Distinct hymenium none. Pseudospores either solitary or concatenate, produced on the tips of generally short threads, which are either naked or contained in a perithecium, rarely compacted into a gelatinous mass, at length producing minute spores=Coniomycetes.
The last family of the sporifera isHyphomycetes, in which the threads are conspicuously developed. These are what are more commonly called “moulds,” including some of the most elegant and delicate of microscopic forms. It is true of many of these, as well as of theConiomycetes, that they are only conidial forms of higher fungi; but there will remain a very large number of species which, as far as present knowledge extends, must be accepted as autonomous. In this family, we may again recognize three subdivisions, in one of which the threads are more or less compacted into a common stem, in another the threads are free, and in the third the threads can scarcely be distinguished from the mycelium. It is this latter group which unites theHyphomyceteswith theConiomycetes, the affinities being increased by the great profusion with which the spores are developed. The first group, in which the fertile threads are united so as to form a compound stem, consists of two small orders, theIsariaceiand theStilbacei, in the former of which the spores are dry, and in the latter somewhat gelatinous. Many of the species closely imitate forms met with in theHymenomycetes, such asClavaria; and, in the genusIsaria, it is almost beyond doubt that the species found on dead insects, moths, spiders, flies, ants, &c., are merely the conidiophores of species ofTorrubia.[O]
The second group is by far the largest, most typical, and attractive in this family. It contains the black moulds and white moulds, technically known as theDematieiand theMucedines. In the first, the threads are more or less corticated, that is, the stem has a distinct investing membrane, which peels off like a bark; and the threads, often also the spores, are dark-coloured, as if charred or scorched. In many cases, the spores are highly developed, large, multiseptate, and nucleate, and seldomare spores and threads colourless or of bright tints. In theMucedines, on the contrary, the threads are never coated, seldom dingy, mostly white or of pure colours, and the spores have less a tendency to extra development or multiplex septation. In some genera, as inPeronosporafor instance,[P]a secondary fruit is produced in the form of resting spores from the mycelium; and these generate zoospores as well as the primary spores, similar to those common inAlgæ. This latter genus is very destructive to growing plants, one species being the chief agent in the potato disease, and another no less destructive to crops of onions. The vine disease is produced by a species ofOidium, which is also classed withMucedines, but which is really the conidiiferous form ofErysiphe. In other genera, the majority of species are developed on decaying plants, so that, with the exception of the two genera mentioned, theHyphomycetesexert a much less baneful influence on vegetation than theConiomycetes. The last section, including theSepedoniei, has been already cited as remarkable for the suppression of the threads, which are scarcely to be distinguished from the mycelium; the spores are profuse, nestling on the floccose mycelium; whilst in theTrichodermacei, the spores are invested by the threads, as if enclosed in a sort of false peridium. A summary of the characters of the family may therefore be thus briefly expressed:—
Filamentous; fertile threads naked, for the most part free or loosely compacted, simple or branched, bearing the spores at their apices, rarely more closely packed, so as to form a distinct common stem=Hyphomycetes.
Fig. 40.Fig. 40.—Rhopalomyces candidus.
Fig. 40.—Rhopalomyces candidus.
Having thus disposed of theSporifera, we must advert to the two families ofSporidiifera. As more closely related to theHyphomycetes, the first of these to be noticed is thePhysomycetes, in which there is no proper hymenium, and the threads proceeding from the mycelium bear vesicles containing an indefinite number of sporidia. The fertile threads are either free or only slightly felted. In the orderAntennariei, the threads are black and moniliform, more or less felted, bearing irregular sporangia. A common fungus namedZasmidium cellare, found in cellars, and incrusting old wine bottles, as with a blackened felt, belongs to this order. The larger and more highly-developed order,Mucorini, differs in the threads, which are simple or branched, being free, erect, and bearing the sporangia at the tips of the thread, or branches. Some of the species bear great external resemblance toMucedinesuntil the fruit is examined, when the fructifying heads, commonly globose or ovate, are found to be delicate transparent vesicles, enclosing a large number of minute sporidia; when mature, the sporangia burst and the sporidia are set free. In some species, it has long been known that a sort of conjugation takes place between opposite threads, which results in the formation of a sporangium.[Q]None of these species are destructive to vegetation, appearing only upon decaying, and not upon living, plants. A state approaching putrescence seems to be essential to their vigorous development. The following characters may be compared with those of the family preceding it:—
Filamentous, threads free or only slightly felted, bearing vesicles, which contain indefinite sporidia=Physomycetes.
Fig. 41.Fig. 41.—Mucor caninus.
Fig. 41.—Mucor caninus.
In the last family, theAscomycetes, we shall meet with a very great variety of forms, all agreeing in producing sporidia contained in certain cells called asci, which are produced from the hymenium. In some of these, the asci are evanescent, but in the greater number are permanent. InOnygenei, the receptacle is either club-shaped or somewhat globose, and theperidium is filled with branched threads, which produce asci of a very evanescent character, leaving the pulverulent sporidia to fill the central cavity. The species are all small, and singular for their habit of affecting animal substances, otherwise they are of little importance. ThePerisporiacei, on the other hand, are very destructive of vegetation, being produced, in the majority of cases, on the green parts of growing plants. To this order the hop mildew, rose mildew, and pea mildew belong. The mycelium is often very much developed, and in the case of the maple, pea, hop, and some others, it covers the parts attacked with a thick white coating, so that from a distance the leaves appear to have been whitewashed. Seated on the mycelium, at the first as little orange points, are the perithecia, which enlarge and become nearly black. In some species, very elegant whitish appendages radiate from the sides of the perithecia, the variations in which aid in the discrimination of species. The perithecia contain pear-shaped asci, which spring from the base and enclose a definite number of sporidia.[R]The asci themselves are soon dissolved. Simultaneously with the development of sporidia, other reproductive bodies are produced direct from the mycelium, and in some species as many as five different kinds of reproductive bodies have been traced. The features to be remembered inPerisporiacei, as forming the basis of their classification, are, that the asci are saccate, springing from the base of the perithecia, and are soon absorbed. Also that the perithecia themselves are not perforated at the apex.
