preferred. One teaspoonful of sugar, ditto.Method.Heat the liquid. Stir a portion of the liquid cold, with the cocoa, add this to the hot liquid, add the sugar, and beat vigorously for a minute before removing from the fire.4. Chocolate.Principle.—To mix the chocolate smoothly with the liquid that the fat may not float on the top. This is accomplished by having all the ingredients either hot or cold. If after the chocolate is dissolved in a hot liquid, cold liquid is added, the oil separates and floats.Utensils.—A grater, or sharp knife, a saucepan, mixing spoon, and beater.A French chocolate maker claims that any metal utensil affects the flavor of the chocolate, and always uses an earthen pot and wooden spoon and heater. An earthenware chocolate pot for this purpose is on the market.Ingredients.—Chocolate, sugar, milk, or milk and water.Proportions.—The amount of chocolate may be varied, depending upon the richness desired. Three or 4 ounce squares to 1 quart liquid, 4 teaspoonfuls sugar to 1 quart. The liquid is better half milk and half water, rather than milk only.Method 1.[10]The cold method.Put the liquid and sugar into the saucepan. Break or cut the chocolate into small pieces, add to the liquid, and heat the liquid slowly, stirring occasionally but not constantly. When the liquid is hot, just before it reaches the boiling point, beat vigorously with a wooden spoon, or beater. The Dover beater is convenient. This beating makes a velvety smooth and a foamy mixture.Method 2.The hot method.Heat the liquid with the sugar. Grate the chocolate or shave it with a knife. Protect the chocolate from the warmth of the fingers by a piece of paper. The process is less “sticky” if the chocolate and grater are chilled in the refrigerator. Just as the liquid is reaching the boiling point, pour in the grated chocolate, and beat vigorously.Beaten chocolate does not need any additional cream when served. Beaten whipped cream is attractive on the top of each cup. But remember that chocolate is already rich in fat, and that additional fat may be indigestible. Such a cup of chocolate taken for luncheon with a roll is sufficient for the meal, and is certainly too rich in fat for serving at an afternoon tea.5. Coffee.Principle.—To extract the flavoring oils at the boiling point of water, and to avoid the extraction of the tannin. Thetannin is extracted by prolonged boiling, and when the liquid coffee stands upon the grounds.Utensils.—Coffee grinder, measuring cup, pot. The kind of pot depends upon the method used. One house furnishing firm displays some seventy different coffee pots, but they may be divided into three classes, thepot for boiling, thedrip coffee pot, and thepercolator(see Figs. 23 and 24). The coffee boiler should have a lip, and not a spout. A word of warning is needed in regard to the care of the pot. Coffee grounds should be removed from any pot immediately, and the pot washed at once in scalding hot soapsuds, rinsed, dried, and aired. Let the pot stand with cover off. If this is not done, a coat is soon formed on the inside of the pot, which spoils the flavor of the coffee. Where the pot has been neglected, boiling it out with a solution of caustic soda is sometimes a remedy.Fig. 23.—A pot for boiling coffee and a pot for drip coffee.Courtesy of the Brambhall Dean Co.Fig. 24.—A coffee percolator.Courtesy of Landers, Frary and Clark.Ingredients.—Ground coffee, water, cold or boiling, white of egg or egg shell for boiled coffee. The coffee should be ground to medium fineness for boiled coffee, to a finer powder for the percolated and drip coffee.Proportions.—One part of coffee to 5 or 6 of water, depending upon the strength desired. One egg shell, or half the white of an egg to 1 cup of ground coffee.Method 1.Boiling.—Measure the coffee and water. Stir the white or the shell of an egg with the coffee, adding a little of the water, put this into the pot, add the remaining watercold, stir thoroughly, allow the water to rise slowly to the boiling point, and to boil one minute, remove the pot from the fire, pour in a small amount of cold water, and let the coffee stand for five minutes or until the grounds settle. During the cooking close the lip with clean soft paper if it has no lid. The actual boiling is continued for a brief period only, and coffee made by this method is considered by some people to have a flavor lacking in drip or percolator coffee. The egg is added to clarify the coffee. Pour off the liquid coffee from the grounds, and keep hot until it is time to serve it.A second method differs from this in that the water is poured on at the boiling temperature, allowed to reach the boiling point in two or three minutes, and boiled for five minutes. The first gives uniformly better results. It is true, however, that different kinds of coffee need different treatment, and there is room here for much experimenting.Method 2.Drip coffee.