Fruit trees do not wholly escape, forRœstelia cancellata, Tul., attacks the leaves of the pear.Puccinia prunorumaffects the leaves of almost all the varieties of plum. Blisters caused byAscomyces deformans, B., contort the leaves of peaches, asAscomyces bullatus, B., does those of the pear, andAscomyces juglandis, B., those of the walnut. Happily we do not at present suffer fromAscomyces pruni, Fchl., which, on the Continent, attacks young plum-fruits, causing them to shrivel and fall. During the past year pear-blossoms have suffered from what seems to be a form ofHelminthosporium pyrorum, and the branches are sometimes infected withCapnodium elongatum; but orchards in the United States have a worse foe in the “black knot,”[f]which causes gouty swellings in the branches, and is caused by theSphæria morbosaof Schweinitz.
Cotton plants in India[g]were described by Dr. Shortt as subject to the attacks of a kind of mildew, which from the description appeared to be a species ofErysiphe, but on receiving specimens from India for examination, we found it to be one of those diseased conditions of tissue formerly classed with fungi under the name ofErineum; and a species of Torula attacks cotton pods after they are ripe. Tea leaves in plantations in Cachar have been said to suffer from some sort of blight, but in all that we have seen insects appear to be the depredators, although on the decaying leavesHendersonia theicola, Cooke, establishes itself.[h]The coffee plantations of Ceylon suffer from the depredations ofHemiliea vastatrix, as well as from insects.[i]Other useful plants have also their enemies in parasitic fungi.
Olive-trees in the south of Europe suffer from the attacks of a species ofAntennaria, as do also orange and lemon trees from aCapnodium, which covers the foliage as if with a coating of soot. In fact most useful plants appear to have some enemy to contend with, and it is fortunate, not only for the plant, but its cultivators,if this enemy is less exacting than is the case with the potato, the vine, and the hop.
Forestry in Britain is an insignificant interest compared to what it is in some parts of Europe, in the United States, and in our Indian possessions. In these latter places it becomes a matter of importance to inquire what influence fungi exert on forest trees. It may, however, be predicated that the injury caused by fungi is far outstripped by insects, and that there are not many fungi which become pests in such situations. Coniferous trees may be infested with the species ofPeridermium, which are undoubtedly injurious,Peridermium elatinum, Lk., distorting and disfiguring the silver fir, asPeridermium Thomsoni, B.,[j]does those ofAbies Smithianain the Himalayas. This species occurred at an elevation of 8,000 feet. The leaves become reduced in length one-half, curved, and sprinkled, sometimes in double rows, with the large sori of this species, which gives the tree a strange appearance, and at length proves fatal, from the immense diversion of nutriment requisite to support a parasite so large and multitudinous. The dried specimens have a sweet scent resembling violets. In Northern EuropeCæoma pinitorquum, D. By., seems to be plentiful and destructive. All species of juniper, both in Europe and the United States, are liable to be attacked and distorted by species ofPodisoma[k]andGymnosporangium.Antennaria pinophila, Fr., is undoubtedly injurious, as also are other species ofAntennaria, which probably attain their more complete development inCapnodium, of whichCapnodium Citriis troublesome to orange-trees in the south of Europe, and other species to other trees. How far birch-trees are injured byDothidea betulina, Fr., orMelampsora betulina, Lév., or poplars and aspens byMelampsora populina, Lév., andMelampsora tremulæ, Lév., we cannot say. The species ofLecytheafound on willow leaves have decidedly a prejudicial effect on the growth of the affected plant.
Floriculture has to contend with many fungoid enemies, which sometimes commit great ravages amongst the choicest flowers.Roses have to contend against the two forms ofPhragmidium mucronatumas well asAsteroma Rosæ. Still more disastrous is a species ofErysiphei, which at first appears like a dense white mould. This is namedSphærotheca pannosa. Nor is this all, forPeronospora sparsa, when it attacks roses in conservatories, is merciless in its exactions.[l]Sometimes violets will be distorted and spoiled byUrocystis Violæ. The garden anemone is freely attacked byÆcidium quadrifidum. Orchids are liable to spot from fungi on the leaves, and recently the whole of the choicest hollyhocks have been threatened with destruction by a merciless foe inPuccinia malvacearum. This fungus was first made known to the world as an inhabitant of South America many years ago. It seems next to have come into notoriety in the Australian colonies. Then two or three years ago we hear of it for the first time on the continent of Europe, and last year for the first time in any threatening form in our own islands. During the present year its ravages are spreading, until all admirers of hollyhocks begin to feel alarm lest it should entirely exterminate the hollyhock from cultivation. It is common on wild mallows, and cotton cultivators must be on the alert, for there is a probability that other malvaceous plants may suffer.