The four remaining orders, though large, can be easily characterized. InTuberacei, all the species are subterranean, and the hymenium is mostly sinuated. InElvellacei, the substance is more or less fleshy, and the hymenium is exposed. InPhacidiacei, the substance is hard or leathery, and the hymenium is soon exposed. And inSphæriacei, although the substance is variable, the hymenium is never exposed, being enclosed in perithecia with a distinct opening at the apex, through which the mature spores escape. Each of these four orders must beexamined more in detail. TheTuberacei, or subterraneanAscomycetes, are analogous to theHypogæiof theGasteromycetes. The truffle is a familiar and highly prized example. There is a kind of outer peridium, and the interior consists of a fleshy hymenium, more or less convoluted, sometimes sinuous and confluent, so as to leave only minute elongated and irregular cavities, and sometimes none at all, the two opposing faces of the hymenium meeting and coalescing.[S]Certain privileged cells of the hymenium swell, and ultimately become asci, enclosing a definite number of sporidia. The sporidia in many cases are large, reticulated, echinulate or verrucose, and mostly somewhat globose. In the genusElaphomyces, the asci are more than commonly diffluent.
TheElvellaceiare fleshy in substance, or somewhat waxy, sometimes tremelloid. There is no peridium, but the hymenium is always exposed. There is a great variety of forms, some being pileate, and others cup-shaped, as there is also a great variation in size, from the minutePeziza, small as a grain of sand, to the largeHelvella gigas, which equals in dimensions the head of a child. In the pileate forms, the stroma is fleshy and highly developed; in the cup-shaped, it is reduced to the external cells of the cup which enclose the hymenium. The hymenium itself consists of elongated fertile cells, or asci, mixed with linear thread-like barren cells, called paraphyses, which are regarded by some authors as barren asci. These are placed side by side in juxtaposition with the apex outwards. Each ascus contains a definite number of sporidia, which are sometimes coloured. When mature, the asci explode above, and the sporidia may be seen escaping like a miniature cloud of smoke in the light of the mid-day sun. The disc or surface of the hymenium is often brightly coloured in the genusPeziza; tints of orange, red, and brown having the predominance.
InPhacidiacei, the substance is hard and leathery, intermediate between the fleshyElvellaceiand the more horny of theSphæriacei. The perithecia are either orbicular or elongated, and thehymenium soon becomes exposed. In some instances, there is a close affinity with theElvellacei, the exposed hymenium being similar in structure, but in all the disc is at first closed. In orbicular forms, the fissure takes place in a stellate manner from the centre, and the teeth are reflexed. In theHysteriacei, where the perithecia are elongated, the fissure takes place throughout their length. As a rule, the sporidia are more elongated, more commonly septate, and more usually coloured, than inElvellacei. Only a few solitary instances occur of individual species that are parasitic on living plants.
Fig. 42.Fig. 42.—Sphæria aquila.
Fig. 42.—Sphæria aquila.
In theSphæriacei, the substance of the stroma (when present) and of the perithecia is variable, being between fleshy and waxy inNectriei, and tough, horny, sometimes brittle, inHypoxylon. A perithecium, or cell excavated in the stroma which fulfils the functions of a perithecium, is always present. The hymenium lines the inner walls of the perithecium, and forms a gelatinous nucleus, consisting of asci and paraphyses. When fully mature, the asci are ruptured and the sporidia escape by a pore which occupies the apex of the perithecium. Sometimes the perithecia are solitary or scattered, and sometimes gregarious, whilst in other instances they are closely aggregated and immersed in a stroma of variable size and form. Conidia, spermatia, pycnidia, &c., have been traced to and associated with some species, but the history of others is still obscure. Many of the coniomycetous forms grouped under theSphæronemeiare probably conditions of theSphæriacei, as are also theMelanconiei, and some of theHyphomycetes. A very common fungus, for instance, which is abundant on sticks and twigs, forming rosy or reddish pustules the size of a millet seed, formerly namedTubercularia vulgaris, is known to be the conidia-bearing stroma of the sphæriaceous fungus,Nectria cinnabarina;[T]and sowith many others. The following are the technical characters of the family:—
Fruit consisting of sporidia, mostly definite, contained in asci, springing from a naked or enclosed stratum of fructifying cells and forming a hymenium or nucleus=Ascomycetes.
If the characters of the different families are borne in mind, there will be but little difficulty in assigning any fungus to the order to which it belongs by means of the foregoing remarks. For more minute information, and for analytical tables of the families, orders, and genera, we must refer the student to some special systematic work, which will present fewer difficulties, if he keeps in mind the distinctive features of the families.[U]
To assist in this we have given on the following page an analytical arrangement of the families and orders, according to the system recognized and adopted in the present volume. It is, in all essential particulars, the method adopted in our “Handbook,” based on that of Berkeley’s “Introduction” and “Outlines.”