—In this method the coffee is put in a receptacle above, the water passes slowly through, collecting in the pot below, from which it is served. Stand the lower part of the pot in a pan of hot water, or where it will keep hot. Measure the water, and bring it to the boiling point. Heat the ground coffee slightly, put it in the upper section of the pot, and pour on the water very slowly. Of course, the water is not actually boiling when it touches the coffee. If the liquid coffee is not strong enough, pour it from the lower part and pass it through the grounds again. This is the French method, and is an excellent way to prepare after-dinner coffee.Method 3.Percolator coffee.—In the percolator the water boils within the pot, and passes through the coffee at the boiling temperature. The exact method depends upon the pattern of the pot, and directions always accompany a given pot. For those who can use electricity, the electric percolator certainly gives an excellent coffee.Coffee is served “black,” or with cream, milk, or evaporated milk and sugar. If milk is used for breakfast coffee, serve it hot.6. Tea.Principle.—To extract flavor by allowing the leaves to remain for a few minutes, in water which has been poured on at the boiling temperature, and to avoid the extraction of tannin by making the period of steeping short. Tea mustneverbe boiled.Utensils.—An earthen pot, measuring cup, teaspoon, strainer. Sometimes a tea ball or piece of cheesecloth.Proportion.—One teaspoonful of tea to about 1 cup of water, the amount depending upon the kind of tea.Method.—Measure the water and bring it to the boiling point. Heat the tea slightly in the pot, pour on the water rapidly, allow to stand three to five minutes, strain into a heated pot for serving. The length of the steeping depends also upon the kind of tea. If there is an astringent flavor, the tea has stood too long.The following method was recommended by an expert in India teas. Bring the water to a boil in a saucepan, throw in the tea leaves, lift the saucepan instantly to stop the boiling, steep for 3 or 4 minutes, strain off and keep hot. This expert claimed that by actually having the tea leaves at the boiling temperature for an instant the flavor is improved. Serve with cream or milk, or sliced lemon and sugar.Where tea is to be served in very large quantities, this last method is very convenient. The water can be brought to the boil in a large kettle, and the tea thrown in, but care must be exercised to see that the steeping does not last too long. The tea, once decanted, can be kept hot for several hours, without losing flavor. Or again, a small amount of extra strong tea may be prepared, to be diluted with boiling water as it is served. The tea ball, or the plan of tying the tea in small pieces of cheesecloth, is convenient for serving at an afternoon tea.7. Iced cocoa, coffee, and tea.Cocoa and coffeeare agreeable in hot weather served in a glass with ice, and cream and powdered sugar. Make bothslightly stronger than for hot drinks, as the ice in melting dilutes the liquid.Iced tea.—Prepare a small amount of strong tea, using 4 teaspoonfuls to 1 cup boiling water, strain off and cool. Dilute with iced water to the proper strength, sweeten with powdered sugar, and serve in glasses with one or two slices of lemon to each glass. For those who do not like the lemon, iced tea may be served with cream.
1. Lemonade and fruit drinks.
Utensils.—Silver knife for paring and slicing, glass lemon squeezer, a grater, a strainer, and a saucepan. Avoid the use of tin and iron utensils.
Materials.—Lemon or other fruits, sugar water.
Proportions.—One half lemon to a glass, or 2 or 3 to a quart of water. Other fruits “according to taste.” Experiment here, using the juice and pulp of any fruit, combining those that are very acid with those that lack acidity,—lemon and raspberry, for example. One third to1⁄2cup sugar to a quart. The proportion cannot be stated with exactness, for fruit varies in acidity, and the final result must always be tested by the taste.
Method.
Plain lemonade.—After deciding upon the proper amounts to be used, dissolve the sugar in a part of the water, brought to the boiling point. When cool, add the lemon juice and remaining water, ice and serve. A small portion of grated rind may be added to the boiling water.
Another method is to use lump sugar, rubbing the peel of the lemon upon each lump before dissolving.
The general method is the same with other fruits, pulpy fruit and berries being mashed, the water added, and strained.
Cherries,strawberries, and pieces ofpulpare sometimes added before serving, when the fruit drink is ladled from a bowl as fruit punch. Be sure to cut the berries if they are large. A brightness is imparted to the fruit punch by the addition of carbonated water just before serving. A quart of fruit punch, if served in small cups, will suffice for eight people.
