For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks:—
1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 2. The steamerCity of Chicagosails from Jersey City. 3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window." 7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of Uncle Remus. 8. Miss Evans—afterward Mrs. Lewes—was the author of "The Mill on the Floss." 9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. preceded Victoria.
The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:—
+Observation Lesson+.—IsChicago, orcity of Chicagothe individual name of the place mentioned in (1)? IsChicago, orCity of Chicagothe name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) namedJersey, orJersey City? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known asMichigan, orLake Michigan? What is the name of the island mentioned in (3)?—in (4)? IsIrish, orIrish Seathe name of the body of water mentioned in (4)?
Notice thatSpanish, in (3), andEnglish, in (5), are not names, or nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the individual namesSpainandEngland.
What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words asuncle, captain, professor, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names.
What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)?Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?
In (8) do you find a period afterMiss?—afterMrs.?
Missis not written as an abbreviation.
What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What isOldTestamentthe particular name of?
What do you discover in the names found in (11)?
For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.
We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. 146-161.) The writing ofheadings, introductions, conclusions, andsuperscriptionswill give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. Thebodyof the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned.
Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is, to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns:—
Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses.
+Seeing+, scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent
+Hearing+, audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious
+Smelling+, fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic
+Tasting+, acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious
+Feeling+. rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry
Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to right and wrong, etc.
Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named:—
chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music
Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives:—
timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous
Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as—
nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely.
We hear ofnice mountains,awful pens,horrid ink,splendid pie,elegant beef,lovely cheese, etc.
Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use them to fill the following blanks:—
| distinction—————+ workmanship| calculation
| stillness—————+ chasm| rumbling
| child—————+ features| character
| palace—————+ victory| illumination
| manners—————+ taste| furniture
| deeds—————+ dreams| butchery
This work may very profitable be extended.
A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,
"Agreat,large,roomy, spacious hall"; "Superb, delicious,magnificentpumpkin-pie"; "Astingy, miserly,close-fistedfellow."
The italicized words may be omitted.
Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.
Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer the following exercise as a specimen:—
We piled with care our nightly stackOf wood against the chimney-back,—The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,And on its top the stout back-stick;The knotty fore-stick laid apart,And filled between with curious artThe ragged brush; then, hovering near,We watched the first red blaze appear,Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleamOn whitewashed wall and sagging beam,Until the old, rude-furnished roomBurst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
Whittier.—Snow-Bound.
+Observation Lesson+.—Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?
What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?
Notice how the nouncracklecrackles as you pronounce it, and how the adjectivesharpmakes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do.
Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office of each.
What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?
Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also.
The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves thenatural orderof words and phrases:—
(a) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. (b) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. (c) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. (d) We saw it distinctly. (e) We had often been there. (f) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
+Observation Lesson+.—The words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in theirNatural Order.
From (a) and (b) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, and complement. From (b) determine the natural order of a possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (c), (d), and (e) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb. Determine from (c) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (a) and (f) the natural order of a phrase.
Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases:—
(g) This place is endeared to me by many associations. (h) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. (i) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. (j) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.
+Observation Lesson+.—Phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it.
In the first sentence above,to metells to whom the place is endeared;by many associationstells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore placed after to me. Try the effect of placingto melast. Phrases, like adjectives, may be of different rank.
Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice thatto me, in (h) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and that it is set off by the comma.
In (i), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma.
Place the phrase of (i) in three other positions, and set it off. When the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?
Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?
What does the last phrase of (j) modify? Take out the comma, and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.
In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.
Such questions as those on (i) above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons—for emphasis, as in (h) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (i) above, or in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and for other reasons.
Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.
Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:—
1. Victories, indeed, they were. 2. Down came the masts. 3. Here stands the man. 4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 5. Wide open stood the doors. 6. A mighty man is he. 7. That gale I well remember. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear. 16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.
Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:—
19. He could not avoid it. 20. He would not escape. 21. I must go. 22. He ended his tale here. 23. It stands written so. 24. She seemed young and sad. 25. I will make one more effort to save you. 26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 27. I came into the world helpless. 28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? 32. Whom did you see? 33. What is poetry? 34. Which course will you choose? 35. Why are the days shorter in winter? 36. When was America discovered? 37. Were you there? 38. Has the North Pole been reached?