[A]Rev. M. J. Berkeley, “Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany” (1857), London, pp. 235 to 372.[B]De Bary, in “Streinz Nomenclator Fungorum,” p. 722.[C]Tulasne, L. and C. R., “Observations sur l’Organisation des Trémellinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1853, xix. p. 193.[D]Berkeley, M. J., “On the Fructification ofLycoperdon,Phallus, and their Allied Genera,” in “Ann. of Nat. Hist.” (1840), vol. iv. p. 155; “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1839), xii. p. 163. Tulasne, L. R. and C., “De la Fructification desSclérodermacomparée à celle desLycoperdonet desBovista,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 2mesér. xvii. p. 5.[E]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Fungi Hypogæi,” Paris, 1851; “Observations sur le Genre Elaphomyces,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1841, xvi. 5.[F]Stapeliæin this respect approach most closely to thePhalloidei.[G]Berkeley, in “Ann. Nat. Hist.” vol. iv. p. 155.[H]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Recherches sur l’Organisation et le Mode de Fructification des Nidulariées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1844), i. p. 41.[I]De Bary, A., “Des Myxomycètes,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 4mesér. xi. p. 153; “Bot. Zeit.” xvi. p. 357.[J]Corda, “Icones Fungorum,” vol. iii. fig. 45.[K]Tulasne, “Mémoire sur les Ustilaginées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1847), vii. 12–73.[L]Tulasne, “Mémoire sur les Urédinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1854), ii. 78.[M]Tulasne, “Sur les Urédinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1854, ii. pl. 9.[N]Cooke, M. C., “Notes onPodisoma,” in “Journ. Quek. Micr. Club,” No. 17 (1871), p. 255.[O]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Selecta Fungorum Carpologia,” vol. iii. pp. 4–19.[P]De Bary, A., “Recherches sur les Champignons Parasites,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 4mesér. xx. p. 5; “Grevillea,” vol. i. p. 150.[Q]A. de Bary, translated in “Grevillea,” vol. i. p. 167; Tulasne, “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 5mesér. (1866), p. 211.[R]Léveillé, J. H., “Organisation, &c., de l‘Érysiphé,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1851), xv. p. 109.[S]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Fungi Hypogæi,” Paris; Vittadini, C., “Monographia Tuberacearum,” Milan, 1831.[T]“A Currant Twig and Something on it,” in “Gardener’s Chronicle” for January 28, 1871.[U]Berkeley, M. J., “Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany,” London, 1857; Cooke, M. C., “Handbook of British Fungi,” London, 1871 ; Corda, A. C. J., “Anleitung zum Studium der Mycologie,” Prag, 1842; Kickx, J., “Flore Cryptogamique des Flanders,” Gand, 1867; Fries, E., “Systema Mycologicum,” Lund, 1830; Fries, E., “Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviæ,” 1846; Secretan, L., “Mycographie Suisse,” Geneva, 1833; Berkeley, M. J., “Outlines of British Fungology,” London, 1860.
[A]Rev. M. J. Berkeley, “Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany” (1857), London, pp. 235 to 372.
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, “Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany” (1857), London, pp. 235 to 372.
[B]De Bary, in “Streinz Nomenclator Fungorum,” p. 722.
De Bary, in “Streinz Nomenclator Fungorum,” p. 722.
[C]Tulasne, L. and C. R., “Observations sur l’Organisation des Trémellinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1853, xix. p. 193.
Tulasne, L. and C. R., “Observations sur l’Organisation des Trémellinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1853, xix. p. 193.
[D]Berkeley, M. J., “On the Fructification ofLycoperdon,Phallus, and their Allied Genera,” in “Ann. of Nat. Hist.” (1840), vol. iv. p. 155; “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1839), xii. p. 163. Tulasne, L. R. and C., “De la Fructification desSclérodermacomparée à celle desLycoperdonet desBovista,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 2mesér. xvii. p. 5.
Berkeley, M. J., “On the Fructification ofLycoperdon,Phallus, and their Allied Genera,” in “Ann. of Nat. Hist.” (1840), vol. iv. p. 155; “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1839), xii. p. 163. Tulasne, L. R. and C., “De la Fructification desSclérodermacomparée à celle desLycoperdonet desBovista,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 2mesér. xvii. p. 5.
[E]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Fungi Hypogæi,” Paris, 1851; “Observations sur le Genre Elaphomyces,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1841, xvi. 5.
Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Fungi Hypogæi,” Paris, 1851; “Observations sur le Genre Elaphomyces,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1841, xvi. 5.
[F]Stapeliæin this respect approach most closely to thePhalloidei.
Stapeliæin this respect approach most closely to thePhalloidei.
[G]Berkeley, in “Ann. Nat. Hist.” vol. iv. p. 155.
Berkeley, in “Ann. Nat. Hist.” vol. iv. p. 155.
[H]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Recherches sur l’Organisation et le Mode de Fructification des Nidulariées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1844), i. p. 41.
Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Recherches sur l’Organisation et le Mode de Fructification des Nidulariées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1844), i. p. 41.
[I]De Bary, A., “Des Myxomycètes,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 4mesér. xi. p. 153; “Bot. Zeit.” xvi. p. 357.
De Bary, A., “Des Myxomycètes,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 4mesér. xi. p. 153; “Bot. Zeit.” xvi. p. 357.
[J]Corda, “Icones Fungorum,” vol. iii. fig. 45.
Corda, “Icones Fungorum,” vol. iii. fig. 45.
[K]Tulasne, “Mémoire sur les Ustilaginées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1847), vii. 12–73.
Tulasne, “Mémoire sur les Ustilaginées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1847), vii. 12–73.
[L]Tulasne, “Mémoire sur les Urédinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1854), ii. 78.
Tulasne, “Mémoire sur les Urédinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1854), ii. 78.
[M]Tulasne, “Sur les Urédinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1854, ii. pl. 9.
Tulasne, “Sur les Urédinées,” “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 1854, ii. pl. 9.
[N]Cooke, M. C., “Notes onPodisoma,” in “Journ. Quek. Micr. Club,” No. 17 (1871), p. 255.
Cooke, M. C., “Notes onPodisoma,” in “Journ. Quek. Micr. Club,” No. 17 (1871), p. 255.
[O]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Selecta Fungorum Carpologia,” vol. iii. pp. 4–19.
Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Selecta Fungorum Carpologia,” vol. iii. pp. 4–19.
[P]De Bary, A., “Recherches sur les Champignons Parasites,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 4mesér. xx. p. 5; “Grevillea,” vol. i. p. 150.
De Bary, A., “Recherches sur les Champignons Parasites,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 4mesér. xx. p. 5; “Grevillea,” vol. i. p. 150.
[Q]A. de Bary, translated in “Grevillea,” vol. i. p. 167; Tulasne, “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 5mesér. (1866), p. 211.
A. de Bary, translated in “Grevillea,” vol. i. p. 167; Tulasne, “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” 5mesér. (1866), p. 211.
[R]Léveillé, J. H., “Organisation, &c., de l‘Érysiphé,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1851), xv. p. 109.
Léveillé, J. H., “Organisation, &c., de l‘Érysiphé,” in “Ann. des Sci. Nat.” (1851), xv. p. 109.
[S]Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Fungi Hypogæi,” Paris; Vittadini, C., “Monographia Tuberacearum,” Milan, 1831.