A writer in the “Gardener’s Chronicle” has proposed a remedy for the hollyhock disease, which he hopes will prove effectual. He says, “This terrible disease has now, for twelve months, threatened the complete annihilation of the glorious family of hollyhock, and to baffle all the antidotes that the ingenuity of man could suggest, so rapidly does it spread and accomplish its deadly work. Of this I have had very sad evidence, as last year at this time I had charge of, if not the largest, one of the largest and finest collections of hollyhocks anywhere in cultivation, which had been under my special care for eleven years, and up to within a month of my resigning that position I had observed nothing uncommon amongst them; but before taking my final leave of them I had to witness the melancholy spectacle of bed after bed being smitten down, and amongst them many splendid seedlings, which had cost me years of patience andanxiety to produce. And again, upon taking a share and the management of this business, another infected collection fell to my lot, so that I have been doing earnest battle with this disease since its first appearance amongst us, and I must confess that, up to a very short time back, I had come in for a great deal the worst of the fight, although I had made use of every agent I could imagine as being likely to aid me, and all that many competent friends could suggest. But lately I was reminded of Condy’s patent fluid, diluted with water, and at once procured a bottle of the green quality, and applied it in the proportion of a large tablespoonful to one quart of water, and upon examining the plants dressed, twelve hours afterwards, was delighted to find it had effectually destroyed the disease (which is easily discernible, as when it is living and thriving it is of a light grey colour, but when killed it becomes of a rusty black). Further to test the power at which the plant was capable of bearing the antidote without injury, I used it double the strength. This dose was instant death to the pest, leaving no trace of any injury to the foliage. As to its application, I advocate sponging in all dressings of this description. Syringing is a very ready means, but very wasteful. No doubt sponging consumes more time, but taking into consideration the more effectual manner in which the dressing can be executed alone, it is in the end most economical, especially in regard to this little parasite. I have found it difficult by syringing, as it has great power of resisting and throwing off moisture, and if but a very few are left living, it is astonishing how quickly it redistributes itself. I feel confident, that by the application of this remedy in time another season, I shall keep this collection clean. I believe planting the hollyhock in large crowded beds should be avoided, as I have observed the closer they are growing the more virulently does the disease attack them, whereas isolated rows and plants are but little injured.”[m]
The “Gardener’s Chronicle” has also sounded a note of warning that a species of Uredine has been very destructive to pelargoniums at the Cape of Good Hope. Hitherto these plantshave not suffered much in this country from parasites. Besides these, there are many other less troublesome parasites, such asUredo filicum, on ferns;Puccinia Lychnidearum, on leaves of sweet-william;Uredo Orchidis, on leaves of orchids, &c.
If we would sum up the influences of fungi in a few words, it could be done somewhat in the following form.
Fungi exert a deleterious influence—
But it is not proved that they produce epidemic diseases in man or animals, or that the dissemination of their multitudinous spores in the atmosphere has any appreciable influence on the health of the human race. Hence their association with cholera, diarrhœa, measles, scarlatina, and the manifold ills that flesh is heir to, as producing or aggravating causes, must, in the present state of our knowledge and experience, be deemed apocryphal.
[A]A detailed account of the peculiar properties of this fungus and its employment as a narcotic will be found in Cooke’s “Seven Sisters of Sleep,” p. 337. It is figured in Greville’s “Scottish Cryptogamic Flora,” plate 54.[B]Pour chaque 500 grammes de champignons coupes en morceaux d’assez mediocre grandeur, il faut un litre d’eau acidulée par deux ou trois cuillerées de vinaigre, ou deux cuillerées de sel gris. Dans le cas ou l’on n’aurait que de l’eau à sa disposition, il faut la renouveler une ou deux fois. On laisse les champignons macérer dans le liquids pendant deux heures entières, puis on les lave à grande eau. Ils sont alors mis dans de l’eau froide qu’on porte à l‘ébullition, et après un quart d’heure ou une demi-heure, on les retire, on les lave, on les essuie, et ou les apprête soit comme un mets spécial, et ils comportent les mêmes assaisonnements que les autres, soit comme condiment.—Morel Traité des Champignons, p. lix. Paris, 1865.[C]Smith’s “Chart of Poisonous Fungi,” fig. 10.[D]Ibid. fig. 27. It would be well to become acquainted with all these figures.[E]“Skin Diseases of Parasitic Origin,” by Dr. Tilbury Fox. London, 1863.[F]Robin, “Hist. Nat. des Végétaux Parasites.” Paris, 1853. Kuchenmeister, “Animal and Vegetable Parasites of the Human Body.” London, Sydenham Society, 1857.