+Observation Lesson+.—When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.
When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).
When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and (36).
When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).
The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons inanalysis.
We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested.
The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:—
(a) The wordsgoldenandorioleare pleasant to the ear. (b) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (c) Use words that are current. (d) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (e) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. (f) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. (g) Glass bends easily when it is hot. (h) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:—
In (a) the application ofwordsis limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (c)wordsis restricted to a certain kind. In (b) and (d) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (e) the participial phrase restricts the application ofcountryto one particular country; but in (f) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (g) shows thatGlass bends easilyis not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition.When it is hotis essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (h) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (h) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma.
Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions asI myself, we boys, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.
Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases.
Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.
An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the punctuation of these examples.
Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparativesasandthanare usually found in an abbreviated form; as, "You are as oldashe (is old);" "You are olderthanI (am old)." Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses.
Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "That we should obeyis necessary" = "Obedienceis necessary," or, "To obeyis necessary;" "I can hardly realizethat my friend is gone" = "I can hardly realizemy friend's being gone." By substitutingitfor the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "Itis necessarythat we should obey." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "That my friend is gone, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"His story, we believe,is exaggerated."
Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment.
We suggest the following observation lesson:—
1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good." 2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, 'Where is it?'" 4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is. 5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without digesting." 6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"? 7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed minds." 8. We must ask, What are we living for? 9. We must ask what we are living for.
+Observation Lesson+.—Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied passage (quotation), are calledQuotation Marks.
Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you calldirect?Which,indirect?
Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed withinsingle marks. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3).
Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you calldirect?Which,indirect? Name every difference in the form of these.
In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?
Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?
In (7) aColonprecedes the quotation to show that it isformally introduced.
In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9).
In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out illustrations above.
Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)
Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses contracted, transposed, etc.
Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67. They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood; as, "Is it true, ornot;" "He is a philosopher,not a poet." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.
We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting, expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p. 144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the explanation ofparagraph, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in the Supplement.
We give below material for one composition:—
Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be distinguished.
In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head very large—out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.
Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen. Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another chamber added to the heart.
As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.
This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline.
It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read intelligently and profitably.
The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.
This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been passed over in the text-book.
It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. We offer the following explanation:—
"Mary arrivedsafe." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, andnotthemannerof her arriving, we usesafe, notsafely. "My head feelsbad" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shinesbright" (is bright—quality,—as perceived by its shining).
You must determine whether you wish to tell thequalityof the thing named or themannerof the action.
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly:—
1. I feel sad. 2. I feel deeply. 3. I feel miserable. 4. He appeared prompt and willing. 5. He appeared promptly and willingly. 6. She looks beautiful. 7. She sings beautifully.
When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often confounded in use; as,
Idoneit;Iseenit.
Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using thePastforms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and thePast Participleforms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs.
They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:—
ThePastis always an asserting, or predicate, word; thePast Participlenever asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb; thePresentmay be used as a predicate or as an infinitive.
Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:—
1.Laydown your pen. 2.Liedown, Rover. 3. Ilaiddown my pen. 4. The dog thenlaydown. 5. I havelaiddown my pen. 6. The dog haslaindown. 7.Setthe pail down. 8.Sitdown and rest. 9. I thensetit down. 10. Isatdown and rested. 11. I havesetit down. 12. I havesatdown. 13. My work waslaidaside. 14. I waslyingdown. 15. The trap wassetby the river. 16. I wassittingby the river. 17. The garmentsitswell. 18. The hensitson her eggs. 19. He came in andlaydown. 20. The Mediterraneanliesbetween Europe and Africa.
Notice that we may speak oflayingsomething orsettingsomething, or may say that something islaidor isset; but we cannot speak oflyingorsittingsomething, or of something beinglainorsat.Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sunset;" "Hesetout on a journey."
Lay, the present of the first verb, andlay, the past oflie, may easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed.
Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:—
The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys; the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies' manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's wages; those children's toys; women's hats.
This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement as the following:—
('s) and (') are the possessive signs, (') being used whenshas been added to denote more than one, ('s) in other cases.
Such expressions as the following may be copied:—
Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William theConqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications.
This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last word only.
The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation may aid some teachers:—
In "It made himsad,"madedoes not fully express the action performed upon him—not "madehim," but "made sad(saddened) him."Sadhelpsmadeto express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the result of the action belongs to the person represented by the objecthim.
Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call anObjective Complement.
Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as,
"They made Victoriaqueen,""It made himweep;""It kept himlaughing."
They | made / queen | Victoria======|=========================|
+Explanation+.—The line that separatesmadefromqueenslants toward the object complement to show thatqueenbelongs to the object.
A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case.
The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to behim," in whichitis object complement andto be himis objective complement.Him, the attribute complement ofbe, is in the objective case becauseit, the assumed subject ofbe, is objective. Let the pupils compare "I proved it to behim" with "I proved that it washe;" "Whomdid you suppose it to be?" with "Whodid you suppose it was?" etc.
The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the precedingLessons, may be introduced in a review course.
1. He gaveJohna book. 2. He boughtmea book.
Johnandme, as here used, are generally calledIndirect Objects. The "indirect object" names the onetoorforwhom something is done. We treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a bookto John;" "He bought a bookfor me."
Nouns denotingmeasure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, ordirectionmay be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition; as,
1. We walked fourmilesanhour. 2. It weighs onepound. 3. It is worth adollar. 4. The wall is tenfeet, sixincheshigh. 5. I wenthomethat way.
The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the "noun of measure:"—
They offered Caesar the crown three times.
They | offered | crown=======|====================| \ \ \the\ \ times\ \———\ \three\ Caesar\———
+Explanation+.—Caesar(the "indirect object") andtimes(denoting measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of prepositional phrases.
These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers.
Scheme for the Sentence.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
+Subject+.Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19).Phrase (49).Clause (61).
+Predicate+.Verb (6,16).
+Complements+.Object.Noun or Pronoun (39).Phrase (49).Clause (61).Attribute.Adjective (39).Noun or Pronoun (42).Phrase.Clause (61).
+Modifiers+.Adjectives (20, 22).Adverbs (24, 27).Participles (48).Nouns and Pronouns (53).Phrases (31, 48, 49).Clauses (57, 59).
+Connectives+.Conjunctions (35, 36, 62).Pronouns (57).Adverbs (59).
+Independent Parts (36, 64)+.
+Classes+—+Meaning+.—Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative,Exclamatory (63).
+Classes+—+Form+.—Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62).
Scheme for the Noun.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
+Uses+.Subject (6).Object Complement (39).Attribute Complement (42).Adjective Modifier (53).Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34).Independent (64).
+Classes+.Common (71).Proper (71).
+Modifications+.NumberSingular (78, 79).Plural (78, 79).
+Gender+.Masculine (80).Feminine (80).Neuter (80).
+Person+.First (81-83).Second (81-83).Third (81-83).
+Case+.Nominative (81-85).Possessive (81-85).Objective (81-85).
Scheme for the Pronoun.
+Uses+.—Same as those of the Noun.
+Classes+.Personal (71, 72).Relative (71, 72).Interrogative (71, 72).Adjective (71, 72).
+Modifications+.—Same as those of the Noun(78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95).
Scheme for the Verb.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
VERB.+Uses+Toassertaction, being, or state.—Predicate (6, 16).Toassumeaction, being, or state. Participles (48).Infinitives (49).
+Classes+.Form.Regular (74).Irregular (74, 91).Meaning.Transitive (74),Intransitive (74).
+Modifications+.Voice.Active (89).Passive (89).Mode.Indicative (90-94).Potential (90-94).Subjunctive (90-94).Imperative (90-94).Tense.Present (90-94).Past (90-94).Future (90-94).Present Perfect (90-94).Past Perfect (90-94).Future Perfect (90-94).Number.Singular (90, 92-95).Plural (90, 92-95).Person.First (90, 92-95).Second (90, 92-95).Third (90, 92-95).
+Participles+.—Classes.Present (90-94, 96, 98).Past (90-94, 96, 98).Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98).
+Infinitives+.—Tenses.Present (90, 92-94).Present Perfect (90, 92-94).
Scheme for the Adjective.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
+Uses+.Modifier (20, 23).Attribute Complement (39).
+Classes+.Descriptive (73).Definitive (73).
+Modification+.—Comparison.Pos. Deg. (87, 88).Comp. Deg. (87, 88).Sup. Deg. (87, 88).
Scheme for the Adverb.
+Classes+.Time (75).Place (75).Degree (75).Manner (75).