Tulasne, L. R. and C., “Fungi Hypogæi,” Paris; Vittadini, C., “Monographia Tuberacearum,” Milan, 1831.
[T]“A Currant Twig and Something on it,” in “Gardener’s Chronicle” for January 28, 1871.
“A Currant Twig and Something on it,” in “Gardener’s Chronicle” for January 28, 1871.
[U]Berkeley, M. J., “Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany,” London, 1857; Cooke, M. C., “Handbook of British Fungi,” London, 1871 ; Corda, A. C. J., “Anleitung zum Studium der Mycologie,” Prag, 1842; Kickx, J., “Flore Cryptogamique des Flanders,” Gand, 1867; Fries, E., “Systema Mycologicum,” Lund, 1830; Fries, E., “Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviæ,” 1846; Secretan, L., “Mycographie Suisse,” Geneva, 1833; Berkeley, M. J., “Outlines of British Fungology,” London, 1860.
Berkeley, M. J., “Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany,” London, 1857; Cooke, M. C., “Handbook of British Fungi,” London, 1871 ; Corda, A. C. J., “Anleitung zum Studium der Mycologie,” Prag, 1842; Kickx, J., “Flore Cryptogamique des Flanders,” Gand, 1867; Fries, E., “Systema Mycologicum,” Lund, 1830; Fries, E., “Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviæ,” 1846; Secretan, L., “Mycographie Suisse,” Geneva, 1833; Berkeley, M. J., “Outlines of British Fungology,” London, 1860.
TABULAR ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES AND ORDERS.
IV.USES.
The rigid utilitarian will hardly be satisfied with the short catalogue which can be furnished of the uses of fungi. Excepting those which are employed more or less for human food, very few are of any practical value in arts or medicine. It is true that imperfect conditions of fungi exert a very important influence on fermentation, and thus become useful; but, unfortunately, fungi have the reputation of being more destructive and offensive than valuable or useful. Notwithstanding that a large number of species have from time to time been enumerated as edible, yet those commonly employed and recognized are very few in number, prejudice in many cases, and fear in others, militating strongly against additions to the number. In Great Britain this is especially the case, and however advisable it may be to exercise great care and caution in experimenting on untried or doubtful species, it can only be regarded as prejudice which prevents good, in fact, excellent, esculent species being more extensively used, instead of allowing them to rot by thousands on the spots where they have grown. Poisonous species are also plentiful, and no golden rule can be established by means of which any one may detect at a glance good from bad, without that kind of knowledge which is applied to the discrimination of species. Yet, after all, the characters of half a dozen good esculent fungi are acquired as easily as the distinctions between half a dozen birds such as any ploughboy can discriminate.
The common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) is the bestknown esculent, whether in its uncultivated or in a cultivated state. In Britain many thousands of people, notably the lower classes, will not recognize any other as fit for food, whilst in Italy the same classes have a strong prejudice against this very species.[A]In Vienna, we found by personal experience that, although many others are eaten, it is this which has the most universal preference, yet it appears but sparingly in the markets as compared with others. In Hungary it does not enjoy by any means so good a reputation. In France and in Germany it is a common article of consumption. The different varieties found, as the results of cultivation, present some variation in colour, scaliness of pileus, and other minor features, whilst remaining true to the constituent characters of the species. Although it is not our intention to enumerate here the botanical distinctions of the species to which we may call attention, yet, as mistakes (sometimes fatal) are often being recorded, in which other fungi are confounded with this, we may be permitted a hint or two which should be remembered. The spores are purple, the gills are at first delicate pink, afterwards purple; there is a permanent ring or collar round the stem, and it mustnotbe sought in woods. Many accidents might have been spared had these facts been remembered.
The meadow mushroom (Agaricus arvensis) is common in meadows and lowland pastures, and is usually of a larger size than the preceding, with which it agrees in many particulars, and is sent in enormous quantities to Covent Garden, where it frequently predominates overAgaricus campestris. Some persons prefer this, which has a stronger flavour, to the ordinary mushroom, and it is the species most commonly sold in the autumn in the streets of London and provincial towns. According to Persoon, it is preferred in France; and, in Hungary, it is considered as a special gift from St. George. It has acquired in England the name of horse mushroom, from the enormous sizeit sometimes attains. Withering mentions a specimen that weighed fourteen pounds.[B]
One of the commonest (in our experience themostcommon) of all edible fungi in the public markets of Vienna is the Hallimasche (Agaricus melleus), which in England enjoys no good reputation for flavour or quality; indeed, Dr. Badham calls it “nauseous and disagreeable,” and adds that “not to be poisonous is its only recommendation.” In Vienna it is employed chiefly for making sauce; but we must confess that even in this way, and with a prejudice in favour of Viennese cookery, our experience of it was not satisfactory. It is at best a sorry substitute for the mushroom. In the summer and autumn this is a very common species in large tufts on old stumps. In similar localities, and also in tufts, but neither so large, nor so common,Agaricus fusipesis found. It is preferable to the foregoing as an esculent, and is easily recognized by the spindle-shaped stem.
Agaricus rubescens, P., belongs to a very suspicious group of fungi, in which the cap or pileus is commonly studded or sprinkled with paler warts, the remains of an investing volva. To this group the poisonous but splendid fly-agaric (Agaricus muscarius) belongs. Notwithstanding its bad company, this agaric has a good reputation, especially for making ketchup; and Cordier reports it as one of the most delicate mushrooms of the Lorraine.[C]Its name is derived from its tendency to become red when bruised.
The white variety of an allied species (Agaricus vaginatus) has been commended, and Dr. Badham says that it will be found inferior to but few agarics in flavour.
A scaly-capped fungus (Agaricus procerus), with a slender stem, called sometimes the parasol mushroom, from its habit, is an esteemed esculent. In Italy and France it is in high request,and is included in the majority of continental works on the edible fungi.[D]In Austria, Germany, and Spain, it has special “vulgar” names, and is eaten in all these countries. It is much more collected in England than formerly, but deserves to be still better known. When once seen it can scarcely be confounded with any other British species, save one of its nearest allies, which partakes of its own good qualities (Agaricus rachodes), though not quite so good.
