FOOTNOTES:

The Negro Peoples of the Nile-Congo Watersheds.

Before the incursions of the Nubian-Arab traders and raiders, who began to form settlements (zeribas, fenced stations) in the Upper Nile regions above Khartum about the middle of the nineteenth century, most of the Nile-Congo divide (White Nile tributaries and Welle-Makua basin) belonged in the strictest sense to the Negro domain. Sudanese tribes, and even great nations reckoned by millions, had been for ages in almost undisturbed possession, not only of the main stream from the equatorial lakes to and beyond the Sobat junction, but also of the Sobat Valley itself, and of the numerous south-western head-waters of the White Nile converging about Lake No above the Sobat junction. Nearly all the Nile peoplesâ€”theShilluksandDinkasabout the Sobat confluence, theBariandNuersof the Bahr-el-Jebel, theBongos(Dors),Rols,Golos,Mittus,Madis,Makarakas,Abakas,Mundus, and many others about the western affluents, as well as theFunjof Senaarâ€”had been brought under the Khedivial rule before the revolt of the Mahdi.

Political Relations.

The same fate had already overtaken or was threatening the formerly powerfulMombuttu(Mangbattu) andZandeh[212]nations of the Welle lands, as well as theKrejand others about the low watersheds of the Nile-Congo and Chad basins. Since then the Welle groups have been subjected to the jurisdiction of the Congo Free State, while the political destinies of the Nilotic tribes must henceforth be controlled by the British masters of the Nile lands from the Great Lakes to the Mediterranean.

Although grouped as Negroes proper, very few of theNilotic peoples present the almost ideal type of the blacks, such as those of Upper Guinea and the Atlantic coast of West Sudan. The complexion is in general less black, the nose less broad at the base, the lips less everted (Shilluks and one or two others excepted), the hair rather less frizzly, the dolichocephaly and prognathism less marked.

Two Physical Types.

Apart from the more delicate shades of transition, due to diverse interminglings with Hamites and Semites, two distinct types may be plainly distinguishedâ€”one black, often very tall, with long thin legs, and long-headed (Shilluks, Dinkas, Bari, Nuers, Alur), the other reddish or ruddy brown, more thick-set, and short-headed (Bongos,Golos,Makarakas, with the kindredZandehsof the Welle region). No explanation has been offered of their brachycephaly, which is all the more difficult to account for, inasmuch as it is characteristic neither of the aboriginal Negro nor of the intruding Hamitic and Semitic elements. Have we here an indication of the transition suspected by many between the true long-headed Negro and the round-headed Negrillo, who is also brownish, and formerly ranged as far north as the Nile head-streams, as would appear from the early Egyptian records (Chap. IV.)? Schweinfurth found that the Bongos were "hardly removed from the lowest grade of brachycephaly[213]," and the same is largely true of the Zandehs and their Makaraka cousins, as noticed by Junker: "The skull also in many of these peoples approaches the round form, whereas the typical Negro is assumed to be long-headed[214]." But so great is the diversity of appearance throughout the whole of this region, including even "a striking Semitic type," that this observer was driven to the conclusion that "woolly hair, common to all, forms in fact the only sure characteristic of the Negro[215]."

The Dinka.

Dinka is the name given to a congeries of independent tribes spread over a vast area, stretching from 300 miles south of Khartum to within 100 miles of Gondokoro, and reaching many miles to the west in the Bahr-el-Ghazal Province. All these tribes according to C. G. Seligman[216]call themselvesJiengorJenge, corruptedby the Arabs into Dinka; but no Dinka nation has arisen, for the tribes have never recognised a supreme chief, as do their neighbours, the Shilluk, nor have they even been united under a military despot, as the Zulu were united under Chaka. They differ in manners and customs and even in physique and are often at war with one another. One of the most obvious distinctions in habits is between the relatively powerful cattle-owning Dinka and the small and comparatively poor tribes who have no cattle and scarcely cultivate the ground, but live in the marshes in the neighbourhood of the Sudd, and depend largely for their sustenance on fishing and hippopotamus-hunting. Their villages, which are generally dirty and evil-smelling, are built on ground which rises but little above the reed-covered surface of the country. The Dinka community is largely autonomous under leadership of a chief or headman (bain) who is sometimes merely the local magician, but in one community in each tribe he is the hereditary rain-maker whose wish is law. "Cattle form the economic basis of Dinka society; ... they are the currency in which bride-price and blood-fines are paid; and the desire to acquire a neighbour's herds is the common cause of those inter-tribal raids which constitute Dinka warfare."

Linguistic Groups.

