Note.—The student will find hereafter that the dual number is sometimes used for the plural.In addressing an individualiais sometimes used in the second person by Ngapuhi; e. g., E ia. It is used in a very strange combination also withwaiby some tribes; e. g.,Ko wai ia?who said so?
Note.—The student will find hereafter that the dual number is sometimes used for the plural.
In addressing an individualiais sometimes used in the second person by Ngapuhi; e. g., E ia. It is used in a very strange combination also withwaiby some tribes; e. g.,
ThePersonal Pronounsadmit, in the singular, ofdeclension; e. g.,
Pronouns, in common with nouns, have no gender. There is no word in Maori to denote the pronounitwith its dual and plural. Their place is generally supplied by some artifice of the construction, as will be shewn in the Syntax.
As thepossessivepronouns are closely connected with thepersonal, they may be mentioned next.
They are as follows:
The other possessive pronouns are formed from the dual and plural of their respective pronouns by prefixingo; e. g.,
Such words ashimself,his own,my own, &c., are expressed in Maori by some adverb added in the sentence; e. g., Nonaake anotona aroha ki a tatou,his love to us was his own; i. e., was self-derived.
The adverbs most usually employed for this purpose areake,ano,noa,iho,tonu.
The next in order are the relative pronouns. For these there is no distinct form in Maori. Sometimes they are wholly omitted in the sentence; e. g.
At other times their place is supplied by some artifice of the construction. Vid. S.
The demonstrative pronouns are as follows:Taua,tenei,tena,tera, and their respective plurals,aua,enei,ena,era.
Teneiandauaare used forthatandthose.Teneiis applied to the object nearest at hand, or to the point of discourse to which the speaker had last alluded;tenato an object near to, or connected with, you the person spoken to;terato an object farther remote; e. g.,
The same distinction is to be observed in the plural number.
It may be questioned whether tenei and its branches are not, liketo, (vid. article) compounded of two words, viz.teandnei, &c. They can always, at least, be resolved into them; e. g., Ho mai tena mea,give me that thing, is the same as ho mai te mea na. There is, however, a little difference in the uses of these two forms which the attentive student will discover by observation.Nei,na, andra, are mostly added (like the ci, and lá of French) to point at the object more forcibly.When the speaker wishes to denote the object withfamiliarity,contempt, &c., he generally uses the resolved form; e. g., Ka hinga ahau i te wakatakariri kitetangatanei,I fall with anger at the fellow here.Sometimes we meet with nei and its branches twice repeated; e. g., tenei na, tera ra.Nei, &c., are often used in asking questions; e. g., nei na?Is this it?Ra ra?Is that it?Note.—The speaker should be careful in speaking not to confound this demi-pronoun with the interrogative particleNe.
It may be questioned whether tenei and its branches are not, liketo, (vid. article) compounded of two words, viz.teandnei, &c. They can always, at least, be resolved into them; e. g., Ho mai tena mea,give me that thing, is the same as ho mai te mea na. There is, however, a little difference in the uses of these two forms which the attentive student will discover by observation.
Nei,na, andra, are mostly added (like the ci, and lá of French) to point at the object more forcibly.
When the speaker wishes to denote the object withfamiliarity,contempt, &c., he generally uses the resolved form; e. g., Ka hinga ahau i te wakatakariri kitetangatanei,I fall with anger at the fellow here.
Sometimes we meet with nei and its branches twice repeated; e. g., tenei na, tera ra.
Nei, &c., are often used in asking questions; e. g., nei na?Is this it?Ra ra?Is that it?
Note.—The speaker should be careful in speaking not to confound this demi-pronoun with the interrogative particleNe.
Sometimes we meet withiaused as a demonstrative, e. g.,
Note—Anei, andaraare often used by Ngapuhi foreneiandera.
The interrogative pronouns arewai,aha,tehea, and its pluralehea,kohea, and sometimes, (particularly in Waikato,)pehea.