Agaricus prunulus, Scop., andAgaricus orcella, Badh., if they be not forms of the same species (which Dr. Bull contends that they are not[E]), have also a good reputation as esculents. They are both neat, white agarics, with a mealy odour, growing respectively in woods and open glades.Agaricus nebularis, Batsch, is a much larger species, found in woods, often in large gregarious patches amongst dead leaves, with a smoky mouse-coloured pileus, and profuse white spores. It is sometimes as much as five or six inches in diameter, with rather a faint odour and mild taste. On the continent, as well as in Britain, this is included amongst edible fungi. Still larger and more imposing is the magnificent white species,Agaricus maximus, Fr.,[F]which is figured by Sowerby,[G]under the name ofAgaricus giganteus. It will attain a diameter of fourteen inches, with a stem, two inches thick, and rather a strong odour.
A spring fungus, the true St. George’s mushroom,Agaricus gambosus, Fr., makes its appearance in pastures, usually growing in rings, in May and June, and is welcome to mycophagists from its early growth, when esculent species are rare. It is highly esteemed in France and Italy, so that when dried it will realize as much as from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound. Guillarmod includes it amongst Swiss esculents.[H]Professor Buckmansays that it is one of the earliest and best of English mushrooms, and others have endorsed his opinions, and Dr. Badham in writing of it observes, that small baskets of them, when they first appear in the spring in Italy, are sent as “presents to lawyers and fees to medical men.”
The closely allied species,Agaricus albellus,[I]D.C., has also the reputation of being edible, but it is so rare in England that this quality cannot be put to the test. The curious short-stemmedAgaricus brevipes, Bull,[J]has a similar reputation.
Two singularly fragrant species are also included amongst the esculent. These areAgaricus fragrans, Sow., andAgaricus odorus, Bull. Both have a sweet anise-like odour, which is persistent for a long time. The former is pale tawny-coloured, nearly white, the latter of a dirty pale green. Both are white-spored, and although somewhat local, sufficient specimens ofAg. odorusmay be collected in the autumn for domestic use. We have the assurance of one who has often proved them that they constitute an exquisite dish.
A clear ivory-white fungus,Agaricus dealbatus, of which a crisped variety is occasionally found in great numbers, springing up on old mushroom beds in dense clusters, is very good eating, but rather deficient in the delicate aroma of some other species. The typical form is not uncommon on the ground in fir plantations. A more robust and larger species,Agaricus geotrupes, Bull, found on the borders of woods, often forming rings, both in this country and in the United States, as well as on the continent of Europe, is recognized as esculent.
We may add to these three or four other species, in which the stem is lateral, and sometimes nearly obsolete. The largest and most common is the oyster mushroom (Agaricus ostreatus, Jacq.[K]), so universally eaten, that it is included in almost every list and book on edible fungi; it is the most common species inTransylvania, tons of it sometimes appearing in the markets. It does not possess that delicate flavour which is found in many species, and although extolled by some beyond its merits, it is nevertheless perfectly wholesome, and, when young and carefully cooked, not to be despised. It must not be confounded with a very similar species (Agaricus euosmus, B.), with rosy spores, which is unpleasant.Agaricus tessellatus, Bull,Agaricus pometi, Fr.,Agaricus glandulosus, Bull, are all allies of the foregoing, and recorded as edible in the United States, although not one of the three has hitherto been recorded as occurring in Great Britain. To these may also be added the following:—Agaricus salignus,[L]Fr., which is rare in England, but not uncommon abroad and in the United States. In Austria it is commonly eaten.Agaricus ulmarius,[M]Bull, is common on elm trunks, not only in Britain but also in North America, and is by some preferred to the oyster mushroom. An allied species,Agaricus fossulatus, Cooke,[N]is found on the Cabul Hills, where it is collected, dried, and forms an article of commerce with the plains. Another, but smaller species, is dried in the air on strings passed through a hole in the short stem (Agaricus subocreatus, Cooke), and sent, it is believed, from China to Singapore.
The smallest species with which we have any acquaintance, that is edible, is the “nail fungus” (Agaricus esculentus,[O]Jacq.), scarcely exceeding one inch in diameter of the pileus, with a thin rooting stem. The taste in British specimens when raw is bitter and unpleasant, but it is clearly eaten in Austria, as its name testifies, and elsewhere in Europe. It is found in fir plantations in the spring, at which season it is collected from the fir woods around and sent to Vienna, where it is only used for flavouring sauces under the name of “Nagelschwämme.”
Before quitting the group of true agarics, to which all hitherto enumerated belong, we must mention a few others of less importance, but which are included amongst those good forfood. Foremost of these is a really splendid orange species (Agaricus cæsarius, Scop.[P]), which belongs to the same subgenus as the very deleterious fly-agaric, and the scarcely less fatalAgaricus vernus, Bull. It is universally eaten on the continent, but has hitherto never been found in Great Britain. In the same subgenus,Agaricus strobiliformis,[Q]Fr., which is rare in this country, and probably alsoAgaricus Ceciliæ, B. & Br.[R]Besides these,Agaricus excoriatus, Schæff.,Agaricus mastoideus, Fr.,Agaricus gracilentus, Kromb., andAgaricus holosericeus, Fr.,[S]all belonging to the same subgenus as the parasol mushroom, more or less uncommon in England.
Although the larger number of esculent agarics are white-spored, some few, worthy of note, will be found in the other sections, and notably amongst these the common mushroom and its congener the meadow, or horse mushroom. In addition to those already enumerated, might be included also theAgaricus pudicus, Bull, which is certainly wholesome, as well as its ally,Agaricus leochromus, Cooke,[T]both of which have rusty spores.