2. Cocoa shells.
Principle.—To extract the flavor from the shells, by boiling in water.
Utensil.—A saucepan or coffee boiler.
Proportions.—One half cup shells to 1 quart boiling water. As much as 1 cup of the shells may be used.
Method.
Wash the shells in a strainer under the faucet. Put the shells in the pot, pour on boiling water, and simmer gently for1⁄2hour. Strain off, and serve with cream, or milk, or evaporated milk and sugar.
3. Cocoa.
Principle.—To mix the particles smoothly and evenly with the liquid by stirring and by heating.
Utensils.—A measuring cup, a saucepan, spoon, and beater. A double boiler, if milk only is used.
Ingredients.—Powdered cocoa, sugar, water, or milk, or milk and water. Cocoa made with milk does not agree with some people, in which case it may be made with water only, and served with cream, milk, or evaporated milk.
Proportions.—One teaspoonful of cocoa to1⁄2measuring cup. More or less as preferred. One teaspoonful of sugar, ditto.
Method.
Heat the liquid. Stir a portion of the liquid cold, with the cocoa, add this to the hot liquid, add the sugar, and beat vigorously for a minute before removing from the fire.
4. Chocolate.
Principle.—To mix the chocolate smoothly with the liquid that the fat may not float on the top. This is accomplished by having all the ingredients either hot or cold. If after the chocolate is dissolved in a hot liquid, cold liquid is added, the oil separates and floats.
Utensils.—A grater, or sharp knife, a saucepan, mixing spoon, and beater.
A French chocolate maker claims that any metal utensil affects the flavor of the chocolate, and always uses an earthen pot and wooden spoon and heater. An earthenware chocolate pot for this purpose is on the market.
Ingredients.—Chocolate, sugar, milk, or milk and water.
Proportions.—The amount of chocolate may be varied, depending upon the richness desired. Three or 4 ounce squares to 1 quart liquid, 4 teaspoonfuls sugar to 1 quart. The liquid is better half milk and half water, rather than milk only.
Method 1.[10]
The cold method.
Put the liquid and sugar into the saucepan. Break or cut the chocolate into small pieces, add to the liquid, and heat the liquid slowly, stirring occasionally but not constantly. When the liquid is hot, just before it reaches the boiling point, beat vigorously with a wooden spoon, or beater. The Dover beater is convenient. This beating makes a velvety smooth and a foamy mixture.
Method 2.
The hot method.
Heat the liquid with the sugar. Grate the chocolate or shave it with a knife. Protect the chocolate from the warmth of the fingers by a piece of paper. The process is less “sticky” if the chocolate and grater are chilled in the refrigerator. Just as the liquid is reaching the boiling point, pour in the grated chocolate, and beat vigorously.
Beaten chocolate does not need any additional cream when served. Beaten whipped cream is attractive on the top of each cup. But remember that chocolate is already rich in fat, and that additional fat may be indigestible. Such a cup of chocolate taken for luncheon with a roll is sufficient for the meal, and is certainly too rich in fat for serving at an afternoon tea.
5. Coffee.
Principle.—To extract the flavoring oils at the boiling point of water, and to avoid the extraction of the tannin. Thetannin is extracted by prolonged boiling, and when the liquid coffee stands upon the grounds.
Utensils.—Coffee grinder, measuring cup, pot. The kind of pot depends upon the method used. One house furnishing firm displays some seventy different coffee pots, but they may be divided into three classes, thepot for boiling, thedrip coffee pot, and thepercolator(see Figs. 23 and 24). The coffee boiler should have a lip, and not a spout. A word of warning is needed in regard to the care of the pot. Coffee grounds should be removed from any pot immediately, and the pot washed at once in scalding hot soapsuds, rinsed, dried, and aired. Let the pot stand with cover off. If this is not done, a coat is soon formed on the inside of the pot, which spoils the flavor of the coffee. Where the pot has been neglected, boiling it out with a solution of caustic soda is sometimes a remedy.
Fig. 23.—A pot for boiling coffee and a pot for drip coffee.Courtesy of the Brambhall Dean Co.
Fig. 24.—A coffee percolator.Courtesy of Landers, Frary and Clark.
Ingredients.—Ground coffee, water, cold or boiling, white of egg or egg shell for boiled coffee. The coffee should be ground to medium fineness for boiled coffee, to a finer powder for the percolated and drip coffee.