+Modification+—Comparison.Pos. Deg. (87, 88).Comp. Deg. (87, 88).Sup. Deg. (87, 88).
+Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int+.
THE CONJUNCTION.—+Classes+.Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.
THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).—No Classes. No Modifications.
THE INTERJECTION (36).—No Classes. No Modifications.
+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+.—Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away.
CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX.Sentence.Oh! Class: Int. Voice: Independent.Sub-C.: Mode:Tense:Per.:Num.:Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.:
it Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. ofhas.Sub-C.: Per. Mode:Tense:Per.: 3d.Num.: Sing.Gen.: Neut.Case: Nom.Deg. ofComp.: Pred. ofit.
has Class: Vb. Voice: Act.Sub-C.: Ir., Tr. Mode: Ind.Tense: Pres.Per.: 3d.Num.: Sing.Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.:
a Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. ofvoice.Sub-C.: Def. Mode:Tense:Per.:Num.:Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.: ——
voice Class: N. Voice: Obj. Com. ofhas.Sub-C.: Com. Mode:Tense:Per.: 3d.Num.: Sing.Gen.: Neut.Case: Obj.Deg. ofComp.:
for Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. ofSub-C.: Mode:hastoTense:those.Per.:Num.:Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.:
those Class: Pro. Voice: Prin. word afterSub-C.: Adj. Mode:for.Tense:Per.: 3d.Num.: Plu.Gen.: M.or F.Case: Obj.Deg. ofComp.:
who Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. oflieandSub-C.: Rel. Mode:waste.Tense:Per.: 3d.Num.: Plu.Gen.: M.or F.Case: Nom.Deg. ofComp.:
on Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. oflieSub-C.: Mode: tobeds.Tense:Per.:Num.:Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.:
their Class: Pro. Voice: Pos. Mod. ofSub-C.: Per. Mode:beds.Tense:Per.: 3d.Num.: Plu.Gen.: M.or F.Case: Pos.Deg. ofComp.:
sick Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. ofbeds.Sub-C.: Des. Mode:Tense:Per.:Num.:Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.: Pos.
beds Class: N. Voice: Prin. word afterSub-C.: Com. Mode:on.Tense:Per.: 3d.Num.: Plu.Gen.: Neut.Case: Obj.Deg. ofComp.:
lie Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. ofwho.Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind.Tense: Pres.Per.: 3d.Num.: Plu.Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.:
and Class: Conj. Voice: Con.lieandSub-C.: Co-or. Mode:waste.Tense:Per.:Num.:Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.:
waste Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. ofwho.Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind.Tense: Pres.Per.: 3d.Num.: Plu.Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.:
away. Class: Adv. Voice: Mod. ofwaste.Sub-C.: Place Mode:Tense:Per.:Num.:Gen.:Case:Deg. ofComp.: ——
For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons onAnalysis.
+Remark+.—Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses.
+Copulative+.—And, both…and, as well as, [Footnote: Theas well asin "He,as well asI, went"; and not that in "He isas well asI am."] are conjunctions proper. Accordingly,also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, andthereforeare conjunctive adverbs.
+Adversative+.—Butandwhereasare conjunctions proper. However,nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, andyetare conjunctive adverbs.
+Alternative+.—Neither, nor, or, either… or, andneither…norare conjunctions proper.Elseandotherwiseare conjunctive adverbs.
Connectives of Adjective Clauses.
That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are relative pronouns.When, where, whereby, wherein, andwhyare conjunctive adverbs.
Connectives of Adverb Clauses.
Time.—After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, andwhilstare conjunctive adverbs.
Place.—Whence, where, andwhereverare conjunctive adverbs.
Degree.—As, than, that, andtheare conjunctive adverbs, correlative, with adjectives or adverbs.
Manner.—Asis a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an adjective or an adverb.
Real Cause.—As, because, for, since, andwhereasare conjunctions proper.
Reason.—Because, for, andsinceare conjunctions proper.
Purpose.—In order that, lest(=that not)that, andso thatare conjunctions proper.
Condition.—Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, andunlessare conjunctions proper.
Concession.—Although, if(=even if),notwithstanding, though, andwhetherare conjunctions proper.Howeveris a conjunctive adverb.Whatever, whichever, andwhoeverare relative pronouns used indefinitely.
+Connectives of Noun Clauses+.
