The Project Gutenberg eBook ofLogic: Deductive and InductiveThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: Logic: Deductive and InductiveAuthor: Carveth ReadRelease date: May 23, 2006 [eBook #18440]Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online DistributedProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOGIC: DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE ***
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Logic: Deductive and InductiveAuthor: Carveth ReadRelease date: May 23, 2006 [eBook #18440]Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online DistributedProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
Title: Logic: Deductive and Inductive
Author: Carveth Read
Author: Carveth Read
Release date: May 23, 2006 [eBook #18440]
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Susan Skinner and the Online DistributedProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOGIC: DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE ***
First Edition, June 1898.(Grant Richards.)Second Edition, November 1901.(Grant Richards.)Third Edition, January 1906.(A. Moring Ltd.)Reprinted, January 1908.(A. Moring Ltd.)Reprinted, May 1909.(A. Moring Ltd.)Reprinted, July 1910.(A. Moring Ltd.)Reprinted, September 1911.(A. Moring Ltd.)Reprinted, November 1912.(A. Moring Ltd.)Reprinted, April 1913.(A. Moring Ltd.)Reprinted, May 1920.(Simpkin.)
AUTHOR OF
"THE METAPHYSICS OF NATURE"
"NATURAL AND SOCIAL MORALS"
ETC.
FOURTH EDITION
ENLARGED, AND PARTLY REWRITTEN
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & CO. LTD., 4 STATIONERS' HALL COURT.LONDON, E.C.4
In this edition of myLogic, the text has been revised throughout, several passages have been rewritten, and some sections added. The chief alterations and additions occur in cc. i., v., ix., xiii., xvi., xvii., xx.
The work may be considered, on the whole, as attached to the school of Mill; to whoseSystem of Logic, and to Bain'sLogic, it is deeply indebted. Amongst the works of living writers, theEmpirical Logicof Dr. Venn and theFormal Logicof Dr. Keynes have given me most assistance. To some others acknowledgments have been made as occasion arose.
For the further study of contemporary opinion, accessible in English, one may turn to such works as Mr. Bradley'sPrinciples of Logic, Dr. Bosanquet'sLogic; or the Morphology of Knowledge, Prof. Hobhouse'sTheory of Knowledge, Jevon'sPrinciples of Science, and Sigwart'sLogic. Ueberweg'sLogic, and History of Logical Doctrineis invaluable for the history of our subject. The attitude toward Logic of the Pragmatists or Humanists may best be studied in Dr. Schiller'sFormal Logic, and in Mr. Alfred Sidgwick'sProcess of Argumentand recentElementary Logic. The second part of this last work, on the "Risks of Reasoning," gives an admirably succinct account of their position. I agree with the Humanists that, in all argument, the important thing to attend to is the meaning, and that the most serious difficulties of reasoning occur in dealing with the matter reasoned about; but I findthat a pure science of relation has a necessary place in the system of knowledge, and that the formulæ known as laws of contradiction, syllogism and causation are useful guides in the framing and testing of arguments and experiments concerning matters of fact. Incisive criticism of traditionary doctrines, with some remarkable reconstructions, may be read in Dr. Mercier'sNew Logic.
In preparing successive editions of this book, I have profited by the comments of my friends: Mr. Thomas Whittaker, Prof. Claude Thompson, Dr. Armitage Smith, Mr. Alfred Sidgwick, Dr. Schiller, Prof. Spearman, and Prof. Sully, have made important suggestions; and I might have profited more by them, if the frame of my book, or my principles, had been more elastic.
As to the present edition, useful criticisms have been received from Mr. S.C. Dutt, of Cotton College, Assam, and from Prof. M.A. Roy, of Midnapore; and, especially, I must heartily thank my colleague, Dr. Wolf, for communications that have left their impress upon nearly every chapter.
Carveth Read.