Proportions.—One part of coffee to 5 or 6 of water, depending upon the strength desired. One egg shell, or half the white of an egg to 1 cup of ground coffee.
Method 1.
Boiling.—Measure the coffee and water. Stir the white or the shell of an egg with the coffee, adding a little of the water, put this into the pot, add the remaining watercold, stir thoroughly, allow the water to rise slowly to the boiling point, and to boil one minute, remove the pot from the fire, pour in a small amount of cold water, and let the coffee stand for five minutes or until the grounds settle. During the cooking close the lip with clean soft paper if it has no lid. The actual boiling is continued for a brief period only, and coffee made by this method is considered by some people to have a flavor lacking in drip or percolator coffee. The egg is added to clarify the coffee. Pour off the liquid coffee from the grounds, and keep hot until it is time to serve it.
A second method differs from this in that the water is poured on at the boiling temperature, allowed to reach the boiling point in two or three minutes, and boiled for five minutes. The first gives uniformly better results. It is true, however, that different kinds of coffee need different treatment, and there is room here for much experimenting.
Method 2.
Drip coffee.—In this method the coffee is put in a receptacle above, the water passes slowly through, collecting in the pot below, from which it is served. Stand the lower part of the pot in a pan of hot water, or where it will keep hot. Measure the water, and bring it to the boiling point. Heat the ground coffee slightly, put it in the upper section of the pot, and pour on the water very slowly. Of course, the water is not actually boiling when it touches the coffee. If the liquid coffee is not strong enough, pour it from the lower part and pass it through the grounds again. This is the French method, and is an excellent way to prepare after-dinner coffee.
Method 3.
Percolator coffee.—In the percolator the water boils within the pot, and passes through the coffee at the boiling temperature. The exact method depends upon the pattern of the pot, and directions always accompany a given pot. For those who can use electricity, the electric percolator certainly gives an excellent coffee.
Coffee is served “black,” or with cream, milk, or evaporated milk and sugar. If milk is used for breakfast coffee, serve it hot.
6. Tea.
Principle.—To extract flavor by allowing the leaves to remain for a few minutes, in water which has been poured on at the boiling temperature, and to avoid the extraction of tannin by making the period of steeping short. Tea mustneverbe boiled.
Utensils.—An earthen pot, measuring cup, teaspoon, strainer. Sometimes a tea ball or piece of cheesecloth.
Proportion.—One teaspoonful of tea to about 1 cup of water, the amount depending upon the kind of tea.
Method.—Measure the water and bring it to the boiling point. Heat the tea slightly in the pot, pour on the water rapidly, allow to stand three to five minutes, strain into a heated pot for serving. The length of the steeping depends also upon the kind of tea. If there is an astringent flavor, the tea has stood too long.
The following method was recommended by an expert in India teas. Bring the water to a boil in a saucepan, throw in the tea leaves, lift the saucepan instantly to stop the boiling, steep for 3 or 4 minutes, strain off and keep hot. This expert claimed that by actually having the tea leaves at the boiling temperature for an instant the flavor is improved. Serve with cream or milk, or sliced lemon and sugar.
Where tea is to be served in very large quantities, this last method is very convenient. The water can be brought to the boil in a large kettle, and the tea thrown in, but care must be exercised to see that the steeping does not last too long. The tea, once decanted, can be kept hot for several hours, without losing flavor. Or again, a small amount of extra strong tea may be prepared, to be diluted with boiling water as it is served. The tea ball, or the plan of tying the tea in small pieces of cheesecloth, is convenient for serving at an afternoon tea.
7. Iced cocoa, coffee, and tea.
Cocoa and coffeeare agreeable in hot weather served in a glass with ice, and cream and powdered sugar. Make bothslightly stronger than for hot drinks, as the ice in melting dilutes the liquid.
Iced tea.—Prepare a small amount of strong tea, using 4 teaspoonfuls to 1 cup boiling water, strain off and cool. Dilute with iced water to the proper strength, sweeten with powdered sugar, and serve in glasses with one or two slices of lemon to each glass. For those who do not like the lemon, iced tea may be served with cream.
1. What are the functions of water in the body?
2. What cautions should be exercised when drinking water?
3. Explain the likenesses and differences of cocoa and chocolate, coffee and tea.
4. Why is it better to serve whipped cream with cocoa, rather than with chocolate?
5. Explain the principles in making each beverage.
Teacher’s Note.—The beverages are treated in one chapter for convenience, but need not of necessity come at the beginning of the course. A fruit beverage, or cocoa, may make a convenient first lesson, when the pupils are becoming acquainted with the school kitchen. Coffee and tea may be made during the baking lessons.