[G]Berkeley, in “Intellectual Observer,” Nov., 1862. “Mycetoma,” II. Vandyke Carter, 1874.[H]Hallier and Zurn, “Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde.” Jena, 1869–71.[I]Dr. Lauder Lindsay, “On Microscopical and Clinical Characters of Cholera Evacuations,” reprinted from “Edinburgh Medical Journal,” February and March, 1856; also “Clinical Notes on Cholera,” by W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.L.S., in “Association Medical Journal” for April 14, 1854.[J]“Microscopic Examinations of Air,” from the “Ninth Annual Report of the Sanitary Commissioner,” Calcutta, 1872.[K]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” March 26, 1864.[L]Gray, G., “Notices of Insects that are Known to Form the Bases of Fungoid Parasites.” London, 1858.[M]Halsey, “Ann. Lyceum,” New York, 1824, p. 125.[N]Tulasne, “Selecta Fung. Carp.” vol. iii. p. 17.[O]“Berlin Entom. Zeitung,” 1858, p. 178.[P]“Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” v. p. 53.[Q]“Wiegmann Archiv.” 1835, ii. p. 354; “Ann. Nat. Hist.” 1841, 405.[R]Leidy, “Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.” 1851, p. 204.[S]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” November 21, 1868.[T]Corda, “Prachtflora,” pl. ix.[U]Leidy, “Fauna and Flora within Living Animals,” in “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.”[V]Murie, in “Monthly Microscopical Journal” (1872), vii. p. 149.[W]See genusMycetophagus, “Stephen’s Manual Brit. Coleopt.” p. 132.[X]Sowerby’s “Fungi,” plates 289 and 387, fig. 6.[Y]Schacht, “Fungous Threads in the Cells of Plants,” in Pringsheim’s “Jahrbuch.” Berlin, 1863.[Z]“Proceedings of the Agri. Hort. Soc. of India” (1871), p. 85.[a]“Gardener’s Chronicle” (1852), p. 643, with fig.[b]Berkeley, “On the Potato Murrain,” in “Jour. Hort. Soc.” vol. i. (1846), p. 9.[c]De Bary, “Die gegenwartig herrschende Kartoffelkrankheit.”[d]De Bary, “Memoir on Peronospora,” in “Annales des Sci. Nat.”[e]“Reports of H. M. Secretaries of Embassy and Legation on the Effects of the Vine Disease on Commerce, 1859;” “Reports of H. M. Secretaries of Embassy, &c., on Manufactures and Commerce, Vine Disease in Bavaria and Switzerland, 1859,” pp. 54 and 62.[f]C. H. Peek, “On the Black Knot,” in “Quekett Microscopical Journal,” vol. iii. p. 82.[g]Cooke, “Microscopic Fungi,” p. 177.[h]“Grevillea,” i. p. 90.[i]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1873.[j]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1852, p. 627, with fig.[k]“Podisoma Macropus,” Hook, “Journ. Bot.” vol. iv. plate xii. fig. 6.[l]Berkeley, in “Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1862, p. 308.[m]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” August 22, 1874, p. 243.
[A]A detailed account of the peculiar properties of this fungus and its employment as a narcotic will be found in Cooke’s “Seven Sisters of Sleep,” p. 337. It is figured in Greville’s “Scottish Cryptogamic Flora,” plate 54.
A detailed account of the peculiar properties of this fungus and its employment as a narcotic will be found in Cooke’s “Seven Sisters of Sleep,” p. 337. It is figured in Greville’s “Scottish Cryptogamic Flora,” plate 54.
[B]Pour chaque 500 grammes de champignons coupes en morceaux d’assez mediocre grandeur, il faut un litre d’eau acidulée par deux ou trois cuillerées de vinaigre, ou deux cuillerées de sel gris. Dans le cas ou l’on n’aurait que de l’eau à sa disposition, il faut la renouveler une ou deux fois. On laisse les champignons macérer dans le liquids pendant deux heures entières, puis on les lave à grande eau. Ils sont alors mis dans de l’eau froide qu’on porte à l‘ébullition, et après un quart d’heure ou une demi-heure, on les retire, on les lave, on les essuie, et ou les apprête soit comme un mets spécial, et ils comportent les mêmes assaisonnements que les autres, soit comme condiment.—Morel Traité des Champignons, p. lix. Paris, 1865.
Pour chaque 500 grammes de champignons coupes en morceaux d’assez mediocre grandeur, il faut un litre d’eau acidulée par deux ou trois cuillerées de vinaigre, ou deux cuillerées de sel gris. Dans le cas ou l’on n’aurait que de l’eau à sa disposition, il faut la renouveler une ou deux fois. On laisse les champignons macérer dans le liquids pendant deux heures entières, puis on les lave à grande eau. Ils sont alors mis dans de l’eau froide qu’on porte à l‘ébullition, et après un quart d’heure ou une demi-heure, on les retire, on les lave, on les essuie, et ou les apprête soit comme un mets spécial, et ils comportent les mêmes assaisonnements que les autres, soit comme condiment.—Morel Traité des Champignons, p. lix. Paris, 1865.
[C]Smith’s “Chart of Poisonous Fungi,” fig. 10.
Smith’s “Chart of Poisonous Fungi,” fig. 10.
[D]Ibid. fig. 27. It would be well to become acquainted with all these figures.
Ibid. fig. 27. It would be well to become acquainted with all these figures.
[E]“Skin Diseases of Parasitic Origin,” by Dr. Tilbury Fox. London, 1863.
“Skin Diseases of Parasitic Origin,” by Dr. Tilbury Fox. London, 1863.
[F]Robin, “Hist. Nat. des Végétaux Parasites.” Paris, 1853. Kuchenmeister, “Animal and Vegetable Parasites of the Human Body.” London, Sydenham Society, 1857.
Robin, “Hist. Nat. des Végétaux Parasites.” Paris, 1853. Kuchenmeister, “Animal and Vegetable Parasites of the Human Body.” London, Sydenham Society, 1857.