Waiis applied (1) to persons, and (2) to animals or things, ascanoes,ships, &c., to which the name of a man has been given, and is always the pronoun used in asking the question, What is his name? It is sometimes applied tocountries, &c.; but, in such caseskoheais the pronoun most frequently used.
The following are examples of the uses ofwaiandkohea:
Note.—Wai will sometimes take the plural form by havingmapostfixed; e. g., Ko wai ma ena?Who are they?
Ahais applied to everything in whichkindis denoted; so also ispeheasometimes:
EXAMPLES.
Note.—The above sentence decides the right ofpeheato be considered a pronoun. Most of the compounds however ofhea; such as,kohea,pehea,nohea,ihea,mohea, &c., ought most probably to be considered as belonging to the class of adverbs.
The student will find, as we proceed, that the lines of distinction between the various classes of pronoun, adverb, preposition, noun, verb and adjective, are frequently but faintly marked, and that the same word may be often noticed as standing in four or five different ranks.
Tehea, and its plural ehea, is applied towhichof a number, and is used to denotepersons, orthings; e. g.,
Note.—Pronouns are sometimes employed to denote the time of the sentence, as will be seen hereafter. (vid. verbs.)
Eachandevery one, are expressed by the demonstrative or possessive pronoun, and the noun twice or thrice repeated; e. g.,
Some otherandany, are most frequently denoted byte tahi, and its plurale tahi; sometimes also by the prepositioni; (vid. prepositions.)
Whatever,whatsoever, &c., are expressed in various ways; as may be seen in the following examples:
§ 1.Classification.—They may be distributed in
(a)Primitive, i. e., underived from other words; e. g.,
(b)Derivative, i. e. such as are derived from words of some other root; e. g.,
This class is by far the most numerous. Under it also may be comprised
(1) Verbs formed by reduplication; e. g.
(2)Compoundverbs, i. e. verbs formed from two or more words joined together; e. g.
Note.—As the same word is very frequently used in Maori as verb, substantive, adjective, and adverb, it is often impossible to determine under which of the above classes it should be ranked; neither, indeed, will it be necessary; as the origin of the verb in no way affects its grammatical relations.
§. 2.Number,Person, andGender.—Maori verbs are not declined by inflection; i. e. by variation of the ground form; and therefore know nothing of number, person, and gender.
§. 3.MoodandTense.—As neither the ground form, nor the auxiliary particles experience any variation from change of mood, we cannot recognize any grammatical form for denoting moods in Maori, and shall not therefore enter any farther into the subject at present.
Note 1.—The only variations we have been able to discover are1st. Those for denoting the imperative mood.2nd. The prefixing of the particle waka to the verb, and thus causing a Hiphil, or causative, conjugation. The prefixing of a conjunction cannot, we think, warrant the creation of a distinct form for the subjunctive mood.Note 2.—As the business of the grammarian lies principally with the grammatical form of words, i. e., with those means with which a language is supplied for expressing the different varieties of thought, it is clear that no form is to be admitted under any head, which does not denote a meaning specifically belonging to that head. Thus, in the case of the Maori moods, we never, (as we sometimes do in English and other languages,) meet with a variation informfrom the root, either in the case of the verb itself, or its auxiliaries; and we therefore consider that,grammaticallyspeaking, we have no form for these moods.It is true, that in alogicalpoint of view, i. e., when the signification alone is considered, a great many varieties both of mood and tense might be established. But this can never be admitted as the basis on which a grammar should be constructed; neither can any maxim be more true than that "equivalence in sense does not imply similarity in grammatical nature."
Note 1.—The only variations we have been able to discover are
1st. Those for denoting the imperative mood.
2nd. The prefixing of the particle waka to the verb, and thus causing a Hiphil, or causative, conjugation. The prefixing of a conjunction cannot, we think, warrant the creation of a distinct form for the subjunctive mood.
Note 2.—As the business of the grammarian lies principally with the grammatical form of words, i. e., with those means with which a language is supplied for expressing the different varieties of thought, it is clear that no form is to be admitted under any head, which does not denote a meaning specifically belonging to that head. Thus, in the case of the Maori moods, we never, (as we sometimes do in English and other languages,) meet with a variation informfrom the root, either in the case of the verb itself, or its auxiliaries; and we therefore consider that,grammaticallyspeaking, we have no form for these moods.