If, lest, that, andwhetherare conjunctions proper.What, which, andwhoare pronouns introducing questions;how, when, whence, where, andwhyare conjunctive adverbs.
+Remarks+.—Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and wherever certain terms frequently occur.
Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names are almost always abbreviated.
Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for one of two Christian names.
Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as,Jul.for "July,"Jno.for "John,"da.for "day," etc.
1_st_, 2_d_, 3_d_, 4_th_, etc., are not followed by the period. They are not treated as abbreviations.
@, At.+A. B.+ or +B. A.+ (Artium Baccalaureus), Bachelor ofArts.+Acct., acct.+, or +a/c+, Account.+A. D.+ (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.+Adjt.+, Adjutant.+Aet.+ or +aet.+ (aetatis), Of age, aged.+Ala.+, Alabama.+Alex.+, Alexander.+A. M.+ or +M. A.+ (Artium Magister), Master of Arts.+A. M.+ (ante meridiem), Before noon.+Amt.+, Amount.+And.+, Andrew.+Anon.+, Anonymous.+Ans.+, Answer.+Anth.+, Anthony.+Apr.+, April.+Arch.+, Archibald.+Ark.+, Arkansas.+Arizona+ or +Ariz.+, Arizona Territory.+Atty.+, Attorney.+Atty.-Gen.+, Attorney-General.+Aug.+, August; Augustus.+Av.+ or +Ave.+, Avenue.+Avoir.+, Avoirdupois.+Bart.+, Baronet.+bbl.+, Barrels.+B. C.+, Before Christ.+Benj.+, Benjamin.+Brig.-Gen.+, Brigadier-General.+B. S.+, Bachelor of Science.+bu.+, Bushels.+c+ or +ct.+, Cents.+Cal.+, California.+Cap.+, Capital. +Caps.+, Capitals.+Capt.+, Captain.+C. E.+, Civil Engineer.+cf.+ (confer), Compare.+Chas.+, Charles.+Chron.+, Chronicles.+Co.+, Company; County.+c/o+, In care of.+C. O. D.+, Collect on delivery.+Col.+, Colonel; Colossians.+Coll.+, College; Collector.+Conn.+, Connecticut.+Colo+, or +Col.+, Colorado.+Cr.+, Credit; Creditor.+cub. ft.+, Cubic feet.+cub. in.+, Cubic inches.+cwt.+, Hundred-weight.+d.+, Days; Pence.+Danl.+ or +Dan.+, Daniel.+D. C.+, District of Columbia.+D. C. L.+, Doctor of Civil Law.+D. D.+ (Divinitatis Doctor), Doctor of Divinity.+D. D. S.+, Doctor of Dental Surgery.+Dec.+, December.+Del.+, Delaware.+Deut.+, Deuteronomy.+D. G.+ (Dei gratia), By the grace of God.+Dist.-Atty.+, District-Attorney.+D. M.+, Doctor of Music.+do.+ (ditto), The same.+doz.+, Dozen.+Dr.+, Doctor; Debtor.+D. V.+ (Deo volente), God willing.+E.+, East.+Eben.+, Ebenezer.+Eccl.+, Ecclesiastes.+Ed.+, Edition; Editor.+Edm.+, Edmund.+Edw.+, Edward.+e. g.+ (exempli gratia), For example.+E. N. E.+, East-northeast.+Eng.+, English; England.+Eph.+, Ephesians; Ephraim.+E. S. E.+, East-southeast.+Esq.+, Esquire.+et al.+ (et alibi), And elsewhere.+et al.+ (et alii), And others.+et seq.+ (et sequeniia), And following.+etc.+ or +&c.+ (et caetera), And others; And so forth.+Ex.+, Example; Exodus.+Ez.+, Ezra.+Ezek.+, Ezekiel.+Fahr.+ or +F.+, Fahrenheit (thermometer).+Feb.+, February.+Fla.+, Florida.+Fr.+, French; France.+Fran.+, Francis.+Fred.+, Frederic.+Fri.+, Friday.+ft.+, Feet.+Ft.+, Fort.+fur.+, Furlong.+Ga.+, Georgia.+Gal.+, Galatians.+gal.+, Gallons.+Gen.+, General; Genesis.+Geo.+, George.+Gov.+, Governor.+gr.+, Grains.+h.+, Hours.+Hab.+, Habakkuk.+Hag.+, Haggai.+H. B. M.+, His (or Her) Britannic Majesty.+hdkf.+, Handkerchief.+Heb.+, Hebrews.+H. H.+, His Holiness (the Pope).+hhd.+, Hogsheads.+H. M.+, His (or Her) Majesty.+Hon.+, Honorable.+Hos.+, Hosea.+H. R. H.+, His (or Her) Royal Highness.+ib.+ or +ibid+, (ibidem), In the same place.+id.+ (idem), The same.+Idaho+, Idaho.