[G]Berkeley, in “Intellectual Observer,” Nov., 1862. “Mycetoma,” II. Vandyke Carter, 1874.
Berkeley, in “Intellectual Observer,” Nov., 1862. “Mycetoma,” II. Vandyke Carter, 1874.
[H]Hallier and Zurn, “Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde.” Jena, 1869–71.
Hallier and Zurn, “Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde.” Jena, 1869–71.
[I]Dr. Lauder Lindsay, “On Microscopical and Clinical Characters of Cholera Evacuations,” reprinted from “Edinburgh Medical Journal,” February and March, 1856; also “Clinical Notes on Cholera,” by W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.L.S., in “Association Medical Journal” for April 14, 1854.
Dr. Lauder Lindsay, “On Microscopical and Clinical Characters of Cholera Evacuations,” reprinted from “Edinburgh Medical Journal,” February and March, 1856; also “Clinical Notes on Cholera,” by W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.L.S., in “Association Medical Journal” for April 14, 1854.
[J]“Microscopic Examinations of Air,” from the “Ninth Annual Report of the Sanitary Commissioner,” Calcutta, 1872.
“Microscopic Examinations of Air,” from the “Ninth Annual Report of the Sanitary Commissioner,” Calcutta, 1872.
[K]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” March 26, 1864.
“Gardener’s Chronicle,” March 26, 1864.
[L]Gray, G., “Notices of Insects that are Known to Form the Bases of Fungoid Parasites.” London, 1858.
Gray, G., “Notices of Insects that are Known to Form the Bases of Fungoid Parasites.” London, 1858.
[M]Halsey, “Ann. Lyceum,” New York, 1824, p. 125.
Halsey, “Ann. Lyceum,” New York, 1824, p. 125.
[N]Tulasne, “Selecta Fung. Carp.” vol. iii. p. 17.
Tulasne, “Selecta Fung. Carp.” vol. iii. p. 17.
[O]“Berlin Entom. Zeitung,” 1858, p. 178.
“Berlin Entom. Zeitung,” 1858, p. 178.
[P]“Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” v. p. 53.
“Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” v. p. 53.
[Q]“Wiegmann Archiv.” 1835, ii. p. 354; “Ann. Nat. Hist.” 1841, 405.
“Wiegmann Archiv.” 1835, ii. p. 354; “Ann. Nat. Hist.” 1841, 405.
[R]Leidy, “Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.” 1851, p. 204.
Leidy, “Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.” 1851, p. 204.
[S]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” November 21, 1868.
“Gardener’s Chronicle,” November 21, 1868.
[T]Corda, “Prachtflora,” pl. ix.
Corda, “Prachtflora,” pl. ix.
[U]Leidy, “Fauna and Flora within Living Animals,” in “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.”
Leidy, “Fauna and Flora within Living Animals,” in “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.”
[V]Murie, in “Monthly Microscopical Journal” (1872), vii. p. 149.
Murie, in “Monthly Microscopical Journal” (1872), vii. p. 149.
[W]See genusMycetophagus, “Stephen’s Manual Brit. Coleopt.” p. 132.
See genusMycetophagus, “Stephen’s Manual Brit. Coleopt.” p. 132.
[X]Sowerby’s “Fungi,” plates 289 and 387, fig. 6.
Sowerby’s “Fungi,” plates 289 and 387, fig. 6.
[Y]Schacht, “Fungous Threads in the Cells of Plants,” in Pringsheim’s “Jahrbuch.” Berlin, 1863.
Schacht, “Fungous Threads in the Cells of Plants,” in Pringsheim’s “Jahrbuch.” Berlin, 1863.
[Z]“Proceedings of the Agri. Hort. Soc. of India” (1871), p. 85.
“Proceedings of the Agri. Hort. Soc. of India” (1871), p. 85.
[a]“Gardener’s Chronicle” (1852), p. 643, with fig.
“Gardener’s Chronicle” (1852), p. 643, with fig.
[b]Berkeley, “On the Potato Murrain,” in “Jour. Hort. Soc.” vol. i. (1846), p. 9.
Berkeley, “On the Potato Murrain,” in “Jour. Hort. Soc.” vol. i. (1846), p. 9.
[c]De Bary, “Die gegenwartig herrschende Kartoffelkrankheit.”
De Bary, “Die gegenwartig herrschende Kartoffelkrankheit.”
[d]De Bary, “Memoir on Peronospora,” in “Annales des Sci. Nat.”
De Bary, “Memoir on Peronospora,” in “Annales des Sci. Nat.”
[e]“Reports of H. M. Secretaries of Embassy and Legation on the Effects of the Vine Disease on Commerce, 1859;” “Reports of H. M. Secretaries of Embassy, &c., on Manufactures and Commerce, Vine Disease in Bavaria and Switzerland, 1859,” pp. 54 and 62.
“Reports of H. M. Secretaries of Embassy and Legation on the Effects of the Vine Disease on Commerce, 1859;” “Reports of H. M. Secretaries of Embassy, &c., on Manufactures and Commerce, Vine Disease in Bavaria and Switzerland, 1859,” pp. 54 and 62.