The late Dr. Curtis,[U]in a letter to the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, enumerates several of the fungi which are edible amongst those found in the United States. Of these, he says,Agaricus amygdalinus, Curt., can scarcely be distinguished when cooked from the common mushroom.Agaricus frumentaceus, Bull, and three allied new species, peculiar to the United States, are commended.Agaricus cæspitosus, Curt., he says, is found in enormous quantities, a single cluster containing from fifty to one hundred stems, and might well be deemed a valuable species in times of scarcity. It would not be highly esteemed where other and better species can be had, but it is generally preferred toAgaricus melleus, Fr. It is suitable for drying for winter use. In the same communication, he observes that the imperial (Agaricus cæsarius, Scop.),grows in great quantities in oak forests, and may be obtained by the cart-load in its season; but to his taste, and that of his family, it is the most unpalatable of fungi, nor could he find any of the most passionate mycophagists who would avow that they liked it. There is a disagreeable saline flavour that they could not remove nor overlay. In addition to these, the same authority enumeratesAgaricus russula, Schæff.,Agaricus hypopithyus, Curt., andAgaricus consociatus, Curt., the latter two being confined to the United States;Agaricus columbetta, Fr., found in Britain, but not eaten, as well asAgaricus radicatus, Bull.Agaricus bombycinus, Schæff., andAgaricus speciosus, Fr., are found in Britain, but by no means common;Agaricus squarrosus, Mull., has always been regarded with great suspicion in this country, where it is by no means uncommon;Agaricus cretaceus, Fr., andAgaricus sylvaticus, Schæff., are close allies of the common mushroom.
Dr. Curtis says that hill and plain, mountain and valley, woods, fields, and pastures, swarm with a profusion of good nutritious fungi, which are allowed to decay where they spring up, because people do not know how, or are afraid, to use them. By those of us who know their use, their value was appreciated, as never before, during the late war, when other food, especially meat, was scarce and dear. Then such persons as I have heard express a preference for mushrooms over meat had generally no need to lack grateful food, as it was easily had for the gathering, and within easy distance of their homes if living in the country. Such was not always the case, however. I remember once, during the gloomy period when there had been a protracted drought, and fleshy fungi were to be found only in damp shaded woods, and but few even there, I was unable to find enough of any one species for a meal, so, gathering of every kind, I brought home thirteen different kinds, had them all cooked together in one grandpot pourri, and made an excellent supper.
One important use to which several species of fungi can be applied, is the manufacture of ketchup. For this purpose, not only is the mushroom,Agaricus campestris, and the horse mushroom,Agaricus arvensis, available, but alsoAgaricus rubescensis declared to be excellent for the purpose, and a delicious, but pale, extract is to be obtained fromMarasmius oreades. Other species, asCoprinus comatus, andCoprinus atramentarius, are also available, together withFistulina hepatica, andMorchella esculenta. In some districts, when mushrooms are scarce, it is stated that almost any species that will yield a dark juice is without scruple mixed with the common mushroom, and it should seem without any bad consequence except the deterioration of the ketchup.[V]There is an extensive manufacture of ketchup conducted at Lubbenham, near Market Harborough, but the great difficulty appears to be the prevention of decomposition. Messrs. Perkins receive tons of mushrooms from every part of the kingdom, and they find, even in the same species, an immense difference in the quality and quantity of the produce. The price of mushrooms varies greatly with the season, ranging between one penny and sixpence per pound. Messrs. Perkins are very careful in their selection, but little discrimination is used by country manufacturers on a small scale, who use such doubtful species asAgaricus lacrymabundus, withAgaricus spadiceus, and a host of allied species, which they characterize as nonpareils and champignons. In the eastern countiesAgaricus arvensishas the preference for ketchup.
The generic distinctions between the genuine Agarics and some of the allied genera can hardly be appreciated by the non-botanical reader, but we have nevertheless preferred grouping the edible species together in a somewhat botanical order; and, pursuing this plan, the next species will be those ofCoprinus, in which the gills are deliquescent after the plant has arrived at maturity. The maned mushroom (Coprinus comatus, Fr.)[W]is the best of edible species in this group. It is very common here by roadsides and other places, and whilst still young and cylindrical, and the gills still whitish or with a roseate tint, it is highly to be commended. Similar, but perhaps somewhat inferior, isCoprinus atramentarius, Fr.,[X]equally common aboutold stumps and on the naked soil. Both species are also found and eaten in the United States.
InCortinarius, the veil is composed of arachnoid threads, and the spores are rusty. The number of edible species are few. Foremost is the really handsomeCortinarius violaeus, Fr.,[Y]often nearly four inches in diameter, and of a beautiful violet colour; and the smallerCortinarius castaneus, Fr.,[Z]scarcely exceeding an inch in diameter, both being found in woods, and common alike to Britain and the United States.Cortinarius cinnamomeus, Fr., is also a lover of woods, and in northern latitudes is found inhabiting them everywhere. It has a cinnamon-coloured pileus, with yellowish flesh, and its odour and flavour is said to partake of the same spice. In Germany it is held in high esteem.Cortinarius emodensis, B., is eaten in Northern India.
The small genusLepistaof Smith, (which, however, is not adopted by Fries in his now edition of the “Epicrisis”) includes one esculent species inLepista personata, theAgaricus personatusof Fries.[a]It is by no means uncommon in Northern Europe or America, frequently growing in large rings; the pileus is pallid, and the stem stained with lilac. Formerly it was said to be sold in Covent Garden Market under the name of “blewits,” but we have failed to see or hear of it during many years in London.
Small fungi of ivory-whiteness are very common amongst grass on lawns in autumn. These are chieflyHygrophorus virgineus, Fr.,[b]and although not much exceeding an inch in diameter, with a short stem, and wide decurrent gills, they are so plentiful in season that quantity soon compensates for the small size. Except that it is occasionally eaten in France, it does not enjoy much reputation abroad. A larger species, varying from buff to orange,Hygrophorus pratensis, Fr.,[c]is scarcely less common in open pastures. This is very gregarious in habit,often growing in tufts, or portions of rings. The pileus is fleshy in the centre, and the gills thick and decurrent. In France, Germany, Bohemia, and Denmark, it is included with esculent species. In addition may be mentionedHygrophorus eburneus, Fr., another white species, as alsoHygrophorus niveus, Fr., which grows in mossy pastures.Paxillus involutus, Fr.,[d]though very common in Europe, is not eaten, yet it is included by Dr. Curtis with the esculent species of the United States.