FRUIT AND ITS PRESERVATION
The United States is fortunate in the native fruit supply, including as it does so many degrees of latitude and longitude with the differences in altitude, climate, and soil needed by different varieties. Now that we count Porto Rico among our possessions, a list of our fruits would include most of the varieties known in the temperate and semi-tropical zones. The United States Department of Agriculture experiments with new varieties from foreign lands that may make themselves at home in our soil, and work like that of Luther Burbank produces new species. Scientific methods of fruit growing are becoming more common, and the quality of fruit will doubtless improve in spite of fungous diseases and injurious insects. Our wild fruits are not yet entirely rooted out. The Maine blueberry, for example, is found on hundreds of acres and needs no cultivation beyond burning over every third year.
Fruit is necessary in our diet, and is not an extravagance unless we buy fancy varieties brought from a distance, or native fruits out of season.
Composition and nutritive value.—The chief foodstuffs in fruits are carbohydrates and mineral matter. Fresh fruit contains from 75 to 95 per cent of water, and its presence is apparent in such juicy fruits as the melon and the orange. Figure 25 shows that seemingly dry fruits like the banana and the apple also contain much water. Even fruits which have been artificially dried, like prunes and raisins, containsome water. (Fig. 26.) Although the carbohydrates of fruits are largely in the form of sugars easily digested and valuable as fuel, this kind of food is especially valuable for its rich supply of ash, including the compounds of calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and iron. The iron is of great importance, being in a form much more useful to the normal processes of the body than that prescribed medicinally. The bulk given by cellulose, and the laxative property of fruit acids also are safeguards against constipation, especially in a meat diet. Fruit is the best possible dessert after a hearty meat dinner.
Fig. 25.—Composition of fruit.
Fig. 26.—Composition of fruit.
Fig. 27.—100-Calorie portions of fresh and dried fruit.A. Fowler, Photographer.
KINDWEIGHT OF PORTIONOUNCESApple7.5Banana5.5Grapes4.9Orange9.5Peaches10.5Pears6.3Apricots1.3Dates1.1Prunes1.4Raisins1.1
The digestibility of fruit is increased for some people by cooking. This is probably due to the softening of the fiber, to the destruction of any bacteria present, and in the case of the banana, to the cooking of the starch. Fruit juice canbe taken by little children and invalids who might find the fiber troublesome. Some people cannot eat berries on account of irritation caused by the seeds. In this case, juice may be squeezed from cooked berries and used for beverages and jelly.
How to buy.—Since we should eat fruit daily, and not merely as a “treat,” it is important to practice economy in buying it. Fresh fruits in season, and dried fruits are the cheapest. Canned fruit is economical when it is a product of one’s own garden, or put up when some fruit has a low market price. Prices are so variable, even with one variety, that no definite sum can be given as a fixed price. Apples vary from fifty cents a bushel near the orchard and in season, to ten cents apiece for a fancy table variety in the winter. When you buy fresh fruit, inquire the prices of the many kinds offered, note which is cheapest, and then observe whether the cheaper kind is such because it is abundant, or because it is of inferior quality. If you chance to want apples for cooking, and the only cheap apples are spotted and bruised, then buy dried apples, or even canned. It is best to decide upon the fruit after you have studied market conditions rather than before.