[f]C. H. Peek, “On the Black Knot,” in “Quekett Microscopical Journal,” vol. iii. p. 82.
C. H. Peek, “On the Black Knot,” in “Quekett Microscopical Journal,” vol. iii. p. 82.
[g]Cooke, “Microscopic Fungi,” p. 177.
Cooke, “Microscopic Fungi,” p. 177.
[h]“Grevillea,” i. p. 90.
“Grevillea,” i. p. 90.
[i]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1873.
“Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1873.
[j]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1852, p. 627, with fig.
“Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1852, p. 627, with fig.
[k]“Podisoma Macropus,” Hook, “Journ. Bot.” vol. iv. plate xii. fig. 6.
“Podisoma Macropus,” Hook, “Journ. Bot.” vol. iv. plate xii. fig. 6.
[l]Berkeley, in “Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1862, p. 308.
Berkeley, in “Gardener’s Chronicle,” 1862, p. 308.
[m]“Gardener’s Chronicle,” August 22, 1874, p. 243.
“Gardener’s Chronicle,” August 22, 1874, p. 243.
XI.HABITATS.
It commonly happens that one of the first inquiries which the student seeks to have answered, after an interest is excited in fungi, is—Where, and under what circumstances, are they to be found? The inexperienced, indeed, require some guide, or much labour will be expended and patience lost in seeking microscopic forms in just such places as they are least likely to inhabit. Nor is it wholly unprofitable or uninteresting for others, who do not claim to be students, to summarize the habitats of these organisms, and learn how much the circumstances of their immediate surrounding elements influence production. For reasons which will at once be recognized by the mycologist, the most satisfactory method of study will be somewhat that of the natural groups into which fungi are divided.
Agaricini.—There is such a close affinity between all the genera of this group that it will be a manifest advantage to take together all those fleshy pileate fungi, the fruit of which is borne on folded plates or gills. It must be premised of this group that, for the majority, shade, a moderate amount of moisture, and steady warmth, but not too great heat, are required. A stroll through a wood in autumn will afford good evidence of the predilection ofAgaricini, as well as some smaller groups, for such spots. A larger proportion will be found in woods, where shade is afforded, than on open heaths or pastures. These wood-loving forms will consist, again, of those which appear on the soil, and those which are found on rotten stumps and decaying trees. Many of those which grow on trees have alateral stem, or scarcely any stem at all. It may be remarked, that some species which spring from the soil delight most in the shelter of particular trees. The Agarics of a beech wood will materially differ largely from those in an oak wood, and both will differ from those which spring up beneath coniferous trees.
It may be accepted as true of the largest proportion of terrestrial species, that if they do not spring directly from rotten leaves, and vegetable débris in the last stage of decay, the soil will be rich in vegetable humus. A few only occur on sandy spots. The genusMarasmiusis much addicted to dead leaves;Russula, to open places in woods, springing immediately from the soil.Lactariusprefers trees, and when found in exposed situations, occurs mostly under the shadow of trees.[A]Cantharellus, again, is a woodland genus, many of the species loving to grow amongst grass or moss, and some as parasites on the latter.Coprinusis not a genus much addicted to woods, but is rather peculiar in its attachment to man—if such expression, or one even implying domesticity, might be employed—farmyards, gardens, dunghills, the base of old gateposts and railings, in cellars, on plaster walls, and even on old damp carpets.Hygrophorusloves “the open,” whether pastures, lawns, heaths, commons, or up the slopes of mountains, nearly to the top of the highest found in Great Britain.Cortinariusseems to have a preference for woods, whilstBolbitiusaffects dung, or a rich soil.Lentinus,Panus,Lenzites, andSchizophyllumall grow on wood. Coming to the subgenera ofAgaricus, we findPleurotus,Crepidotus,Pluteus,Collybia,Pholiota,Flammula,Hypholoma, and some species ofPsathyragrowing on wood, old stumps, or charcoal;Amanita,Tricholoma, andHebelomamost attached to woods;ClitocybeandMycenachiefly amongst leaves;Nolaneaamongst grass;OmphaliaandGalerachiefly in swampy places;Lepiota,Leptonia,Psalliota,Stropharia,Psilocybe, andPsathyrellamostly in open places and pastures;DeconicaandPanæolusmostly on dung;EntolomaandClitopiluschiefly terrestrial, and the rest variable.