+i.e.+ (id est), That is.+I. H. S.+ (Jesus hominum Salvator), Jesus, the Savior of Men.+Ill.+, Illinois.+in.+, Inches.+incog.+ (i_ncognito_), Unknown.+Ind.+, Indiana.+Ind. T.+, Indian Territory.+inst.+, Instant, the present month.+Iowa+ or +Io.+, Iowa.+I. O. O. F.+, Independent Order of Odd Fellows.+Isa.+, Isaiah.+Jac.+, Jacob.+Jan.+, January.+Jas.+, James.+Jer.+, Jeremiah.+Jona.+, Jonathan.+Jos.+, Joseph.+Josh.+, Joshua.+Jr.+ or +Jun.+, Junior.+Judg.+, Judges.+Kans.+ or +Kan.+, Kansas.+Ky.+, Kentucky.+l.+, Line; ll., Lines.+l.+ or +lb.+, Pounds sterling.+La.+, Louisiana.+Lam.+, Lamentations.+L.+, Latin.+lb.+ or lb-. (libraorlibrae), Pound or pounds in weight.+l.c.+, Lower case (small letter).+Lev.+, Leviticus.+L. I.+, Long Island.+Lieut.+, Lieutenant.+LL. B.+(Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.+LL. D.+ (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.+M.+ or +Mons.+, Monsieur.+M.+ (meridies), Noon.+m.+, Miles; Minutes.+Mad.+, Madam. +Mme.+, Madame.+Maj.+, Major.+Mal.+, Malachi.+Mar.+, March.+Mass.+, Massachusetts.+Matt.+, Matthew.+M. C.+, Member of Congress.+M. D.+ (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.+Md.+, Maryland.+mdse.+, Merchandise.+Me.+, Maine.+Mem.+, Memorandum; Memoranda.+Messrs.+, Messieurs.+Mic.+, Micah.+Mgr.+, Monseigneur.+Mich.+, Michigan; Michael.+Minn.+, Minnesota.+Miss.+, Mississippi.+Mlle.+, Mademoiselle.+Mmes.+, Mesdames.+Mo.+, Missouri.+mo.+, Months.+Mon.+, Monday.+M. P.+, Member of Parliament.+Mont.+, Montana.+Mr.+, Mister.+Mrs.+, Mistress (pronounced Missis).+MS.+, Manuscript.+MSS.+, Manuscripts.+Mt.+, Mountain.+N.+, North.+N. A.+, North America.+Nath.+, Nathaniel.+N. B.+ (nota bene), Mark well.+N. C.+, North Carolina.+N. Dak.+, North Dakota.+N. E.+, New England.+N. E.+, Northeast.+Nebr.+ or +Neb.+, Nebraska.+Neh.+, Nehemiah.+Nev.+, Nevada.+N. H.+, New Hampshire.+N. J.+, New Jersey.+N. Mex.+ or +N. M.+, New Mexico.+N. N. E.+, North-northeast.+N. N. W.+, North-northwest.+N. O.+, New Orleans.+No.+ (numero), Number,+Nov.+, November.+N. W.+, Northwest+N. Y.+, New York.+Obad.+, Obadiah.+Oct.+, October.+Ohio+ or +O.+, Ohio.+Oreg.+ or +Or.+, Oregon.+Oxon.+ (Oxonia), Oxford,+oz.+, Ounces.+p.+, Page, +pp.+, Pages.+Pa.+ or +Penn.+, Pennsylvania.+Payt.+ or +payt.+, Payment.+per cent+, or +per ct.+ (per centum) or %, By the hundred.+Ph. D.+ (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.+Phil.+, Philip; Philippians.+Phila.+, Philadelphia.+pk.+, Pecks.+P. M.+, Postmaster.+P. M.+ or +p. m.+ (post meridiem), Afternoon.+P. O.+, Post-Office.+Pres.+, President.+Prof.+, Professor.+Pro tem.+ (pro tempore), For the time being.+Prov.+, Proverbs.+prox.+ (proximo), The next month.+P. S.+, Postscript.+Ps.+, Psalms.+pt.+, Pints.+pwt.+, Pennyweights.+qt.+, Quarts.+q. v.+ (quod vide), Which see.+Qy.+, Query.+rd.+, Rods.+Recd.+, Received.+Rev.+, Reverend; Revelation.+R. I.+, Rhode Island.+Robt.+, Robert.+Rom.+, Romans (Book of); Roman letters.+R. R.+, Railroad.+R. S. V. P.+ (Repondez s'il vous plait), Answer, if you please.+Rt. Hon.+, Right Honorable.+Rt. Rev.+, Right Reverend.+S.+, South.+s.+, Shillings.+S. A.+, South America.+Saml.+ or +Sam.+, Samuel.+Sat.+, Saturday.+S. C.+, South Carolina.+S. Dak.+, South Dakota.+S. E.+, Southeast.+Sec.+, Secretary.+sec.+, Seconds.+Sep.+ or +Sept.+, September.+Sol.+, Solomon.+sq. ft.+, Square feet.+sq. in.+, Square inches.+sq. m.+, Square miles.+S. S. E.+, South-southeast.+S. S. W.+, South-southwest.+St.+, Street; Saint.