Fresh FruitsPrinciples of preparation.Thorough cleansing in clear water.Cleanliness, in avoiding use of the fingers.Making convenient for eating, sometimes by paring or cutting or expressing the juices.Adjuncts.—Sugar.The juice of an acid fruit with an insipid fruit.Tools.—A sharp steel knife for paring and peeling.A silver-plated knife for cutting.A glass lemon squeezer.Methods.Berries.—Pick over.Wash in colander with a gentle stream of water, and shake carefully to avoid bruising and breaking.Chill in the refrigerator.Sprinkle with sugar when served.Oranges.—Scrub the peel with a brush.(1) Cut in two crosswise and serve.(2) Peel with a sharp knife and remove the pith.Cut crosswise, remove seeds, and break up the slices. Sprinkle with sugar.Chill in the refrigerator.Grapefruit.—The same method as with the orange, but in method (2) the pulp only should be served.Bananas.—Wash thoroughly.(1) Cut in two lengthwise, and serve,orPour a teaspoonful of lemon juice on each half, and sprinkle with sugar.Chill in the refrigerator.(2) Pull off the skin, lengthwise.Cut in slices crosswise.Chill, and serve with sugar and cream,orPour on lemon or orange juice, add sugar, and chill.Peaches.—Wash gently.Hold the peach on a fork at one end.Peel with a plated knife, and slice.Chill in the refrigerator for a short time only before serving, as peaches discolor quickly.Sprinkle with sugar when served.Pears and apples.—When very mellow, these are delicious sliced and served with sugar and cream.Fruit juice.—Cut the fruit in two, and press on the glass squeezer over a cup.Cooked FruitsPrinciples of cooking.The fiber, and skin when retained, are softened.Flavors are developed at a low temperature long continued. A high temperature at the end of process, browns, and adds flavor.Flavors retained by prevention of evaporation through covering tightly.Bacteria and molds are destroyed.Adjuncts.—Sugar. Sometimes a bit of butter.Acid fruit juices,orAn acid jelly.Seeded raisins, with acid fruit, as sour apples.Nutmeg or cinnamon with some fruits.Cooking processes.—Stewing and baking.Utensils.—Knife and corer.Stew pan, enamel ware, close cover.Round or square baking pans, enamel ware, covered.Earthenware pot, covered.Methods.—If you can cook one fruit, you can cook all. Two common fruits are selected for your experiments, the apple and the prune; both are delicious, and both contain iron, the prune more than the apple.The apple.—A tart variety is best for cooking. The Greening and the Baldwin are excellent.Apples are cooked whole, or as a sauce.Whole, cooked with or without the skin, either stewed or baked.For cooking whole, select those of uniform size.For cooking whole, with the skin, select those with fair skins.For cooking whole without skin, select firm texture, not mellow.An apple saucemay consist of slices, or may be mashed or strained, and may be either stewed or baked. Less perfect apples may be used than for baking.First step for all.—Wash, and examine carefully for blemishes, bruises, and insects in the interior.1. Whole apple baked, with skin.(1) Remove core.(2) Place in pan, with enough water to barely cover the bottom of the pan.(3) Pour sugar into the holes.(4) A bit of butter may be put on the top of the sugar.(5) Nutmeg or cinnamon may be mixed with the sugar if the apples are flat in taste.(6) Cover the pan, and bake in a moderate oven, until the apples are tender. The length of time depends upon the quality of the apple. (See class experiment.)Half apples.—This is a modification of (1).Cut the apples in two crosswise, and proceed as with the whole apple.2. Whole apples baked, without skin.—A good method when skins are tough.(1) Remove core and pare.(2) Place inearthenbaking dish. The remainder of the process is the same.(3) Serve in the dish in which they are baked.(4) Currant jelly, or seeded raisins may be placed in the core holes instead of sugar.Class experiment.—Bake side by side two apples of uniform size, one with, one without, the skin. Note carefully the length of time for baking each. What difference? Why is this? It may be necessary in the school kitchen to bake in a quick oven, on account of the shortness of the class period. It does not spoil the apple to do this; but the longer process that you can use at home gives a richer color and flavor.For this experiment, one pupil may bake the apple without the skin, and the next pupil one with the skin in case there is but one apple apiece; or it may be made a class experiment with two apples.3. Whole, stewed.(Compote.)—This is a more difficult method than method 2, and really no better.(1) Core and pare five or six apples.(2) Dissolve1⁄2cup sugar in1⁄2pint water in a saucepan.(3) Place apples in the sirup. They should be barely covered.(4) Cover closely and keep just below the boiling point, until the apples are tender.(5) Cool slightly, remove the apples with care and place in the serving dish. Put a spoonful of jelly in each apple.(6) Boil down the sirup and pour it over the apples.(7) Chill, before serving with plain or whipped cream.4. Apple sauces.