The milky agarics, belonging to the genusLactarius, are distinguished by the milky juice which is exuded when they are wounded. The spores are more or less globose, and rough or echinulate, at least in many species. The most notable esculent isLactarius deliciosus, Fr.,[e]in which the milk is at first saffron-red, and afterwards greenish, the plant assuming a lurid greenish hue wherever bruised or broken. Universal commendation seems to fall upon this species, writers vying with each other to say the best in its praise, and mycophagists everywhere endorsing the assumption of its name, declaring it to be delicious. It is found in the markets of Paris, Berlin, Prague, and Vienna, as we are informed, and in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Russia, Belgium; in fact, in nearly all countries in Europe it is esteemed.
Another esculent species,Lactarius volemum, Fr.,[f]has white milk, which is mild to the taste, whilst in deleterious species with white milk it is pungent and acrid. This species has been celebrated from early times, and is said to resemble lamb’s kidney.
Lactarius piperatus, Fr., is classed in England with dangerous, sometimes poisonous species, whereas the late Dr. Curtis, of North Carolina, has distinctly informed us that it is cooked and eaten in the United States, and that he has partaken of it. He includesLactarius insulsus, Fr., andLactarius subdulcis, Fr.,[g]amongst esculent species; both are also found in this country,but not reputed as edible; andLactarius angustissimus, Lasch, which is not British. Species ofLactariusseem to be eaten almost indiscriminately in Russia when preserved in vinegar and salt, in which condition they form an important item in the kinds of food allowed in their long fasts, someBoletiin the dried state entering into the same category.
The species ofRussulain many respects resembleLactariiwithout milk. Some of them are dangerous, and others esculent. Amongst the latter may be enumeratedRussula heterophylla, Fr., which is very common in woods. Vittadini pronounces it unsurpassed for fineness of flavour by even the notableAmanita cæsarea.[h]Roques gives also an account in its favour as consumed in France. Both these authors give favourable accounts ofRussula virescens, P.,[i]which the peasants about Milan are in the habit of putting over wood embers to toast, and eating afterwards with a little salt. Unfortunately it is by no means common in England. A third species ofRussula, with buff-yellow gills, isRussula alutacea, Fr., which is by no means to be despised, notwithstanding that Dr. Badham has placed it amongst species to be avoided. Three or four others have also the merit of being harmless, and these recorded as esculent by some one or more mycological authors:Russula lactea, Fr., a white species, found also in the United States;Russula lepida, Fr., a roseate species, found also in lower Carolina, U.S.; and another reddish species,Russula vesca, Fr., as well asRussula decolorans, Fr. Whilst writing of this genus, we may observe, by way of caution, that it includes also one very noxious red species,Russula emetica, Fr., with white gills, with which some of the foregoing might be confounded by inexperienced persons.
The chantarelleCantharellus cibarius, Fr., has a most charming and enticing appearance and odour. In colour, it is of a bright golden yellow, and its smell has been compared to that of ripe apricots. It is almost universally eaten in all countrieswhere it is found, England excepted, where it is only to be met with at the “Freemason’s Tavern” on state occasions, and at the tables of pertinacious mycophagists.[j]Trattinnick says: “Not only this same fungus never did any one harm, but might even restore the dead.”[k]
The fairy-ring champignonMarasmius oreades, Fr., though small, is plentiful, and one of the most delicious of edible fungi. It grows in exposed pastures, forming rings, or parts of rings. This champignon possesses the advantage of drying readily, and preserving its aroma for a long time. We have often regretted that no persistent attempts and experiments have been made with the view of cultivating this excellent and useful species.Marasmius scorodonius, Fr.,[l]a small, strong-scented, and in all respects inferior species, found on heaths and dry pastures, extending even to the United States, is consumed in Germany, Austria, and other continental countries, where, perhaps its garlic odour has been one of its recommendations as an ingredient in sauces. In this enumeration we have not exhausted all the gill-bearing species which might be eaten, having included only those which have some reputation as esculents, and of these more particularly those found in Great Britain and the United States.
Amongst thePolyporei, in which the gill plates are represented by pores or tubes, fewer esculent species are to be met with than in theAgaricini, and the majority of these belong to the genusBoletus. Whilst in Vienna and Hanover, we were rather surprised to findBoletus edulis, Fr., cut into thin slices and dried, exposed for sale in almost every shop where meal, peas, and other farinaceous edibles were sold. This species is common enough in England, but as a rule it does not seem to please the English palate, whereas on the continent no fungus is more commonly eaten. This is believed to be the suillus eaten by the ancient Romans,[m]who obtained it from Bithynia. Themodern Italians dry them on strings for winter use, and in Hungary a soup is made from them when fresh. A more excellent species, according to our judgment, isBoletus æstivalis, Fr.,[n]which appears in early summer, and has a peculiar nutty flavour when raw, reminding one more of a fresh mushroom.Boletus scaber, Fr.,[o]is also common in Britain, as well as the continent, but does not enjoy so good a reputation asB. edulis. Krombholz says thatBoletus bovinus, Fr., a gregarious species, found on heaths and in fir woods, is much sought after abroad as a dish, and is good when dried.Boletus castaneus, Fr.,[p]is a small species with a mild, pleasant taste when raw, and very good when properly cooked. It is not uncommonly eaten on the continent.Boletus chrysenteron, Fr.,[q]andBoletus subtomentosus, Fr., are said to be very poor eating, and some authors have considered them injurious; but Mr. W. G. Smith states that he has on more than one occasion eaten the former, and Trattinnick states that the latter is eaten in Germany. The late Mr. Salter informed us that, when employed on the geological staff, he at one time lived almost entirely on different species of Boleti, without using much discrimination. Sir W. C. Trevelyan also informs us that he has eatenBoletus luriduswithout any unpleasant consequences, but we confess that we should be sorry to repeat the experiment. Dr. Badham remarks that he has eatenBoletus Grevillei, B.,Boletus flavus, With., andBoletus granulatus, L., the latter being recognized also as edible abroad. Dr. Curtis experimented, in the United States, onBoletus collinitus, and although he professes not to be particularly fond of the Boleti, he recognizes it as esculent, and adds that it had been pronounced delicious by some to whom he had sent it. He also enumerates as edibleBoletus luteus, Fr.,Boletus elegans, Fr.,Boletus flavidus, Fr.,Boletus versipellis, Fr.,Boletus leucomelas, Tr., andBoletus ovinus, Sch. Two Italian species ofPolyporusmust not be forgotten. These arePolyporus tuberaster, Pers.,which is procured by watering thepietra funghaia, or fungus stone, a kind of tufa, in which the mycelium is embedded. It is confined to Naples. The other species isPolyporus corylinus, Mauri., procured artificially in Rome from charred stumps of the cob-nut tree.[r]