London,August, 1914
pagePrefacevCHAPTER IINTRODUCTORY§1.Definition of Logic1§2.General character of proof2§3.Division of the subject5§4.Uses of Logic6§5.Relation of Logic to other sciences8to Mathematics (p.8); to concrete Sciences (p.10); to Metaphysics (p.10); to regulative sciences (p.11)§6.Schools of Logicians11Relation to Psychology (p.13)CHAPTER IIGENERAL ANALYSIS OF PROPOSITIONS§1.Propositions and Sentences16§2.Subject, Predicate and Copula17§3.Compound Propositions17§4.Import of Propositions19§5.Form and Matter22§6.Formal and Material Logic23§7.Symbols used in Logic24CHAPTER IIIOF TERMS AND THEIR DENOTATION§1.Some Account of Language necessary27§2.Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric28§3.Words are Categorematic or Syncategorematic29§4.Terms Concrete or Abstract30§5.Concrete Terms, Singular, General or Collective33CHAPTER IVTHE CONNOTATION OF TERMS§1.Connotation of General Names37§2.Question of Proper Names38other Singular Names (p.40)§3.Question of Abstract Terms40§4.Univocal and Equivocal Terms41Connotation determined by thesuppositio(p.43)§5.Absolute and Relative Terms43§6.Relation of Denotation to Connotation46§7.Contradictory Terms47§8.Positive and Negative Terms50Infinites; Privitives; Contraries (pp.50-51)CHAPTER VCLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS§1.As to Quantity53Quantity of the Predicate (p.56)§2.As to Quality57Infinite Propositions (p.57)§3.A. I. E. O.58§4.As to Relation59Change of Relation (p.60); Interpretation of 'either, or' (p.63); Function of the hypothetical form (p.64)§5.As to Modality66§6.Verbal and Real Propositions67CHAPTER VICONDITIONS OF IMMEDIATE INFERENCE§1.Meaning of Inference69§2.Immediate and Mediate Inference70§3.The Laws of Thought72§4.Identity73§5.Contradiction and Excluded Middle74§6.The Scope of Formal Inference76CHAPTER VIIIMMEDIATE INFERENCES§1.Plan of the Chapter79§2.Subalternation79§3.Connotative Subalternation80§4.Conversion82Reciprocality (p.84)§5.Obversion85§6.Contrary Opposition87§7.Contradictory Opposition87§8.Sub-contrary Opposition88§9.The Square of Opposition89§10.Secondary modes of Immediate Inference90§11.Immediate Inferences from Conditionals93CHAPTER VIIIORDER OF TERMS, EULER'S DIAGRAMS, LOGICAL EQUATIONS, EXISTENTIAL IMPORT OF PROPOSITIONS§1.Order of Terms in a proposition95§2.Euler's Diagrams97§3.Propositions considered as Equations101§4.Existential Import of Propositions104CHAPTER IXFORMAL CONDITIONS OF MEDIATE INFERENCE§1.Nature of Mediate Inference and Syllogism107§2.General Canons of the Syllogism108Definitions of Categorical Syllogism; Middle Term; Minor Term; Major Term; Minor and Major Premise (p.109); Illicit Process (p.110); Distribution of the Middle (p.110); Negative Premises (p.112); Particular Premises (p.113)§3.Dictum de omni et nullo115§4.Syllogism in relation to the Laws of Thought116§5.Other Kinds of Mediate Inference118CHAPTER XCATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS§1.Illustrations of the Syllogism121§2.Of Figures122§3.Of Moods123§4.How valid Moods are determined124§5.Special Canons of the Four Figures126§6.Ostensive Reduction and the Mnemonic Verses127§7.Another version of the Mnemonic Verses132§8.Indirect Reduction132§9.Uses of the several Figures134§10.Scientific Value of Reduction135§11.Euler's Diagrams for the Syllogism136CHAPTER XIABBREVIATED AND COMPOUND ARGUMENTS§1.Popular Arguments Informal138§2.The Enthymeme139§3.Monosyllogism, Polysyllogism, Prosyllogism, Episyllogism141§4.The Epicheirema142§5.The Sorites142§6.The Antinomy145CHAPTER XIICONDITIONAL SYLLOGISMS§1.The Hypothetical Syllogism147§2.The Disjunctive Syllogism152§3.The Dilemma154CHAPTER XIIITRANSITION TO INDUCTION§1.Formal Consistency and Material Truth159§2.Real General Propositions assert more than has been directly observed160§3.Hence, formally, a Syllogism's Premises seem to beg the Conclusion162§4.Materially, a Syllogism turns upon the resemblance of the Minor to the Middle Term and thus extends the Major Premise to new cases163§5.Restatement of theDictumfor material reasoning165§6.Uses of the Syllogism167§7.Analysis of the Uniformity of Nature, considered as the formal ground of all reasoning169§8.Grounds of our belief in Uniformity173CHAPTER XIVCAUSATION§1.The most important aspect of Uniformity in relation to Induction is Causation174§2.Definition of "Cause" explained: five marks of Causation175§3.How strictly the conception of Cause can be applied depends upon the subject under investigation183§4.Scientific conception of Effect. Plurality of Causes185§5.Some condition, but not the whole cause, may long precede the Effect; and some co-effect, but not the whole effect, may long survive the Cause187§6.Mechanical Causes and the homogeneous Intermixture of Effects; Chemical Causes and the heteropathic Intermixture of