Of special habitats, we may allude toNyctalis, of which the species are parasitic on dead fungi belonging to the genusRussula. One or two species ofAgaricus, such asAgaricus tuberosusandAgaricus racemosus, P., grow on decaying Agarics, whilstAgaricus Loveianusflourishes onAgaricus nebulariseven before it is thoroughly decayed. A few species grow on dead fir cones, others on old ferns, &c.Agaricus cepœstipes, Sow., probably of exotic origin, grows on old tan in hothouses.Agaricus caulicinalis, Bull, flourishes on old thatch, as well as twigs, &c.Agaricus juncicola, Fr., affects dead rushes in boggy places, whilstAgaricus affricatus, Fr., andAgaricus sphagnicola, B., are attached to bog moss in similar localities. Some few species are almost confined to the stems of herbaceous plants.Agaricus petasatus, Fr.,Agaricus cucumis, P., andPaxillus panuoides, F., have a preference for sawdust.Agaricus carpophilus, Fr., andAgaricus balaninus, P., have a predilection for beech mast.Agaricus urticœcola, B. and Br., seems to confine itself to nettle roots.Coprinus radians, Fr., makes its appearance on plaster walls,Coprinus domesticus, Fr., on damp carpets. The only epizoic species, according to M. Fries, isAgaricus cerussatus v. nauseosus, which has been met with in Russia on the carcase of a wolf; this, however, might have been accidental. Persoon describedAgaricus Neapolitanus, which was found growing on coffee-grounds at Naples; and more recently Viviani has described another species,Agaricus Coffeæ, with rose-coloured spores, found on old fermenting coffee-grounds at Genoa.[B]Tratinnick figures a species namedAgaricus Markii, which was found in wine casks in Austria. ACoprinushas, both in this country and on the Continent, been found, after a very short time, on the dressing of wounds, where there has been no neglect. A curious case of this kind, which at the time excited great interest, occurred some fifty years since at St. George’s Hospital. Some species appear to confine themselves to particular trees, some to come up by preference on soil in garden pots. Certain species have a solitary, others a gregarious habit, and, of the latter,Agaricus grammopodius, Bull,Agaricus gambosus, Fr.,Marasmius oreades, Fr., and some others grow in rings. Hence it will be seen that, within certain limits, there is considerable variation in the habitats of theAgaricini.
Boletido not differ much fromAgariciniin their localization. They seem to prefer woods or borders of woods to pastures, seldom being found in the latter. One species,B. parasiticus, Bull, grows on old specimens ofScleroderma, otherwise they are for the most part terrestrial.
Polyporialso have no wide range of habitat, except in choice of trees on which to grow, for the majority of them are corticolous. The sectionMesopus, which has a distinct central stem, has some species which prefer the ground.Polyporus tuberaster, P., in Italy springs from thePietra funghaia,[C]and is cultivated for food as well asPolyporus avellanus, which is reared from charred blocks of cob-nut trees.
In other genera of thePolyporeisimilar habitats prevail.Merulius lacrymans, Fr., one form of dry rot, occurs in cellars, and too often on worked timber; whilstMerulius himantoides, Fr., is much more delicate, sometimes running over plants in conservatories.
Hydnei.—There is nothing calling for special note on the habitats of these fungi. The stipitate species ofHydnumare some of them found in woods, others on heaths, one on fir-cones, while the rest have similar habitats to the species ofPolyporus.
Auricularini.—The generaHymenochœte,Stereum, andCorticium, with some species ofThelephora, run over corticated or decorticated wood; other species ofThelephoragrow on the ground. The Pezizoid forms ofCyphellaandSolenia, like species ofPeziza, sometimes occur on bark, and of the former genus some on grasses and others on moss.
Clavariei.—The interesting, often brightly-coloured, tufts ofClavariaare usually found amongst grass, growing directly from the ground. Only in rare instances do they occur on dead leaves or herbaceous stems.Caloceraprobably should be classed with theTremellini, to which its structure seems more closely allied. The species are developed on wood. The species ofTyphulaandPistillariaare small, growing chiefly on dead herbaceous plants. One or two are developed from a kind ofSclerotium, which is in fact a compact perennial mycelium.
Tremellini.—These curious gelatinous fungi are, with rare exceptions, developed on branches or naked wood;Tremella versicolor, B. and Br., one of the exceptions, being parasitic on a species ofCorticium, andTremella epigæa, B. and Br., spreading over the naked soil. This completes our rapid survey of the habitats of theHymenomycetes. Very few of them are really destructive to vegetation, for the Agarics and Polypori found on growing trees are seldom to be seen on vigorous, but rather on dead branches or partly-decayed trunks.
TheGasteromycetesare far less numerous in species, and also in individuals, but their habitats are probably more variable. TheHypogæi, or subterranean species, are found either near the surface or buried in the soil, usually in the neighbourhood of trees.
Phalloidei.—In most cases the species prefer woody places. They are mostly terrestrial, and have the faculty of making their presence known, even when not seen, by the fetid odour which many of them exhale. Some of them occur in sandy spots.
Podaxinei.—These resemble in their localities theTrichogastres. Species ofPodaxonaffect the nests of Termites in tropical countries.[D]Others are found growing amongst grass.
Trichogastres.—These are chiefly terrestrial. The rare but curiousBatarrea phalloides, P., has been found on sand-hills, and in hollow trees.Tulostoma mammosum, Fr., occurs on old stone walls, growing amongst moss.Geaster striatus, D. C., was at one time usually found on the sand of the Denes at Great Yarmouth. AlthoughLycoperdon giganteum, Batsch, occurs most frequently in pastures, or on hedge banks in fields, we have known it to occur annually for some consecutive years in a garden near London. The species ofSclerodermaseem to prefer a sandy soil.Aglœocystisis rather an anomalous genus, occurring on the fruit heads ofCyperus, in India.Broomeiaoccurs at the Cape on rotten wood.