Of truePolyporus, only two or three species have been regarded favourably as esculents. These are—Polyporus intybaceus, Fr., which is of very large size, sometimes attaining as much as forty pounds;Polyporus giganteus, Fr., also very large, and leathery when old. Both these species are natives of Britain. Only young and juicy specimens must be selected for cooking.Polyporus umbellatus, Fr., is stated by Fries to be esculent, but it is not found in Britain.Polyporus squamosus, Fr., has been also included; but Mrs. Hussey thinks that one might as well think of eating saddle-flaps. None of these receive very much commendation. Dr. Curtis enumerates, amongst North American species, thePolyporus cristatus, Fr.,Polyporus poripes, Fr., which, when raw, tastes like the best chestnuts or filberts, but is rather too dry when cooked.Polyporus Berkeleii, Fr., is intensely pungent when raw, but when young, and before the pores are visible, it may be eaten with impunity, all its pungency being dissipated by cooking.Polyporus confluens, Fr., he considers superior, and, in fact, quite a favourite.Polyporus sulfureus, Fr., which is not eaten in Europe, he considers just tolerably safe, but not to be coveted. It is by no means to be recommended to persons with weak stomachs. In his catalogue, Dr. Curtis enumerates one hundred and eleven species of edible fungi found in Carolina.[s]
WithFistulina hepatica, Fr., it is different; for here we encounter a fleshy, juicy fungus, resembling beefsteak a little in appearance, and so much more in its uses, that the name of “beefsteak fungus” has been given to it. Some authors are rapturous in their praise ofFistulina. It sometimes attains a very large size, Dr. Badham quoting[t]one found by himselfnearly five feet in circumference, and weighing eight pounds; whilst another found by Mr. Graves weighed nearly thirty pounds. In Vienna it is sliced and eaten with salad, like beetroot, which it then much resembles. On the continent it is everywhere included amongst the best of edible species.
TheHydnei, instead of pores or tubes, are characterized by spines or warts, over which the fructifying surface is expanded. The most common isHydnum repandum, Fr., found in woods and woody places in England, and on the continent, extending into the United States. When raw, it is peppery to the taste, but when cooked is much esteemed. From its drier nature, it can readily be dried for winter use. Less common in England isHydnum imbricatum, Fr., although not so uncommon on the continent. It is eaten in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, France, and elsewhere.Hydnum lævigatum, Swartz, is eaten in Alpine districts.[u]Of the branched species,Hydnum coralloides, Scop.,[v]andHydnum Caput Medusæ, Bull,[w]are esculent, but very rare in England. The latter is not uncommon in Austria and Italy, the former in Germany, Switzerland, and France.Hydnum erinaceum, Bull, is eaten in Germany[x]and France.
The Clavarioid fungi are mostly small, but of these the majority of the white-spored are edible.Clavaria rugosa, Bull, is a common British species, as also isClavaria coralloides, L., the former being found also in the United States.Clavaria fastigiata, D. C., is not uncommon; butClavaria amethystina, Bull, a beautiful violet species, is rare. In France and Italy,Clavaria cinerea, Bull, is classed with esculents; and it is not uncommon in Britain.Clavaria botrytis, P., andClavaria aurea, Schæff., are large and beautiful species, but rare with us; they extend also into the United States. Others might be named (Dr. Curtis enumerates thirteen species eaten in Carolina), which arecertainly wholesome, but they are of little importance as edible species.Sparassis crispa, Fr., is, on the contrary, very large, resembling in size,[y]and somewhat in appearance, a cauliflower; it has of late years been found several times in this country. In Austria it is fricasseed with butter and herbs.
Of the true Tremellæ, none merit insertion here. The curious Jew’s ear (Hirneola auricula-Judæ, Fr.), with one or two other species ofHirneola, are collected in great quantities in Tahiti, and shipped in a dried state to China, where they are used for soup. Some of these find their way to Singapore.
The false truffles (Hypogæi) are of doubtful value, one species (Melanogaster variegatus, Tul.) having formerly been sold in the markets of Bath as a substitute for the genuine truffle.[z]Neither amongst thePhalloideido we meet with species of any economic value. The gelatinous volva of a species ofIleodictyonis eaten by the New Zealanders, to whom it is known as thunder dirt; whilst that ofPhallus Mokusinis applied to a like purpose in China;[AA]but these examples would not lead us to recommend a similar use forPhallus impudicus, Fr., in Britain, or induce us to prove the assertion of a Scotch friend that the porous stem is very good eating.
One species of puff-ball,Lycoperdon giganteum, Fr,[AB]has many staunch advocates, and whilst young and cream-like, it is, when well manipulated, an excellent addition to the breakfast-table. A decided advantage is possessed by this species, since one specimen is often found large enough to satisfy the appetites of ten or twelve persons. Other species ofLycoperdonhave been eaten when young, and we have been assured by those who have made the experiment, that they are scarcely inferior to their larger congener.Bovista nigrescens, Fr., andBovista plumbea, Fr., are also eaten in the United States. More than one species ofLycoperdonandBovistaappear in the bazaars of India, as at Secunderabad and Rangoon; while the white ant-hills,together with an excellent Agaric, produce one or more species ofPodaxonwhich are esculent when young. A species ofSclerodermawhich grows abundantly in sandy districts, is substituted for truffles in Perigord pies, of which, however, it does not possess any of the aroma.