It is true, that in alogicalpoint of view, i. e., when the signification alone is considered, a great many varieties both of mood and tense might be established. But this can never be admitted as the basis on which a grammar should be constructed; neither can any maxim be more true than that "equivalence in sense does not imply similarity in grammatical nature."
§. 4.Tense.—Maori abounds in a variety of forms for denoting modifications of time. They are designated by verbal particles, (vid. Note,) adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, and the articlesheandteplaced in connexion with the verb. The force of these, again, is, in a large majority of cases, determined by the context, and we believe ourselves to be correct in saying that there are, in this language, but fewabsoluteforms for determiningtense; for example:
Note.—The verbal particles are words which have no meaning in themselves, but which prefixed to a word, endue it with the qualities of a verb. They correspond to the auxiliary verbs of English, but do not admit of the same varieties of applications: neither can they lay claim to the rank of verb substantive. Thus in Maori we have nodirectform for such phrases as the following,I am,you will, &c.
§. 5. They are as follows:e,ana,ha,kua,i,kia,hei,me,kaua,aua, andkei.
Their uses will be best ascertained by examining the paradigm at the end of this section. A more full consideration of them and of the other modes of construction, which are therein contained, will be deferred to the Syntax.
As the voice of the verb but little affects its conjugation, we have not thought it necessary to make any separate head for the different voices; but have represented all in the one table.
The student, however, is recommended to read our remarks on the passive voice before he proceeds to examine into the tenses.
§. 6. It may be naturally expected that, in an unpolished language like Maori, there should not be much that is artificial, or complicated, in the arrangement of tenses. Such we believe to be the case. It is true that some would contend for as many tenses as may be found in English; but, independently of the improbability of such a thing, we believe that a careful investigation will lead the inquirer to the arrangement which we have adopted; viz. thepresent, thepast, and thefuture.
It is true that other tenses may sometimes be met with which are accurately defined; but we cannot admit them a distinct place in the modifications of the simple verb; because such forms are always compound, or depend, at least, for their meaning upon the construction, and belong more properly to the syntax than to this part of the grammar.
§ 7. In examining into the time of a verb, it will often be very necessary for the student to notice whether the sentence, in which it is contained, issimple, orcompound; asimplesentence[12]is that which consists of only one time; e. g.
Acompoundsentence is that in which two times are introduced; e. g.
Of this, however, more hereafter.
We may here also mention that it will often be very necessary to notice the circumstances connected with the uttering of a sentence, i. e. whether it be emphatic; whether it be the answer to a question; whether a large measure of certainty is designed to be implied, &c., &c. On these particulars we shall remark in the Syntax.
.As it is quite immaterial with which part of the verb we commence, we begin with the imperative; simply because our remarks on it will be rather extended, and 2ndly, because we wish that our illustrations of that mood should appear in an unbroken line with our examples of the other parts of the Maori verbs.
§. 8. The imperative mood of Maori abounds in more minute distinctions than any other part of the verb. We present them all here; chiefly because the sentences in which they occur are, for the most part,simple.
1. The most common form for expressing theimperativeof an active verb is by itspassive; e. g.,
For the passive voice, see table under that head.
2. (a) If the verb be neuter, and in the second person, the simple ground form is used; e. g.,
(b) Occasionally, however, we find the passive form used, when the meaning of the verb is neuter; e. g.
Sometimes both active and neuter verbs will take the verbal prefixese,kia,hei,me,kaua,aua,kei, before them to denote the imperative.
(c)Eis used sometimes to denote the imperative of active and neuter verbs. It is chiefly used with the second person singular, dual, and plural.
It is never found in the first person singular; but is occasionally used in the first person dual and plural. We know of no instance in which it is employed in the third person, and we believe the following sentence to be incorrect: E aroha mai te Atua ki a tatou,may God love us.
N.B.—Illustrations of these remarks will be given in the table.
(d)Kiais capable of being used in all the persons of the imperative. It is the particle most frequently used with the first person. In the second, it is chiefly used with verbalized adjectives; though occasionally it is prefixed to the verb. In the third, it is used before either adjective or verb, and by its help we may, perhaps, make the best approximation to a form of the imperative in which Maori has been heretofore deficient; viz.—the benedictory; as in such sentences as the following:God be merciful to you.
N.B.—Another way for rendering the above sentence (and one equally deserving of attention) is by the prepositionma; as in the following; ma te atua koe e atawhai.
We ourselves much incline to a form which, at first sight, may not appear very appropriate; viz., kei te atua te atawhai, or tera kei te atua, &c. Though these forms are apparentlyindicative, yet they are frequently used in theimperativesense; Kei a koe te whakaaro mo tenathe consideration for that is with you, i. e.,you are to attend to that; kei a koe te tahi kupu ki a tatou,a word to us is with you, i. e.,give us a word. Tena ano tetahi taro i a koe ma taku tamaiti,give me some bread for my child. E kite koe i a Hone tena te tahi paraikete,if you see John, give me a blanket, i. e.,tell John to &c.
The dehortative and cautionary particleskaua,aua,kei, belong strictly to the imperative.
(e) Under this head we should perhaps also mention the particleme. As it is occasionally heard instead of the real imperative, we shall give it a place here.It will be observed that it does not take the passive after it; e. g.,
(f) The only particles the imperative of passive verbs will admit before it are,kia,kaua,aua, andkei. Following is a table of sentences illustrative of the above remarks. We have preferred placing them all in one list that the student may more easily catch the various distinctions. Other forms are given by which the imperative is sometimes denoted.
The attention of the reader is also requested to the following paradigm of the tenses as classified according to our arrangement.
He will observe that, asnumberandpersonmake no difference in the form, one example of a kind will be sufficient.
Most of the sentences here inserted are simple. We shall reserve the consideration of the compound sentences for the Syntax.
PRESENT SINGULAR.
DUAL AND PLURAL.
OTHER FORMS FOR THE PRESENT.
PAST TENSE.
FUTURE.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
§. 6.Voice.—Maori verbs, in respect of voice, may be considered under the three well known heads ofactive,passiveandneuter.
§. 7. Theactiveis the simple root modified by one or more of the words already mentioned, e. g. e patu ana ahau,I am striking.
§. 8. Thepassiveis the root varied in its termination; e. g. e patua ana ahau,I am struck.
Note.—The student will find, as we proceed, that the Maori passive differs in some respects from that of the English, Latin and Greek.
§. 9. Theneuterexpresses being, or a state or condition of being; when the agent and the object acted upon coincide, and the event is properly neitheraction nor passion, but rather something between both: asI am,I sleep,I walk."[14]
Note.—Verbs derived from the simple adjective will generally rank under the head of neuter. Under this class also do we reduce a species of verbs in the arrangement of which we have felt some difficulty; viz.—such words as, pakaru,broken; marere,conceded, &c.,i. e., words which are neuter in form, but passive in meaning; which correspond in meaning to the past participle passive of the European languages, but are not traceable to any root. After much consideration we are inclined to think that they may most satisfactorily be regarded as adjectives, and classified accordingly: thus, in the following sentence, "kua pakaru te waka i te ngaru,"the canoe has been broken by the waves, we should regardpakaruas an adjective, or rather a verbalized adjective, just as much as we should kino in the following, "kuakinote waka i te paru,"the canoe is bad, or uncomfortable, through the filth.To any who wishes to regard such a class as passive participles, we would reply, that the prepositioni, (note,) following them clearly determines them as belonging to the neuter family; and that though their meaning may not coincide with our definition of a neuter verb, yet we feel no difficulty on that head; for we only act in common with other grammarians, who have laid it down as a useful rule "a potiori nomen fit."As it may be useful to the student to be acquainted with this class of words we will supply a table of some of the principal, after we have made some farther observations on the voices.[15]
Note.—Verbs derived from the simple adjective will generally rank under the head of neuter. Under this class also do we reduce a species of verbs in the arrangement of which we have felt some difficulty; viz.—such words as, pakaru,broken; marere,conceded, &c.,i. e., words which are neuter in form, but passive in meaning; which correspond in meaning to the past participle passive of the European languages, but are not traceable to any root. After much consideration we are inclined to think that they may most satisfactorily be regarded as adjectives, and classified accordingly: thus, in the following sentence, "kua pakaru te waka i te ngaru,"the canoe has been broken by the waves, we should regardpakaruas an adjective, or rather a verbalized adjective, just as much as we should kino in the following, "kuakinote waka i te paru,"the canoe is bad, or uncomfortable, through the filth.