Myxogastres.—Rotten wood is one of the most favoured of matrices on which these fungi develop themselves; some of them, however, are terrestrial.Æthaliumwill grow on spent tan and other substances. Species ofDidermaflourish on mosses, jungermanniæ, grass, dead leaves, ferns, &c.Angioridium sinuosum, Grev., will run over growing plants of different kinds, andSpumaria, in like manner, encrusts living grasses.Badhamianot only flourishes on dead wood, but one species is found on the fading leaves of coltsfoot which are still green.Crateriumruns over almost any substance which lies in its way.Licea perreptanswas found in a cucumber frame heated with spent hops. One or twoMyxogastreshave been found on lead, or even on iron which had been recently heated. Sowerby found one on cinders, in one of the galleries of St. Paul’s Cathedral.
Nidulariaceigrow on the ground, or on sticks, twigs, chips, and other vegetable substances, such as sawdust, dung, and rotten wood.
TheConiomycetesconsist of two sections, which are based on their habitats. In one section the species are developed on dead or dying plants, in the other they are parasitic on living plants. The former includes theSphæronemei, which are variable in their proclivities, although mostly preferring dead herbaceous plants and the twigs of trees. The exceptions are in favour ofSphæronema, some of which are developed upon decaying fungi. In the large genera,Septoria,Ascochyta,Phyllosticta,Asteroma, &c., the favourite habitat is fading and dying leaves of plants of all kinds. In the majority of cases these fungi are not autonomous, but are merely the stylosporous conditions ofSphæria. They are mostly minute, and the stylospores are of the simplest kind. TheMelanconieihave a preference for the twigs of trees, bursting through the bark, and expelling the spores in a gelatinous mass. A few of them are foliicolous, but the exceptions are comparatively rare, and are represented chiefly inGlœosporium, species of which are found also on apples, peaches, nectarines, and other fruits. TheTorulaceiare superficial, having much of the external appearance of the black moulds,and like them are found on decaying vegetable substances, old stems of herbaceous plants, dead twigs, wood, stumps of trees, &c. The exceptions are in favour of such species asTorula sporendonema, which is the red mould of cheese, and also occurs on rats’ dung, old glue, &c., andSporendonema Muscæ, which is only the conidia of a species ofAchlya. One species ofBactridiumis parasitic on the hymenium ofPeziza, andEchinobotryum atrum, on the flocci of black moulds.
In the other section ofConiomycetesthe species are parasitic upon, and destructive to, living plants, very seldom being found on really dead substances, and even in such rare cases undoubtedly developed during the life of the tissues. Mostly the ultimate stage of these parasites is exhibited in the ruptured cuticle, and the dispersion of the dust-like spores; but inTilletia caries,Thecaphora hyalina, andPuccinia incarcerata, they remain enclosed within the fruit of the foster-plant. The different genera exhibit in some instances a liking for plants of certain orders on which to develop themselves.Peridermiumattacks theConiferæ;GymnosporangiumandPodisomathe different species of Juniper;Melampsorachiefly the leaves of deciduous trees;Rœsteliaattaches itself to pomaceous trees, whilstGraphiolaaffects thePalmaceæ, andEndophyllumthe succulent leaves of houseleek. InÆcidiuma few orders seem to be more liable to attack than others, as theCompositæ,Ranunculaceæ,Leguminosæ,Labiatæ, &c., whilst others, as theGraminaceæ,Ericaceæ,Malvaceæ,Cruciferæ, are exempt. There are, nevertheless, very few natural orders of phanerogamous plants in which some one or more species, belonging to this section of theConiomycetes, may not be found; and the same foster-plant will occasionally nurture several forms. Recent investigations tend to confirm the distinct specific characters of the species found on different plants, and to prove that the parasite of one host will not vegetate upon another, however closely allied. This admission must not, however, be accepted as universally applicable, and therefore it should not be assumed, because a certain parasite is found developed on a special host, that it is distinct, unless distinctive characters, apart from habitat, can bedetected.Æcidium compositarumandÆcidium ranunculacearum, for instance, are found on various composite and ranunculaceous plants, and as yet no sufficient evidence has been adduced to prove that the different forms are other than varieties of one of the two species. On the other hand, it is not improbable that two species ofÆcidiumare developed on the common berberry, as De Bary has indicated that two species of mildew,Puccinia graminis, andPuccinia straminis, are found on wheat.
Hyphomycetes.—The moulds are much more universal in their habitats, especially theMucedines. TheIsariaceihave a predilection for animal substances, though not exclusively. Some species occur on dead insects, others on decaying fungi, and the rest on sticks, stems, and rotten wood. TheStilbaceihave also similar habitats, except that the species ofIllosporiumseem to be confined to parasitism on lichens. The black moulds,Dematiei, are widely diffused, appearing on herbaceous stems, twigs, bark, and wood in most cases, but also on old linen, paper, millboard, dung, rotting fruit, &c., whilst forms ofCladosporiumandMacrosporiumare met with on almost every kind of vegetable substance in which the process of decay has commenced.