Some uniformity appears to prevail amongst the languages of the Nile-Welle lands, and from the rather scanty materials collected by Junker, Fr. MÃ¼ller was able to construct an "Equatorial Linguistic Family," including the Mangbattu, Zandeh, Barmbo, Madi, Bangba, Krej, Golo and others, on both sides of the water-parting. Leo Reinisch, however, was not convinced, and in a letter addressed to the author declared that "in the absence of sentences it is impossible to determine the grammatical structure of Mangbattu and the other languages. At the same time we may detect certain relations, not to the Nilotic, but the Bantu tongues. It may therefore be inferred that Mangbattu and the others have a tolerably close relationship to the Bantu, and may even be remotely akin to it,judging from their tendency to prefix formations[217]." Future research will show how far this conjecture is justified.

Mental Qualities.

Although IslÃ¡m has made considerable progress, throughout the greater part of the Sudanese region, though not among the Nilotic tribes, the bulk of the people are still practically pagan. Witchcraft continues to flourish amongst the equatorial peoples, and important events are almost everywhere attended by sanguinary rites. These are absent among the true Nilotics. The Dinka are totemic, with ancestor-worship. The Shilluk have a cult of divine kings.

Cannibalism.

Cannibalism however, in some of its most repulsive forms, prevails amongst the Zandehs, who barter in human fat as a universal staple of trade, and amongst the Mangbattu, who cure for future use the bodies of the slain in battle and "drive their prisoners before them, as butchers drive sheep to the shambles, and these are only reserved to fall victims on a later day to their horrible and sickly greediness[218]."

The Cannibal Zone.

In fact here we enter the true "cannibal zone," which, as I have elsewhere shown, was in former ages diffused all over Central and South Africa, or, it would be more correct to say, over the whole continent[219], but has in recent times been mainly confined to "the region stretching west and east from the Gulf of Guinea to the western head-streams of the White Nile, and from below the equator northwards in the direction of AdamÃ¡wa, Dar-Banda and Dar-Fertit. Wherever explorers have penetrated into this least-known region of the continent they have found the practice fully established, not merely as a religious rite or a privilege reserved for priests, but as a recognised social institution[220]."

Arts and Industries.

Yet many of these cannibal peoples, especially the Mangbattus and Zandehs, are skilled agriculturists, and cultivate some of the useful industries, such as iron and copper smelting and casting, weaving, pottery and wood-carving, with great success. The form and ornamental designs of their utensils display real artistic taste, while the temper of their iron implements is often superior to that of the imported European hardware. Here again the observation has been made that the tribes most addicted to cannibalism also excel in mental qualities and physical energy. Nor are they strangers to the finer feelings of human nature, and above all the surrounding peoples the Zandeh anthropophagists are distinguished by their regard and devotion for their women and children.

High Appreciation of Pictorial Art.

In one respect all these peoples show a higher degree of intelligence even than the Arabs and Hamites. "My later experiences," writes Junker, "revealed the remarkable fact that certain negro peoples, such as the Niam-Niams, the Mangbattus and the Bantus of Uganda and Unyoro, display quite a surprising understanding of figured illustrations or pictures of plastic objects, which is not as a rule exhibited by the Arabs and Arabised Hamites of North-east Africa. Thus the Unyoro chief, Riongo, placed photographs in their proper position, and was able to identify the negro portraits as belonging to the Shuli, Lango, or other tribes, of which he had a personal knowledge. This I have called a remarkable fact, because it bespoke in the lower races a natural faculty for observation, a power to recognise what for many Arabs or Egyptians of high rank was a hopeless puzzle. An Egyptian pasha in Khartum could never make out how a human face in profile showed only one eye and one ear, and he took the portrait of a fashionable Parisian lady in extremely low dress for that of the bearded sun-burnt American naval officer who had shown himthe photograph[221]." From this one is almost tempted to infer that, amongst Moslem peoples, all sense of plastic, figurative, or pictorial art has been deadened by the Koranic precept forbidding the representation of the human form in any way.

Sense of Humour.

The Welle peoples show themselves true Negroes in the possession of another and more precious quality, the sense of humour, although this is probably a quality which comes late in the life of a race. Anyhow it is a distinct Negro characteristic, which Junker was able to turn to good account during the building of his famousLacrimastation in Ndoruma's country. "In all this I could again notice how like children the Negroes are in many respects. Once at work they seemed animated by a sort of childlike sense of honour. They delighted in praise, though even a frown or a word of reproach could also excite their hilarity. Thus a loud burst of laughter would, for instance, follow the contrast between a piece of good and bad workmanship. Like children, they would point the finger of scorn at each other[222]."

One morning Ndoruma, hearing that they had again struck work, had the great war-drum beaten, whereupon they rushed to arms and mustered in great force from all quarters. But on finding that there was no enemy to march against, and that they had only been summoned to resume operations at the station, they enjoyed the joke hugely, and after a general explosion of laughter at the way they had been taken in, laid aside their weapons and returned cheerfully to work. Some English overseers have already discovered that this characteristic may be utilised far more effectively than the cruel kurbash. Ethnology has many such lessons to teach.

FOOTNOTES:[129]For a tentative classification of African tribes see T. A. Joyce, Art. "Africa: Ethnology,"Ency. Brit.1910, p. 329.[130]Graphically summed up in the classical description of the Negress:"Afra genus, totÃ¢ patriam testante figurÃ¢,Torta comam labroque tumens, et fusca colorem,Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo,Cruribus exilis, spatiosÃ¢ prodiga plantÃ¢."[131]See H. R. Hall, papers and references inMan, 19, 1905.[132]T. A. Joyce, "Africa: Ethnology,"Ency. Brit.1910,I.327.[133]J. P. Johnson,The Prehistoric Period in South Africa, 1912.[134]See H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.[135]The skeleton found by Hans Reck at Oldoway in 1914 and claimed by him to be of Pleistocene age exhibits all the typical Negro features, including the filed teeth, characteristic of East African negroes at the present day, but the geological evidence is imperfect.[136]H. H. Johnston,British Central Africa, 1897, p. 393.[137]Zandeh is the name usually given to the groups of tribes akin to Nilotics, but probably with Fulah element, which includes theAzandehor Niam Niam,Makaraka,Mangbattuand many others. Cf. T. A. Joyce,loc. cit.p. 329.[138]British Central Africa, p. 472. But see R. E. Dennett,At the Back of the Black Man's Mind, 1906, and A. G. Leonard,The Lower Niger and its Tribes, 1906, for African mentality.[139]For theories of Bantu migrations see H. H. Johnston,George Grenfell and the Congo, 1908, and "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 391 ff. Also F. Stuhlmann,Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, p. 138, f. 147, with map, Pl. 1. B. For the date see p. 92.[140]Even a tendency to polysynthesis occurs, as in Vei, and in Yoruba, where the small-pox godShakpannais made up of the three elementsshanto plaster,kpato kill, andeniaa person = one who kills a person by plastering him (with pustules).[141]The Nilotic languages are to a considerable extent tonic.[142]A. B. Ellis,The Tshi-speaking Peoples, etc., 1887, pp. 327-8. Only one European, Herr R. Betz, long resident amongst the Dualas of the Cameruns district, has yet succeeded in mastering the drum language; he claims to understand nearly all that is drummed and is also able to drum himself. (AthenÃ¦um, May 7, 1898, p. 611.)[143]Cf. H. S. Harrison,Handbook to the cases illustrating stages in the evolution of the Domestic Arts. PartII. Horniman Museum and Library. Forest Hill, S.E.[144]E. T. Hamy, "Les Races NÃ¨gres," inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 257 sq.[145]"Chaque fois que j'ai demandÃ© avec intention Ã un MandÃ©, 'Es-tu Peul, Mossi, Dafina?' il me rÃ©pondait invariablement, 'Je suis MandÃ©.' C'est pourquoi, dans le cours de ma relation, j'ai toujours dÃ©signÃ© ce peuple par le nom deMandÃ©, qui est son vrai nom." (L. G. Binger,Du Niger au Golfe de GuinÃ©e, 1892, Vol.II. p. 373.) At p. 375 this authority gives the following subdivisions of the MandÃ© family, named from their respectivetennÃ©(idol, fetish, totem):1.Bamba, the crocodile:Bammana, notBambara, which means kafir or infidel, and is applied only to the non-Moslem MandÃ© groups.2.Mali, the hippopotamus:Mali'nkÃ©, including the Kagoros and the Tagwas.3.Sama, the elephant:Sama'nkÃ©.4.Sa, the snake:Sa-mokho.Of each there are several sub-groups, while the surrounding peoples call them all collectivelyWakorÃ©,Wangara,Sakhersi, and especiallyDiula. Attention to this point will save the reader much confusion in consulting Barth, CailliÃ©, and other early books of travel.[146]Travels, Vol.IV. p. 579 sqq.[147]"La chaÃ®ne des Montagnes de Kong n'a jamais existÃ© que dans l'imagination de quelques voyageurs mal renseignÃ©s,"Du Niger au Golfe de GuinÃ©e, 1892,I. p. 285.[148]Bertrand-BocandÃ©, "Sur les Floups ou FÃ©loups," inBul. Soc. de GÃ©ogr. 1849.[149]A full account of this literature will be found in the Rev. C. F. Schlenker's valuable work,A Collection of Temne Traditions, Fables and Proverbs, London, 1861. Here is given the curious explanation of the tribal name, fromo-tem, an old man, andnÃ©, himself, because, as they say, the TemnÃ© people will exist for ever.[150]There is also a sisterhoodâ€”thebondoâ€”and the two societies work so far in harmony that any person expelled from the one is also excluded from the other.[151]Reclus, Keane's English ed.,XII. p. 203.[152]"Da Njoe Testament, translated into the Negro-English Language by the Missionaries of the Unitas Fratrum," Brit. and For. Bible Soc., London, 1829. Here is a specimen quoted by Ellis fromThe Artisanof Sierra Leone, Aug. 4, 1886, "Those who live in ceiled houses love to hear the pit-pat of the rain overhead; whilst those whose houses leak are the subjects of restlessness and anxiety, not to mention the chances of catching cold,that is so frequent a source of leaky roofs."[153]Right Rev. E. G. Ingham (Bishop of Sierra Leone),Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years, London, 1894, p. 294. Cf. H. C. Lukach,A Bibliography of Sierra Leone, 1911, and T. J. Alldridge,A Transformed Colony, 1910.[154]This increase, however, appears to be due to a steady immigration from the Southern States, but for which the Liberians proper would die out, or become absorbed in the surrounding native populations.[155]H. H. Johnston,Liberia, 1906.[156]Possibly the English word "crew," but more probably an extension ofKraoh, the name of a tribe near Settra-kru, to the whole group.[157]Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years, p. 280.[158]Mary H. Kingsley,Travels in West Africa, 1899, pp. 54-5.[159]Since the establishment of British authority in Nigeria (1900 to 1907) much light has been thrown on ethnological problems. See among other works C. Partridge,The Cross River Natives, 1905; A. G. Leonard,The Lower Niger and its Tribes, 1906; A. J. N. Tremearne,The Niger and the Western Sudan, 1910,The Tailed Head-Hunters of Nigeria, 1912; R. E. Dennett,Nigerian Studies, 1910; E. D. Morel,Nigeria, its People and its Problems, 1911, besides theAnthropological Reportsof N. W. Thomas, 1910, 1913, and papers by J. Parkinson inJourn. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1906,XXXVII.1907.[160]The services rendered to African anthropology by this distinguished officer call for the fullest recognition, all the more that somewhat free and unacknowledged use has been made of the rich materials brought together in his classical works onThe Tshi-speaking Peoples(1887),The Ewe-speaking Peoples(1890), andThe Yoruba-speaking Peoples(1894).[161]N. W. Thomas classifies Yoruba, Edo, Ibo and Efik as four main stocks in the Western Sudanic language group. "In the Edo and Ibo stocks people only a few miles apart may not be able to communicate owing to diversity of language" (p. 141).Anthropological Report of the Ibo-speaking Peoples of Nigeria, Part 1. 1913.[162]The Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 332 sq.[163]FeitiÃ§o, whence alsofeiticeira, a witch,feiticeria, sorcery, etc., all fromfeitiÃ§o, artificial, handmade, from Lat.facioandfactitius.[164]Du Culte des Dieux FÃ©tiches, 1760. It is generally supposed that the word was invented, or at least first introduced, by De Brosses; but Ellis shows that this also is a mistake, as it had already been used by Bosman in hisDescription of Guinea, London, 1705.[165]The Tshi-speaking Peoples, Ch. XII. p. 194 andpassim.See also R. H. Nassau,Fetichism in West Africa, 1904.[166]That is, from a wax mould destroyed in the casting. After the operation details were often filled in by chasing or executed inrepoussÃ©work.[167]"Works of Art from Benin City,"Journ. Anthr. Inst.February, 1898, p. 362 sq. See H. Ling Roth,Great Benin, its Customs, etc., 1903.[168]A. Featherman,Social History of Mankind, The Nigritians, p. 281. See also Reclus, French ed., Vol.XII.p. 718: "Les cavaliers portent encore la cuirasse comme au moyen Ã¢ge.... Les chevaux sont recouverts de la mÃªme maniÃ¨re." In the mythical traditions of Buganda also there is reference to the fierce Wakedi warriors clad in "iron armour" (Ch. IV.). Cf. L. Frobenius,The Voice of Africa,II. 1913, pl. p. 608.[169]Du Niger au Golfe de GuinÃ©e, 1892,I.p. 377.[170]Early in the fourteenth century they were strong enough to carry the war into the enemy's camp and make more than one successful expedition against Timbuktu. At present the Mossi power is declining, and their territory has been parcelled out between the British and French Sudanese hinterlands.