—In the cooking of the whole apple you have all the principles and processes of apple cooking. You can now make apple sauce of your own invention, and needno printed directions. Answer these questions before you begin work. After you have made the sauce, record the work exactly in your notebook.If you want the slices of apple to remain whole, will the method be like 1, 2, or 3?If you wish a smooth sauce, what utensil will you need?How will you determine the amount of sugar required? If you are very fond of sugar, your taste may not be the safest guide.Practical home work.—If you can secure a very slow oven, say a coal oven at night, or a gas oven with a low flame, make an apple sauce in an earthenware pot, as heavy as a bean pot, closely covered, leaving the pot in the oven from six to eight hours. This process is satisfactory in a fireless cooker where a hot stone or iron is used. Remember that water keeps down temperature, and also that it evaporates steadily even in a slow oven. How much water will you put over the apples when the process begins?If you have never cooked apples in this way you will be surprised at the color and flavor.Some other fruits.—Pearsandquincesdevelop pleasing flavors when baked.Cook the quinces sliced, as suggested for the apples, in the bean pot, using a little molasses for sweetening and you will have the delicious old-time “molasses quince.”Prunes.—We are dealing now with a dried fruit. If you compare the raisins with the grapes in Fig. 26, you will see how much water is lost in the drying process. The same difference would be evident if you had pictures of a fresh plum and a prune, side by side. This water must be supplied in the process of preparation. The best way to accomplish this is by soaking the prunes many hours, say over night. Prunes have a most undeserved reputation, because they are not well cooked, and at some tables are served too often.With this one new step introduced you may plan the cooking of the prunes, from what you know of apple sauce. The slower and longer the process, the better. The cheaper kinds of prunes will be very satisfactory, with the soaking and slow cooking. What is the sensible thing to do in regard to sugar?If on some occasion you would like prunes to be unusually nice, remove the stones carefully, and in their places slip in seeded raisins which have also been soaked and gently stewed.Other dried fruitsmay be treated in the same way.Apricots and peaches yield delightful flavors when carefully prepared; and dried apples are also excellent.
Fresh Fruits
Principles of preparation.
Thorough cleansing in clear water.
Cleanliness, in avoiding use of the fingers.
Making convenient for eating, sometimes by paring or cutting or expressing the juices.
Adjuncts.—Sugar.
The juice of an acid fruit with an insipid fruit.
Tools.—A sharp steel knife for paring and peeling.
A silver-plated knife for cutting.
A glass lemon squeezer.
Methods.
Berries.—Pick over.
Wash in colander with a gentle stream of water, and shake carefully to avoid bruising and breaking.
Chill in the refrigerator.
Sprinkle with sugar when served.
Oranges.—Scrub the peel with a brush.
(1) Cut in two crosswise and serve.
(2) Peel with a sharp knife and remove the pith.
Cut crosswise, remove seeds, and break up the slices. Sprinkle with sugar.
Chill in the refrigerator.
Grapefruit.—The same method as with the orange, but in method (2) the pulp only should be served.
Bananas.—Wash thoroughly.
(1) Cut in two lengthwise, and serve,or
Pour a teaspoonful of lemon juice on each half, and sprinkle with sugar.
Chill in the refrigerator.
(2) Pull off the skin, lengthwise.
Cut in slices crosswise.
Chill, and serve with sugar and cream,or
Pour on lemon or orange juice, add sugar, and chill.
Peaches.—Wash gently.
Hold the peach on a fork at one end.
Peel with a plated knife, and slice.
Chill in the refrigerator for a short time only before serving, as peaches discolor quickly.
Sprinkle with sugar when served.
Pears and apples.—When very mellow, these are delicious sliced and served with sugar and cream.
Fruit juice.—Cut the fruit in two, and press on the glass squeezer over a cup.
Cooked Fruits
Principles of cooking.
The fiber, and skin when retained, are softened.
Flavors are developed at a low temperature long continued. A high temperature at the end of process, browns, and adds flavor.
Flavors retained by prevention of evaporation through covering tightly.
Bacteria and molds are destroyed.
Adjuncts.—Sugar. Sometimes a bit of butter.
Acid fruit juices,or
An acid jelly.
Seeded raisins, with acid fruit, as sour apples.
Nutmeg or cinnamon with some fruits.
Cooking processes.—Stewing and baking.
Utensils.—Knife and corer.
Stew pan, enamel ware, close cover.
Round or square baking pans, enamel ware, covered.
Earthenware pot, covered.
Methods.—If you can cook one fruit, you can cook all. Two common fruits are selected for your experiments, the apple and the prune; both are delicious, and both contain iron, the prune more than the apple.
The apple.—A tart variety is best for cooking. The Greening and the Baldwin are excellent.
Apples are cooked whole, or as a sauce.
Whole, cooked with or without the skin, either stewed or baked.