Effects188§7.Tendency, Resultant, Counteraction, Elimination, Resolution, Analysis, Reciprocity189CHAPTER XVINDUCTIVE METHOD§1.Outline of Inductive investigation192§2.Induction defined196§3."Perfect Induction"196§4.Imperfect Induction methodical or immethodical197§5.Observation and Experiment, the material ground of Induction, compared198§6.The principle of Causation is the formal ground of Induction201§7.The Inductive Canons are derived from the principle of Causation, the more readily to detect it in facts observed202CHAPTER XVITHE CANONS OF DIRECT INDUCTION§1.The Canon of Agreement206Negative Instances (p.208); Plurality of Causes (p.208)Agreement may show connection without direct Causation (p.209)§2.The Canon of Agreement in Presence and in Absence212It tends to disprove a Plurality of Causes (p.213)§3.The Canon of Difference216May be applied to observations (p.221)§4.The Canon of Variations222How related to Agreement and Difference (p.222); The Graphic Method (p.227); Critical points (p.230); Progressive effects (p.231); Gradations (p.231)§5.The Canon of Residues232CHAPTER XVIICOMBINATION OF INDUCTION WITH DEDUCTION§1.Deductive character of Formal Induction236§2.Further complication of Deduction with Induction238§3.The Direct Deductive (or Physical) Method240§4.Opportunities of Error in the Physical Method243§5.The Inverse Deductive (or Historical) Method246§6.Precautions in using the Historical Method251§7.The Comparative Method255§8.Historical Evidence261CHAPTER XVIIIHYPOTHESES§1.Hypothesis defined and distinguished from Theory266§2.An Hypothesis must be verifiable268§3.Proof of Hypotheses270(1) Must an hypothetical agent be directly observable? (p.270);Vera causa(p.271)(2) An Hypothesis must be adequate to its pretensions (p.272);Exceptio probat regulam(p.274)(3) Every competing Hypothesis must be excluded (p.275); Crucial instance (p.277)(4) Hypotheses must agree with the laws of Nature (p.279)§4.Hypotheses necessary in scientific investigation280§5.The Method of Abstractions283Method of Limits (p.284); In what sense all knowledge is hypothetical (p.286)CHAPTER XIXLAWS CLASSIFIED; EXPLANATION; CO-EXISTENCE; ANALOGY§1.Axioms; Primary Laws; Secondary Laws, Derivative or Empirical; Facts288§2.Secondary Laws either Invariable or Approximate Generalisations292§3.Secondary Laws trustworthy only in 'Adjacent Cases'293§4.Secondary Laws of Succession or of Co-existence295Natural Kinds (p.296); Co-existence of concrete things to be deduced from Causation (p.297)§5.Explanation consists in tracing resemblance, especially of Causation299§6.Three modes of Explanation302Analysis (p.302); Concatenation (p.302); Subsumption (p.303)§7.Limits of Explanation305§8.Analogy307CHAPTER XXPROBABILITY§1.Meaning of Chance and Probability310§2.Probability as a fraction or proportion312§3.Probability depends upon experience and statistics313§4.It is a kind of Induction, and pre-supposes Causation315§5.Of Averages and the Law of Error318§6.Interpretation of probabilities324Personal Equation (p.325); meaning of 'Expectation' (p.325)§7.Rules of the combination of Probabilities325Detection of a hidden Cause (p.326); oral tradition (p.327); circumstantial and analogical evidence (p.328)CHAPTER XXIDIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION§1.Classification, scientific, special and popular330§2.Uses of classification332§3.Classification, Deductive and Inductive334§4.Division, or Deductive Classification: its Rules335§5.Rules for testing a Division337§6.Inductive Classification339§7.Difficulty of Natural Classification341§8.Darwin's influence on the theory of Classification342§9.Classification of Inorganic Bodies also dependent on Causation346CHAPTER XXIINOMENCLATURE, DEFINITION, PREDICABLES§1.Precise thinking needs precise language348§2.Nomenclature and Terminology349§3.Definition352§4.Rules for testing a Definition352§5.Every Definition is relative to a Classification353§6.Difficulties of Definition356Proposals to substitute the Type (p.356)§7.The Limits of Definition357§8.The five Predicables358Porphyry's Tree (p.361)§9.Realism and Nominalism364§10.The Predicaments366CHAPTER XXIIIDEFINITION OF COMMON TERMS§1.The rigour of scientific method must be qualified369§2.Still, Language comprises the Nomenclature of an imperfect Classification, to which every Definition is relative;370§3.and an imperfect Terminology374§4.Maxims and precautions of Definition375§5.Words of common language in scientific use378§6.How Definitions affect the cogency of arguments380CHAPTER XXIVFALLACIES§1.Fallacy defined and divided385§2.Formal Fallacies of Deduction385§3.Formal Fallacies of Induction388§4.Material Fallacies classified394§5.Fallacies of Observation394§6.Begging the Question396§7.Surreptitious Conclusion398§8.Ambiguity400§9.Fallacies, a natural rank growth of the Human mind, not easy to classify, or exterminate403Questions405