+S. T. D.+ (Sacrae Theologiae Doctor), Doctor of Divinity.+Sun.+, Sunday.+Supt.+, Superintendent.+S. W.+, Southwest.+T.+, Tons; Tuns.+Tenn.+, Tennessee.+Tex.+, Texas.+Theo.+, Theodore.+Theoph.+, Theophilus.+Thess.+, Thessalonians,+Thos.+, Thomas.+Thurs.+, Thursday.+Tim.+, Timothy.+tr.+, Transpose.+Treas.+, Treasurer.+Tues.+, Tuesday.+ult.+ (ultimo), Last—last month.+U. S.+ or +U. S. A.+, United States of America; United States Army.+U. S. M.+, United States Mail.+U. S. N.+, United States Navy.+Utah+ or +U. Ter.+, Utah Territory.+Va.+, Virginia.+Vice-Pres.+, Vice-President.+viz.+ (videlicet), To wit, namely.+vol.+, Volume.+vs.+ (versus), Against.+Vt.+, Vermont.+W.+, West.+Wash.+, Washington.+Wed.+, Wednesday.+Wis.+, Wisconsin.+wk.+, Weeks.+Wm.+, William.+W. N. W.+, West-northwest.+W. S. W.+, West-southwest.+W. Va.+, West Virginia.+Wyo.+, Wyoming.+Xmas.+, Christmas.+yd.+, Yards.+y.+ or +yr.+, Years.+Zech.+, Zechariah.+& Co.+, And Company.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body may very often be seen rapidly retreating.
This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface.
It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.—We will break up Mr. Darwin's first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each having but one predicate verb.
1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating.
Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What doesoftendo? What does the group of wordsfor hoursdo? The groupalmost motionlessdescribes what things? The groupclose beneath the mouths of their burrows, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief words in 2.Thishelps out the meaning ofsays, but it is not an adverb.Thisis here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole sentence doesthistake the place of? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed? What doesoccasionallydo? What doessamego with? What group of eight words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified subject and predicate in 4. What does the secondtheirgo with? What doesby looking down into their burrowstell? What doesjustdo? In 5, putwhatbeforemay be removed, and find two words either of which may be used as subject. What is the office ofthe,ejected, and the groupover the burrows? What doessuddenlydo? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 6.Retreatinghelps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice thatthe end rapidly retreatingis not a sentence, nor isworms kept in pots, in 3.Retreatingandkepthere express action, but they are not predicates; they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb do not assert.Of the worm's bodymodifies what?Thenandvery oftendo what?
If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence. You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 aftersaysto tell what Morren says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this sentence about so as to makesays Morrencome last. See how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by the semi-colon. Notice thatifhas much to do in joining 5 and 6. These are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order. Find, if you can, still another arrangement.
+To the Teacher+.—It is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book.
If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above.
We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection fromDarwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine.