CLOTH

[3]The prices of leathers given in the text are those which prevailed during the summer of 1915.

Sheepskin

Sheepskin is a soft, flexible leather with weak fibres, and with a surface easily abraded. It has been used for bindings practically ever since books wereput into leathers; and, under the old methods of tanning and manufacturing, proved satisfactory. In many libraries it is possible to see leather books bound in sheep in the 17th century which are in a good state of preservation. Even the sheep of the beginning of the 19th century is frequently well preserved. Since 1860, however, the quality of sheep has greatly deteriorated. This is bad enough, but unfortunately sheep likes to masquerade under the name of morocco and other leathers of a better grade, so that its use is much more extensive than appears at first sight. In the process of imitation the grain of the leather imitated is stamped on the skin. When this is done it generally takes an expert to detect the fact that the leather is not what it pretends to be, and even experts are sometimes deceived after the leather is on a book.

The strongest sheepskins are made when tanned with oak bark. Sumac, which is such a valuable tanning material with other leathers, is here inferior to oak.

There are two kinds of sheepskin, the wool sheep which is known to all, and the hair sheep which is not found in the United States, and which in reality is a cross between a sheep and a goat. The hair sheep comes from India, China, South America and Africa, generally from mountainous districts. It has a much tougher fibre and is a better wearing skin than that of the wool sheep. Unfortunately most of these skins, which are all imported, are made into shoe leather. When properly tanned they are very suitablefor library binding, and their use for that purpose is increasing.

The wool sheepskin in its natural color has been used for many years for binding law books. It is seldom used for anything except government documents and law books, and for this reason is known as "law-sheep."

Roan.Roans, the term used for sheepskins after they are dyed, can be used advantageously on books which will be handled a great deal, and which in any event will not stay on the shelves indefinitely. Properly tanned and dyed, they make a satisfactory leather for a time, but their life under the best of conditions seldom exceeds ten or twelve years. While this is true of good roans, it unfortunately remains true that in the United States, at least, it is difficult to get roans that are properly tanned and dyed. Therefore, unless one is sure that the quality of the skin is the best, he should use no sheep under any conditions.

Skiver.Skiver is the outside of a sheepskin which has been split, the inner side being known as the flesher. It is a leather much used for commercial binding, but since the splitting process takes away a great part of the strength of the skin, leaving it not much stronger than strong paper, skiver is wholly unfitted for library use.

Cowhide

Cowhide, sometimes known as American russia, is a leather which has increased enormously in use in the last twenty-five years. It is a thick, coarseleather, rather unattractive in appearance, strong when new, but with age rapidly deteriorating in quality, even when no deleterious substance has been used in tanning or dyeing. It is a harder leather to work than roan, but the quality is much more uniform and it can be used advantageously for binding fiction and other books which will be much used. In its natural state (undyed) it can be used in place of law-sheep for law books, but has a tendency to become dark. It can be obtained in many colors. Since it is too thick a leather to be used in full thickness, practically all skins are split, and the amount of flesh left with the grain determines the weight of the leather. A greater or less amount is taken off according to the purpose for which the leather is intended. Bookbinding cowhide costing 20c to 25c. a square foot is the lightest weight leather that has the right to be called cow.[4]The life of cowhide is from five to twelve years.

Buffing.Buffing is practically only the grain of cowskin from which almost all the flesh has been split. It is not suitable for library books, since it is very thin and begins to disintegrate in less than five years. After it is on the volume it is hard to detect, so that some library binders have been tempted to use it instead of cow. But as buffing is never sold as cow, the library binder has no excuse for keeping it in stock.

[4]This is the normal price of cow. The European war has had the disastrous effect of raising the price and lowering the quality. Until conditions become normal again all cowhide should be shunned.

Pigskin

Pigskin is one of the strongest leathers, having a hard, resisting surface and a good, tough fibre. In the grain, the holes which were left when bristles were removed are plainly visible, giving the leather a distinctive appearance, which can be imitated successfully, but which is much less often imitated than the grain of morocco. If there be doubt of the genuineness of pig, soak a piece of the leather until it has absorbed a quantity of water, and then stretch it. If the grain pulls out, it is imitation; if genuine, the bristle holes still show plainly. Oak bark tanning is the best for this leather, and, since it is more nearly gristle (less fibrous) than other leathers, dyes and chemicals should not be used which will interfere with its quality of resisting friction. It should be used in its natural color whenever possible.

Pigskin frequently comes in skins which are too thick for the binder to work easily, or which are very uneven in thickness. In such cases the paring down of the skin is likely to injure its strength. Because of its thickness pig is generally supposed to be more suitable for large than for small books, but inasmuch as several binders have used it successfully for years on small books, it may be taken for granted that it can be used with good results on all books, large or small, which are to receive hard usage. It needs constant handling, and the absorption of a certain amount of oil from the hands to keep it pliable. Otherwise it dries rapidly and cracks along the joint. This, however, is true of all leathers to a greater orless extent. Pig costs from 40c. to 45c. a square foot.

Goat

The leather which makes the strongest and most attractive binding comes from the skins of goats and is called morocco, because it originally came from that country. In the course of time goat skins from other countries were tanned with sumac (originally a distinguishing characteristic of a genuine morocco), but the same name was applied so that we now have the paradoxical terms, Turkey morocco, Levant morocco, etc. Moroccos have a beautiful grain, are flexible, soft and pliable to the hand, and resist hard wear; qualities which contribute to their great popularity.

Morocco varies greatly in quality as well as in appearance. Unfortunately the skins which are best in quality, considering the length of time they will wear, are not always those best in appearance. The skins of goats with long hair from the colder countries make beautiful bindings; but the skins of goats from the hot countries, such as the interior of Africa, having short hair, while not so attractive in appearance, are tougher and wear longer. In addition to the many grades of genuine morocco there are as many more imitations of it made from sheepskin, cowhide, etc. Only the expert can detect some of them in the skin, and even he may be deceived when the leather is on the back of the book.

In general it should be said that genuine morocco is the most expensive leather that a library can use, and that it can be used to the greatest advantage onlyoccasionally. It makes an excellent binding for large reference books which are constantly handled, for art books which must be attractively bound, and for some periodicals which are much used in reference work. It is not used nearly so much in libraries to-day as it was ten or fifteen years ago, and it is quite safe to say that it will be used less ten years from to-day than it is now.

Levant morocco, made from the skins of Angora goats, is the most expensive and most beautiful leather used in binding. It has a large, prominent grain, but is far too expensive for any library to use, especially when it must be conceded that in its wearing quality it does not equal that of some less expensive moroccos. Mr. Chivers' test showed that so far as tensile strength goes, this leather is very much weaker than many leathers much less expensive. When the skin has been subjected to pressure until the surface is smooth it is known as "crushed levant."

Turkey morocco, made of skins of goats from Turkey, is a very strong, durable leather which all libraries will find occasion to use from time to time. It is very easily imitated. Under exposure to atmospheric conditions existing in many libraries its life may not extend beyond thirty years. In one library at least, where conditions of light and heat were poor, the best Turkey morocco that the market afforded showed signs of disintegration within twelve years. Good Turkey morocco can be obtained for 35c. a square foot.

Persian morocco, which comes from the skin of aPersian sheep (not goat), is not particularly attractive in appearance and is very poor in quality. It is used extensively for commercial work, but is absolutely valueless for library binding.

Niger moroccois a goat skin which comes from the interior of Africa, generally by way of Tripoli, and is by no means a recent discovery, though we knew little about it five years ago. It is tanned by natives according to some method of vegetable tanning not completely known at this time. While in appearance it is not so attractive as some other moroccos, because of blemishes due to carelessness in handling and to the imperfect removal of some of the hairs, it has been proved by the tests made under the direction of Mr. Chivers to be stronger than all other moroccos; the inference is that it is more durable. Until recently it has been very hard to obtain in the United States.

Bock moroccois not a morocco but a split Persian sheep so poor in quality that it is mentioned only to be condemned.

Calfskin

Calfskin in all its various characters, such as divinity, kip, marbled, mottled, smooth, tree, or just plain calf is a very beautiful leather much used in the past for binding books for individuals. For this purpose it has, of late years, been crowded out by Levant morocco. It has a soft, smooth surface which disintegrates rapidly under the action of heat and gas and has little strength even for temporary use. Forthe library it is useless.

Russia Leather

This is a brownish-red leather made from the skins of different animals, tanned with willow bark and filled with a preparation of birch oil which gives it its peculiar odor. Neither in its genuine form nor in imitation is it a useful leather for libraries.

Sealskin

Although experiments have been made with it in some English libraries sealskin has never been much used in the United States for library binding. It is made from the skins of the hair seal, the supply coming from all parts of the North Atlantic Ocean. According to Mr. Douglas Cockerell and other binding experts in England, the skin is peculiarly suited for library use. It is reported to be a hard-wearing leather, tough and pliable, even in quality so that no part of the skin must be discarded because too thin or too weak, and possessing a beautiful grain. The price ranges from a point somewhat higher than that of the poorer moroccos to one somewhat lower than the higher prices. Unfortunately it can be easily imitated.

Vellum

Probably no discussion of leather is complete without mentioning vellum, a binding material which does not resemble leather, but which nevertheless is made from calfskin or sometimes from goat skin. It is prepared by the use of lime, and as far as the actualwear on flat surface is concerned, is perhaps better than any leather. It is, however, very susceptible to moisture, which makes it warp; and to light, which makes it hard and brittle. Since it is very hard, does not bend easily and is hard to work, its chief use is on the corners of books to protect them and make them less likely to break or rub. Large libraries have used it somewhat for this purpose, but the use is dying out.

In making a study of leathers it is well to obtain samples of all kinds, including those which are unsuitable for library use, and to examine them carefully, noting the appearance of the grain, thickness of skin, flexibility, and softness of surface. Perhaps more money can be wasted through ignorance of the comparative values of different kinds of leather which it is permissible to use in library binding, than in mismanagement of any other part of binding.

Cloth is fully as important as leather in the economy of binding. Several years ago it was the custom to bind periodicals and other books which were used comparatively seldom in leather, while fiction, juvenile and other books which wore out quickly were bound in cloth. Recently the opposite course has been more favored. Books which receive unusually hard usage and are in the hands of readers constantly are bound in leather; while those which are used seldom, including periodicals, are bound in some kind of cloth. Without doubt the change is a wiseone. Even the best of leather disintegrates in time under the action of heat, gas, light, etc., and to-day many a volume bound in leather ten or fifteen years ago has parted from its sides, necessitating rebinding or recovering. Had it been bound in a good quality of cloth it would to-day be in good condition, and probably would remain in good condition for a hundred years. It requires considerable courage to change the binding of a good set of a standard periodical, such as the Atlantic or Harper's, from an attractive half morocco binding to an unattractive buckram. Unquestionably, if economy is an object, the change should be made, except possibly in the case of a library which uses these periodicals daily. Every librarian must decide each case for himself strictly according to the use the set is to receive, always bearing in mind the fact that leather disintegrates with time, whereas cloth does not unless exposed to excessive moisture.

No cloth which is suitable for library use is perfectly satisfactory because it has not the strength of good leather, cannot be used advantageously on very heavy books, soils easily and with use grows soft and flabby, especially along the joints. But on the other hand even those not suitable for libraries which are used by the publisher on cheap books are much better than poor grades of leathers, such as skiver, bock, buffing, etc.

The requisite qualities of a good cloth are:

(a) Endurance when folded back and forth in the same place, so that it may withstand the wear atthe joint caused by opening the book.

(b) Smoothness, so that there will be a comparatively small amount of friction when withdrawing a book from between two others on the shelf.

(d) Color that is fast when exposed to light; if possible it should be fast to water also, though this is less important.

(e) Color should be dyed in the piece, not pressed in by machinery.

Many cloths have some of these qualities but few have all of them. So far as is known to the writer only the grade of cloth described on page 77 has the last qualification.

Practically all cloth used in the United States is made of cotton. The best cloths are manufactured by The Holliston Mills, Norwood, Mass.; The Interlaken Mills, New York City; The Joseph Bancroft & Sons Company, Wilmington, Del., and by the Winterbottom Company and the Manchester Book Cloth Company in England. Since a number of grades are made in several different patterns and a great number of shades for each grade and each pattern, a variety of choice is permitted. As a matter of fact, however, most librarians select a good grade with a regular weave and confine themselves to a few standard shades, such as dark green, brown, red, dark blue, and tan.

Since the strength of the warp is much greater than that of the weft, it is advisable when possible tocover books with the warp running across the cover. This, however, may entail some hardship on the binder for it may frequently happen that in order to cut his cover economically he must make the warp run lengthwise of the book. If a strong cloth is used the advantage is not great enough to be insisted upon.

Each of the American firms mentioned makes three distinct grades, all of which libraries may use. Each firm uses a different name for each grade. In other words, there are no general names which can be used for the corresponding grade in all makes. Therefore for the purposes of this chapter these cloths will be considered under the heads of Grades 1, 2 and 3, but it must be remembered that this is an arbitrary designation not known to the trade. Under each grade will be given the specific names used by the three manufacturers.

Grade 1

Grade one of cloth, the cheapest that a librarian may use, is not made of the best quality of cotton thread and should never be used under any circumstances for full binding. It may be used on the sides of books bound in leather; if this be done the corners should be covered with vellum, for this cloth does not withstand hard usage and is likely to fray at the corners. It is a cloth commonly used by publishers, but should be used sparingly by the librarian. "Art vellum" made by the Interlaken Mills, "Aldine vellum" made by the Holliston Mills, and "Linen finish" madeby the Joseph Bancroft & Sons Company, come within this grade.

Grade 2

(a) Grade two is made of a better grade of cotton and with a closer weave than the preceding, but is not sufficiently strong to be used for full binding. It can be used more satisfactorily than the preceding on the sides of books bound in leather or duck. In common with all cloths, except the buckram made according to the government specifications (which will be discussed later), the different colors are not made, as one might suppose, by dyeing the cloth after it is woven, but by mixing the color with the sizing or starch which is used in finishing the cloth, and pressing it into the cloth by machinery. As a natural result the color rubs off with wear and the natural gray of the original cloth as first woven appears. "Art canvas" made by the Interlaken Mills, "Classic buckram" made by the Holliston Mills, and "Polished buckram," by the Joseph Bancroft & Sons Company come within this grade.

(b)Buckram.Under the name of buckram various grades of cloth are manufactured which resemble to a greater or less degree those mentioned under Grade 2 (a). Generally it is a coarsely woven cloth stiffened with glue or sizing, and the term originally indicated that the cloth was made of linen. At the present time linen buckram made in England can be obtained, but all that is manufactured in the United States is made of cotton. Linen buckram costs muchmore than cotton and it is doubtful if it is any more serviceable. All of the three manufacturers mentioned make buckrams.

Grade 3

Prior to 1907 the Congressional set of government documents distributed to the depository libraries had been bound in sheepskin and the leather on the volumes had disintegrated so much as to make the set a hard one to care for. In 1907 the Congressional Printing Investigation Commission asked librarians of depository libraries to suggest, without considering cost, suitable binding materials for Government Documents. The number of replies received was 124, embodying suggestions as follows: full sheep, 11; half-russia, 78; cloth, 25; buckram, 70; linen duck, 20; canvas, 19. Some librarians expressed more than one preference, so that the total number of preferences was greater than the total of those replying. Most of those who favored sheep did so because of their desire for uniformity. Those who favored half-russia undoubtedly desired half American russia, or cowhide. 134 expressed preference for some form of cloth.

After receiving the replies from librarians the Printing Investigation Commission obtained samples of cloth from various cloth manufacturers in the United States and the Bureau of Standards made a series of chemical and physical tests to determine the durability of these cloths. Chemical tests were made to discover whether the colors were fast when exposedto light. It is to be regretted perhaps that no tests were made to determine whether the cloths were fast to water and that this qualification was not included in the final specifications. Admitting, however, that a cloth which is fast to sun and water both is a valuable cloth for bookbinding, it is evident that the quality of fastness to water is not a vitally important one for cloth used in the United States. The total number of books injured by water is so small as to make insistence upon this quality entirely unnecessary. If books become so soiled that they need to be washed they should be bound in waterproof cloth.

Because many volumes of Government Documents are sent to Porto Rico and the Philippines where insects eat almost anything of an animal or vegetable character, the desirability of the cloth as an article of diet for insects, was also tested.

The physical tests indicated:

a.Number of threads per inch of warp and weft.

b.Absorption of moisture.

c.Weight per yard.

d.Tensile strength.

e.Amount of stretch.

f.Amount of friction developed by rubbing two pieces of cloth together.

This test was made because the friction developed in taking a book from between two others is an important matter when a shelf is full of books. If the friction is great the wear on the back of the book is correspondingly excessive.

g.Endurance when folded back and forth in the same place.

h.Endurance under extraordinary conditions of rubbing.

Some of these qualities, such as tensile strength, amount of stretch, etc., were comparatively unimportant, but the tests for all were severe and contributed much to our knowledge of the qualities which should enter into the composition of durable book cloths.

After a very careful consideration of the results of the tests and a thorough examination of the samples submitted, a committee of librarians and government officials unanimously chose three samples as the best of all those submitted by the manufacturers. Of these three samples the cloth numbered 666 was considered the most satisfactory.

Although these three samples were excellent, they all had one defect—the color was pressed in by machinery, not dyed in the piece. After various experiments had been made by the manufacturers this defect was remedied. The Government Printing Office then advertised for bids on cloths which would meet the Specifications drawn up by the Bureau of Standards (See Appendix A). Since that time all the Government documents which continue the old sheep-bound set have been sent to depository libraries bound in cloth made according to these specifications.

This cloth is known sometimes as Government Specification Cloth, but is manufactured under the specific name of "Library buckram" by the Holliston Mills, "Art buckram" by the Interlaken Mills, and "Legal buckram" by the Joseph Bancroft & SonsCompany. The first two are made in pieces about 40 yards long and 38 inches wide, the Bancroft cloth in pieces 43 yards long and 43 inches wide. It must be admitted that this cloth is not quite so attractive in appearance as some of the old cloths which are not so durable. Some binders claim that it is hard to use. On the whole, however, it supplies a long felt want and is the strongest cloth made that is at all attractive in appearance.

Duck

Duck or canvas, a rough, heavy cloth much the same in quality as sail cloth, is the strongest cloth used in binding, but has some very decided drawbacks which militate against its use, except when the question of strength overshadows all others. It always makes an unattractive-looking volume—some of the more fastidious librarians rebel against its use; and it readily absorbs dirt and moisture, making it disagreeable to handle if the book has been much used. Duck having a double twisted thread in the weft is much more compact and absorbs dirt and moisture much less rapidly than other kinds. It should be used on the backs (never for full binding) of newspapers and such periodicals as are too heavy to put in library or legal buckram.

Imperial Morocco Cloth

Imperial morocco cloth, manufactured by the Winterbottom Book Cloth Company in England, is made of linen thread and finished with a grain to resembleleather. The kind most used in the United States resembles a straight-grained morocco. It is an excellent cloth in appearance, as well as in durability, but its cost is 50% greater than that of the Government Specification Cloth. It may be used on semi-popular books which will not receive a great amount of use, but which should be as attractive in appearance as possible.

Water-Proof Cloths

There are several cloths which are waterproof and therefore easily cleaned when the covers become soiled. The best of these are durabline, used exclusively by Cedric Chivers; rexine and pluviusin, used almost exclusively in England; keratol, made in Newark, New Jersey; and fabrikoid, made by the du Pont Powder Company, Wilmington, Delaware. All of these cloths are said to be acid, alkali and germ proof, do not absorb grease and can be washed with soap and water. They are strong, durable cloths, but they have at first a disagreeable odor, are hard to work and hard to letter in gold. In the application of paste to most waterproof cloths, either in the process of binding or in attaching labels to the back, it is first necessary to break down the surface of the cloth or the paste will not hold. This disadvantage no longer exists in the case of fabrikoid. Keratol and fabrikoid are made to imitate leather and are frankly sold as such. Probably the use of these cloths in libraries will always be comparatively small. Because they can be easily cleaned they may be used on thesides of juvenile books, and in rare cases for full binding.

No very definite rules can be laid down as to what kind of glue should be used. The matter must be left largely in the hands of the binder, who must see that it is strong, yet flexible; not too poor in quality nor yet the most expensive kind which is generally used on furniture. This is too brittle for bookbinding use.

The best glue for bookbinding is made from skins and shows a dark wine color in the cake. Light colored glues are made chiefly from bones and are not usually so good. To prepare glue for use, soak small pieces in water over night and in the morning melt in the glue pot. It should never be boiled. A careful binder will see that utensils are kept clean and that glue is used in the proper thickness.

Flexible glue, which does not become too hard either before or after use, is made by mixing glycerine with good glue. It has no special advantages for use by binders, but can be used in the library itself for some of the repairs which assistants may have to make.

(For paste used in mending, seep. 167).

The best paste is that made in the ordinary way with flour and water. The paste should be fresh, for if it is not a certain fermentation takes place which is injurious to the book, especially to leather.

Not the least important part of the make-up of a finished book are the boards forming the sides. There are practically four grades of boards which are known as strawboards; binders, cloth or millboards; semi-tar, and tar boards. The cheapest grade is the strawboard, for which there is no place in library work.

Mill or cloth boards, used for practically all library work, are generally made from waste papers of all kinds, though some may have an admixture of rags. Clay is also mixed with the waste paper pulp and the whole subjected to heavy pressure in the final stages of manufacture. They are made in two sizes, 20 × 30 and 23 × 29 inches, and are put up in 50-pound bundles, the number of sheets in the bundle indicating the thickness of the board. The thickest is a No. 12 which has 12 sheets in a 50-pound bundle. They may have as many as 70 sheets in a bundle, which makes a very thin board. A 20 or 25 board should be used for fiction and juvenile books and a 16 or 18 for heavier books such as magazines. Prices of good cloth boards run from $40 to $50 a ton.

Semi-tar boards, made from better grade stock than mill board, should have in their composition a certain amount of rags and hemp or naval cordage. They come in the same sizes and weights, costing about $70 a ton.

Tar boards are the best boards obtainable. Made of naval cordage, they are very tough and hard to work. Many of them are allowed to season, in much the same way as lumber seasons, in order to preventwarping. They are much too expensive for library use, sometimes costing as much as $110 a ton.

The matter of boards is not one about which the librarian need exercise great watchfulness. Binders generally use a very good quality, though they sometimes use too thin a board on a heavy book, such as a newspaper or large folio. In such cases a board of suitable thickness can be made by pasting or gluing two or more together.

At one time there was no question but that the best thread to be used in binding was linen. In the light of present knowledge it may be doubted if this is true under all circumstances. All commercially bound books, without exception, are sewed with cotton thread. Even such large books as the Century Dictionary, Webster's Dictionary and the United States Catalog of 1912 are sewed with cotton thread. Since it was unquestionably the aim of the publishers of all these books to issue them in the strongest possible bindings, it is reasonable to suppose that linen would have been used if it were really the best for the purpose. The main reason linen thread has been advised for so long is because its tensile strength is much greater than that of cotton. On the other hand, it is just as true that what we may call the fraying resistance of a cotton thread is greater than that of linen. Take two threads of the same size, one cotton and the other linen, make a loop of each thread with one inside the other, saw back and forth, and thecotton will always cut the linen thread. Furthermore, linen thread deteriorates in quality unless very carefully stored. The publishers soon discovered these facts, and since tensile strength is not an important attribute in a thread that is being used in a book sewing-machine, they use a cotton thread with thoroughly satisfactory results.

In the case of library binding, however, the books are always sewed by hand and the sewer, as she draws the thread tight, is obliged to use some strength; for this reason tensile strength is an important attribute. Hayes' Irish linen thread is generally specified. The Barbour thread is referred to by Mr. Dana and by others, but the writer is not familiar with its use.

Other materials used in binding are gold leaf, paper for end papers, tape, headbands, cord and various concoctions used in finishing the books. Gold leaf should be 18 to 22 karat, and neither aluminum nor silver leaf should be used. Paper for end papers will vary somewhat with the size of the book, but should never be lighter in weight than a 60-pound manila. Large libraries may find it desirable to have an end paper specially made for their own use. Tapes should be linen and not over three-eighths of an inch wide. Cord for use in sewing in the regular way (not overcasting) is a soft twine which can be obtained from all dealers in bookbinding supplies. For all books less than twelve inches in height use four-ply cord; for larger books, five-ply.

After the librarian has definitely decided upon the binder whom he wishes to employ he must, especially in dealing with binders who are not accustomed to library work, draw up specifications as to ways in which he wishes different classes of books bound. If he has employed a binder who thoroughly understands library binding, he may make use of the binder's knowledge in drawing up the specifications. Under certain circumstances it may be wise to enter into a contract with the binder, but ordinarily in the United States such a course will not be necessary. After the specifications have been prepared and a schedule of prices agreed upon, the librarian always has the right to refuse to pay for books not bound according to specifications. Therefore, a definite legal contract is not necessary. The librarian, except in the case of a few libraries which according to law must give their work to state officials, is always at liberty to take his custom from one binder and give it to another. Thus sufficient pressure is brought to bear on the binder.

Although the present chapter gives definite specifications for the binding of various classes of books, it is always wise to show a certain latitude in the use of specifications. Local conditions, the papers used inbookmaking which seem to become poorer and poorer with each succeeding year, and the kind of a library which is to use the specifications—all these must be taken into consideration when specifications are drawn up. Moreover, the best specifications will accomplish little if they are not followed by the binder in a workmanlike manner, while good workmanship will sometimes make up for omission of important details in the specifications.

In the main, it will be found that the following specifications may be used as a guide, except possibly in the case of some reference and college libraries which do not issue books for home use. It has seemed best to place first general specifications which apply to all books, followed by additional specifications for each kind of books treated. The way in which these specifications are carried out is described in the chapter on Processes.

1. The binder is responsible for all books consigned to his care and must replace or pay for all books lost or injured. When one considers the large number of volumes passing through a bindery, coming from many different libraries, the number of books for which the binder is unable to account is surprisingly small.

2. The librarian is the judge of whether the book is bound according to the specifications. Since he has submitted the specifications and the binder has agreed to them he should be the sole judge of theresult.

3. The binder will be allowed to depart from any specification if it is desirable in the interests of good binding. He must, however, prove that he is justified in so doing.

4. Books must be paid for according to a schedule of prices agreed upon by the binder and librarian.

5. The size should be determined by measuring at the back of the volume after it is bound. It might be wiser, perhaps, to measure the book before the boards are put on, so that binders would be sure to trim the book as little as possible. It is the universal custom, however, to pay according to the measure of the book with the boards on. This may possibly tempt the binder to increase the square of the book just enough to group it with the next larger size so that he can charge more for it.

6. All items not covered in the schedule of prices may be charged for at the regular rates of the binder for such work.

7. All books not oversewed are to be sewed all-along with Hayes' Irish linen thread, suiting the size of the thread to the requirements of the book; No. 25 for light, No. 20 for medium and No. 16 for heavy sections.

8. Cloth must be used for sides of all books bound in half-leather or half-duck. Never use marbled paper except occasionally on newspapers.

9. Unless otherwise specified, cloth which conforms to the specifications of the Bureau of Standards, or Imperial morocco cloth, must be used for fullbinding. For sides of leather bound books a somewhat cheaper grade may be used.

10. Duck should have a twisted, double thread in the weft.

11. Moroccos or pigskins must be guaranteed by the manufacturer to be free-from-acid.

12. Glue must be best quality of binders' or flexible glue, and must be used sparingly.

13. Poor materials of any kind must not be used.

14. In taking books apart, all old glue, paste, back-lining, paper, etc., should be carefully removed.

15. The binder should expect to do a certain amount of mending of torn pages and guarding of weak signatures, but should be allowed to charge extra when the amount is excessive.

16. The text of all books must be collated by binder and imperfect books returned to the library. (See under Processes, Collation,p. 15).

17. All illustrations of whatever character printed on single leaves must be guarded with thin, tough paper and the guard folded around the adjoining sections.

Some librarians and binders advocate the use of cloth guards but this seems hardly necessary. The cloth guards tend to swell the back of the book, especially if there be many plates, while the thin, tough paper is strong enough for ordinary books. Folded plates should never be sewed through the middle of the fold, but should be mounted on guards so that the plates will open out nearly flat when the book is opened. Folded maps, or other folded plates whichmay be consulted often should, unless otherwise specified, be guarded with cloth which is as wide as the book, so that they may be thrown entirely outside the book and lie flat on a table.

18. Illustrations which are folded more than once, such as maps, should be carefully cut and mounted on thin cloth in such a way as to allow for the folding to come on the cloth alone, not on the paper.

19. Stitching (that is, sewing signatures lengthwise with a sewing-machine) or old-fashioned whipstitching, is not permitted for any books; with the possible exception of newspapers.

20. In sewing three bands or tapes must be used for eight-inch books, four for twelve-inch, etc.

21. Tapes, or bands, and back-lining must project at least an inch and a quarter on each side of the book.

22. All books should be lined on the back with canton flannel as described in the chapter on Processes, except in a few cases where it may be advisable to use duck or a flesher. This eliminates lacing-on of boards.

23. Adjoining leaves of fly leaves and end papers must always be pasted together.

24. Books must be trimmed as little as possible.

25. All books should have rounded corners.

26. All books must have French joints.

27. All books, unless otherwise specified, will be fastened finally into the covers by pasting down end papers. Tight-back books will in addition have theback glued to the book.

28. Books should be loose-back unless otherwise specified.

29. Edges should be sprinkled unless the library specifies gilding on top. The color used may be varied to harmonize with the color of the book.

30. Books must be pressed until thoroughly dry.

31. Binders must keep a record of each book, whether periodical or not, which has a volume number.

This record, commonly known as a "rub" or "rub-off," shows the size of the book, kind of binding and exact lettering. Whenever other volumes of the same work or same periodical are received they will be bound according to this record, unless the librarian has specified a different material, or different lettering. In such a case the matter must be referred to the librarian before the book is bound. If a binder receives a book with a volume number and has no record of previous volumes, he should ask the librarian for a sample volume, unless it is obviously a book for which there could be no sample, such as the first volume of a periodical giving contemporary dates.

32. The binder is expected to paste in book-pockets and book-plates when furnished by the library but may charge extra for the work.

33. The best gold leaf must be used in lettering unless cover is light enough in color to take ink. Leather labels should never be used.

It seems to be fairly well proven that all fiction and juvenile books should be bound in some kind of leather, preferably cowhide.[5]Objections to this are heard from time to time, but the objections come chiefly from the large steel towns where the sulphur in the air has a bad effect on leathers. In most communities leather will outwear cloth and in any event cloth becomes shabby, even when perfectly strong, much more quickly than leather. When the French joint is used the leather need not be pared and ordinarily will outwear the paper of the book.

Follow general specifications as outlined above, supplemented by the following:

1. Books should be bound in one-half cowhide (American russia). Roan may be used if the librarian is sure that it is good.

2. Fly-leaves should be made of white book paper, 70 pounds to the ream and guarded with jaconet.

It is apparent that when fly-leaves are guarded with cloth they are sewed as a separate section and not tipped on as is done in ordinary binding. Since practically all fiction and juvenile books are oversewed, it will not be necessary to carry the guard around to the inner side of the fold.

3. End papers may be made of paper specially made for the binder, but it should be equal in strength to an 80-pound manila paper and should be guarded with jaconet on the outside of the fold in the sameway as fly-leaves.

4. If book is not oversewed the first and last sections must be guarded with jaconet.

5. Nearly all books should be sewed with some modern method of overcasting.

It is probable that in every lot of books sent to the binder there will be some fiction and juvenile books which could be sewed in the regular way through the signatures either on bands or on tapes, but the number is so small that the binder finds it easier to sew all the books alike. In any event only those which have the backs of the sections unbroken the entire length and which, in addition, are seldom used, should be sewed in the regular way.

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