Mucedines, in some instances, have not been known to appear on more than one kind of matrix, but in the far greater number of cases they nourish on different substances.Aspergillus glaucusandPenicillium crustaceumare examples of these universalMucedines. It would be far more difficult to mention substances on which these moulds are never developed than to indicate where they have been found. With the species ofPeronosporait is different, for these are truly parasitic on living plants, and, as far as already known, the species are confined to certain special plants, and cannot be made to vegetate on any other. The species which causes the potato murrain, although liable to attack the tomato, and other species ofSolanaceæ, does not extend its ravages beyond that natural order, whilstPeronospora parasiticaconfines itself to cruciferous plants. One species is restricted to theUmbelliferæ, another, or perhaps two, to theLeguminosæ, another toRubiaceæ, two or three toRanunculaceæ, and two or three toCaryophyllaceæ. All the experimentsmade by De Bary seem to prove that the species ofPeronosporawill only flourish on certain favoured plants, to the exclusion of all others. The non-parasitic moulds are scarcely exclusive. InOidiumsome species are parasitic, but probably all the parasitic forms are states ofErysiphe, the non-parasitic alone being autonomous; of these one occurs onPorrigo lupinosa, others on putrefying oranges, pears, apples, plums, &c., and one on honeycomb.Acrospeiragrows in the interior of sweet chestnuts, and we have seen a species growing within the hard testa of the seeds ofGuilandina Bondue, from India, to which there was no external opening visible, and which was broken with considerable difficulty. SeveralMucedinesare developed on the dung of various animals, and seldom on anything else.
ThePhysomycetesconsist of two orders,AntennarieiandMucorini, which differ from each other almost as much in habitat as in external appearance. The former, if represented byAntennaria, runs over the green and fading leaves of plants, forming a dense black stratum, like a congested layer of soot; or inZasmidium, the common cellar fungus, runs over the walls, bottles, corks, and other substances, like a thick sooty felt. In theMucorini, as in theMucedines, there is usually less restriction to any special substance.Mucor mucedooccurs on bread, paste, preserves, and various substances; other species ofMucorseem to have a preference for dung, and some for decaying fungi, but rotting fruits are nearly sure to support one or other of the species. The two known species of the curious genusPilobolus, as well asHydrophora, are confined to dung.Sporodinia,Syzygites, &c., nourish on rotten Agarics, where they pass through their somewhat complicated existence.
TheAscomycetescontain an immense number of species, and in general terms we might say that they are found everywhere. TheTuberaceiare subterraneous, with a preference for calcareous districts. ThePerisporiaceiare partly parasitical and partly not. TheErysipheiinclude those of the former which flourish at the expense of the green parts of roses, hops, maples, poplars, peas, and many other plants, both in Europe and in North America,whilst in warmer latitudes the genusMeliolaappears to take their place.
TheElvellaceiare fleshy fungi, of which the larger forms are terrestrial;Morchella,Gyromitra, andHelvellamostly growing in woods,Mitrula,Spathularia, andLeotiain swampy places, andGeoglossumamongst grass. The very large genusPezizais divided into groups, of whichAleuriæare mostly terrestrial. This group includes nearly all the large-sized species, although a few belong to the next.Lachneæare partly terrestrial and partly epiphytal, the most minute species being found on twigs and leaves of dead plants. InPhialeathe species are nearly entirely epiphytal, as is also the case inHelotiumand allied genera. Some species ofPezizaare developed from the curious masses of compact mycelium calledSclerotia. A few are rather eccentric in their habitats.P. viridaria,P. domestica, andP. hœmastigma, grow on damp walls;P. granulataand some others on dung.Peziza Bulliiwas found growing on a cistern.P. theleboloidesappears in profusion on spent hops.P. episphæria,P. clavariarum,P. vulgaris,Helotium pruinosum, and others are parasitic on old fungi. One or two species ofHelotiumgrow on submerged sticks, so as to be almost aquatic, a circumstance of rare occurrence in fungi. OtherDiscomycetesare similar in their habitats to theElvellacei. The group to which the old genusAscobolusbelongs is in a great measure confined to the dung of various animals, although there are two or three lignicolous species; andAscophanus saccharinuswas first found on old leather,Ascophanus testaceuson old sacking, &c.Ascomycesis, perhaps, the lowest form which ascomycetous fungi assume, and the species are parasitic on growing plants, distorting the leaves and fruit, constituting themselves pests to the cultivators of peach, pear, and plum trees.
TheSphæriaceiinclude a very large number of species which grow on rotten wood, bark, sticks, and twigs; another group is developed on dead herbaceous stems; yet another is confined to dead or dying leaves. One genus,Torrubia, grows chiefly on insects;Hypomycesis parasitic on dead fungi;Clavicepsis developed from ergot,Poroniaon dung,Polystigmaon living leaves,as well as some species ofStigmateaandDothidea. Of the genusSphæria, a considerable number are found on dung, now included by some authors underSordariaandSporormia, genera founded, as we think, on insufficient characters. A limited number of species are parasitic on lichens, and one species only is known to be aquatic.