For cooking whole, select those of uniform size.
For cooking whole, with the skin, select those with fair skins.
For cooking whole without skin, select firm texture, not mellow.
An apple saucemay consist of slices, or may be mashed or strained, and may be either stewed or baked. Less perfect apples may be used than for baking.
First step for all.—Wash, and examine carefully for blemishes, bruises, and insects in the interior.
1. Whole apple baked, with skin.
(1) Remove core.
(2) Place in pan, with enough water to barely cover the bottom of the pan.
(3) Pour sugar into the holes.
(4) A bit of butter may be put on the top of the sugar.
(5) Nutmeg or cinnamon may be mixed with the sugar if the apples are flat in taste.
(6) Cover the pan, and bake in a moderate oven, until the apples are tender. The length of time depends upon the quality of the apple. (See class experiment.)
Half apples.—This is a modification of (1).
Cut the apples in two crosswise, and proceed as with the whole apple.
2. Whole apples baked, without skin.—A good method when skins are tough.
(1) Remove core and pare.
(2) Place inearthenbaking dish. The remainder of the process is the same.
(3) Serve in the dish in which they are baked.
(4) Currant jelly, or seeded raisins may be placed in the core holes instead of sugar.
Class experiment.—Bake side by side two apples of uniform size, one with, one without, the skin. Note carefully the length of time for baking each. What difference? Why is this? It may be necessary in the school kitchen to bake in a quick oven, on account of the shortness of the class period. It does not spoil the apple to do this; but the longer process that you can use at home gives a richer color and flavor.
For this experiment, one pupil may bake the apple without the skin, and the next pupil one with the skin in case there is but one apple apiece; or it may be made a class experiment with two apples.
3. Whole, stewed.(Compote.)—This is a more difficult method than method 2, and really no better.
(1) Core and pare five or six apples.
(2) Dissolve1⁄2cup sugar in1⁄2pint water in a saucepan.
(3) Place apples in the sirup. They should be barely covered.
(4) Cover closely and keep just below the boiling point, until the apples are tender.
(5) Cool slightly, remove the apples with care and place in the serving dish. Put a spoonful of jelly in each apple.
(6) Boil down the sirup and pour it over the apples.
(7) Chill, before serving with plain or whipped cream.
4. Apple sauces.—In the cooking of the whole apple you have all the principles and processes of apple cooking. You can now make apple sauce of your own invention, and needno printed directions. Answer these questions before you begin work. After you have made the sauce, record the work exactly in your notebook.
If you want the slices of apple to remain whole, will the method be like 1, 2, or 3?
If you wish a smooth sauce, what utensil will you need?
How will you determine the amount of sugar required? If you are very fond of sugar, your taste may not be the safest guide.
Practical home work.—If you can secure a very slow oven, say a coal oven at night, or a gas oven with a low flame, make an apple sauce in an earthenware pot, as heavy as a bean pot, closely covered, leaving the pot in the oven from six to eight hours. This process is satisfactory in a fireless cooker where a hot stone or iron is used. Remember that water keeps down temperature, and also that it evaporates steadily even in a slow oven. How much water will you put over the apples when the process begins?
If you have never cooked apples in this way you will be surprised at the color and flavor.
Some other fruits.—Pearsandquincesdevelop pleasing flavors when baked.
Cook the quinces sliced, as suggested for the apples, in the bean pot, using a little molasses for sweetening and you will have the delicious old-time “molasses quince.”
Prunes.—We are dealing now with a dried fruit. If you compare the raisins with the grapes in Fig. 26, you will see how much water is lost in the drying process. The same difference would be evident if you had pictures of a fresh plum and a prune, side by side. This water must be supplied in the process of preparation. The best way to accomplish this is by soaking the prunes many hours, say over night. Prunes have a most undeserved reputation, because they are not well cooked, and at some tables are served too often.
With this one new step introduced you may plan the cooking of the prunes, from what you know of apple sauce. The slower and longer the process, the better. The cheaper kinds of prunes will be very satisfactory, with the soaking and slow cooking. What is the sensible thing to do in regard to sugar?
If on some occasion you would like prunes to be unusually nice, remove the stones carefully, and in their places slip in seeded raisins which have also been soaked and gently stewed.
Other dried fruitsmay be treated in the same way.
Apricots and peaches yield delightful flavors when carefully prepared; and dried apples are also excellent.