To any who wishes to regard such a class as passive participles, we would reply, that the prepositioni, (note,) following them clearly determines them as belonging to the neuter family; and that though their meaning may not coincide with our definition of a neuter verb, yet we feel no difficulty on that head; for we only act in common with other grammarians, who have laid it down as a useful rule "a potiori nomen fit."
As it may be useful to the student to be acquainted with this class of words we will supply a table of some of the principal, after we have made some farther observations on the voices.[15]
In the passive we meet with variation in the termination of the ground-form.
(a) It will be seen that the above arrangement is made according to the final letter of the ground form, and that each division contains some examples of reduplicated words, and of words ending in diphthongs.
(b) That, in words ending ina, the passive is mostly made by adding to the last syllableia,ngia,kia,hia,ina,atia,kina.
(c) That some verbs receive no additions to the last syllable; asmaka, and that the active and passive are, in those cases, alike. On the Eastern coastiatakes the place of simpleain the passive; e. g. maka, makaia.
The speaker should be always careful, in pronouncing passiveato throw the emphasis strongly on the last syllable. The following words are of this description: panga,to throw away; pana,to shove away, &c.; kanga,to curse; wakamana,to ratify, &c.; taunaha,to bespeak; taka,to fall from a height; unga,to send; waha,to carry on the back.
(d) That some verbs have sometimes two or more terminations for the passive; as arohatia, arohaina, arohangia. We may here remark that some words have different passives in different districts; e. g.
(e) That in words, one or more of the syllables of which are repeated, the reduplication will very frequently be dropped in the passive; e. g.
Note.—It must however be noticed that there are many exceptions to this rule, and that the omitting or retaining the reduplication is often left to the option of the speaker. In those instances, however, in which he wishes to denote with peculiar emphasis thedistribution,repetition, &c., implied by the reduplication, he always, as far as he can, retains it; e. g.Titititia,strike every one of the nails.Patupatua,strike with many blows, &c.
Note.—It must however be noticed that there are many exceptions to this rule, and that the omitting or retaining the reduplication is often left to the option of the speaker. In those instances, however, in which he wishes to denote with peculiar emphasis thedistribution,repetition, &c., implied by the reduplication, he always, as far as he can, retains it; e. g.
(f) In a few instances we meet with a passive formed by a change of the first syllable; e. g.
Examples of this rule are very few.
(g) Of the passives of compound verbs, two examples are given at the end of the table. The rule for their formation is the same as that for the passives of simple verbs: the final letters, in both cases, being theonly thing on which they depend. Occasionally, however, we meet with a word resolved into two parts, and each part put into the passive voice; e. g.,
There is another form similar to the preceding, which requires to be mentioned here; viz., when two verbs follow each other in immediate succession, one of which acts as a kind of adverb, or qualifying word, to the other, they will both sympathize with each other in voice; will either be both active or both passive; e. g.,
In such phrases the latter of the two verbs will generally taketiafor its passive form.
(h) Occasionally a passive word may be met with which has no active; asparangiae te moe,oppressed by sleep;rokohinaandrokohanga,waiho,homaiandhoatu.
(i) Passive verbs are used in a more extended sense in Maori, than what is commonly met with in other languages, not excepting, perhaps, even the three passives of Hebrew.
The following are a few illustrations of the various uses:—
For further remarks on this part of the Maori verb, vid. S.