[171]AlsoSonrhay,ghandrhbeing interchangeable throughout North Africa;GhatandRhat,GhadamesandRhadames, etc. In the mouth of an Arab the sound is that of the gutturalSymbolghain, which is pronounced by the Berbers and Negroes somewhat like the Northumberlandburr, hence usually transliterated byrhin non-Semitic words.[172]It should be noticed that these terms are throughout used as strictly defined inEth.Ch. I.[173]Barth's account of Wulu (IV.p. 299), "inhabited by TawÃ¡rek slaves, who aretrilingues, speaking TemÃ¡shight as well as Songhay and Fulfulde," is at present generally applicable,mutatis mutandis, to most of the Songhai settlements.[174]As so much has been made of Barth's authority in this connection, it may be well to quote his exact words: "It would seem as if they (the Sonrhay) had received, in more ancient times, several institutions from the Egyptians, with whom, I have no doubt, they maintained an intercourse by means of the energetic inhabitants of Aujila from a relatively ancient period" (IV.p. 426). Barth, therefore, does not bring the people themselves, or their language, from Egypt, but only some of their institutions, and that indirectly through the Aujila Oasis in Cyrenaica, and it may be added that this intercourse with Aujila appears to date only from about 1150A.D.(IV.p. 585).[175]Hacquard et Dupuis,Manuel de la langue SoÃ±gay, parlÃ©e de Tombouctou Ã Say, dans la boucle du Niger, 1897,passim.[176]"A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 386.[177]Barth,IV. pp. 593-4.[178]TheIschiaof Leo Africanus, who tells us that in his time the "linguaggio detto Sungai" was current even in the provinces of Walata and Jinni (VI.ch. 2). This statement, however, like others made by Leo at second hand, must be received with caution. In these districts Songhai may have been spoken by the officials and some of the upper classes, but scarcely by the people generally, who were of Mandingan speech.[179]Barth,IV. p. 414.[180]Ib.p. 415.[181]Carried captive into Marakesh, although later restored to his beloved Timbuktu to end his days in perpetuating the past glories of the Songhai nation; the one Negroid man of letters, whose name holds a worthy place beside those of Leo Africanus, Ibn KhaldÃºn, El Tunsi, and other Hamitic writers.[182]"Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artesIntulit agresti Latio." Hor.Epist.II.1, 156-7.The epithetagrestisis peculiarly applicable to the rude Fulah shepherds, who were almost barbarians compared with the settled, industrious, and even cultured Hausa populations, and whose oppressive rule has at last been relaxed by the intervention of England in the Niger-Benue lands.[183]"One of their towns, Kano, has probably the largest market-place in the world, with a daily attendance of from 25,000 to 30,000 people. This same town possesses, what in central Africa is still more surprising, some thirty or forty schools, in which the children are taught to read and write" (Rev. C. H. Robinson,Specimens of Hausa Literature, University Press, Cambridge, 1896, p. x).[184]See C. H. Robinson,Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central Soudan, 1896;Specimens of Hausa Literature, 1896;Hausa Grammar, 1897;Hausa Dictionary, 1899. Authorities are undecided whether to class Hausa with the Semitic or the Hamitic family, or in an independent group by itself, and it must be admitted that some of its features are extremely puzzling. While Sudanese Negro in phonology and perhaps in most of its word roots, it is Hamitic in its grammatical features and pronouns. But the Hamitic element is thought by experts to be as much Kushite, or even Koptic, as Libyan. "On the whole, it seems probable," says H. H. Johnston, "that the Hausa speech was shaped by a double influence: from Egypt, and Hamiticized Nubia, as well as by Libyan immigrants from across the Sahara." "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 385. Cf. also Julius Lippert, "Ãœber die Stellung der Hausasprache,"Mitteilungen des SeminÃ¤rs fÃ¼r Orientalische Sprachen, 1906. It is noteworthy that Hausa is the only language in tropical Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives themselves.[185]Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger, by Lt Seymour Vandeleur, with an Introduction by Sir George Goldie, 1898. "In camp," writes Lt Vandeleur, "their conduct was exemplary, while pillaging and ill-treatment of the natives were unknown. As to their fighting qualities, it is enough to say that, little over 500 strong (on the Bida expedition of 1897), they withstood for two days 25,000 or 30,000 of the enemy; that, former slaves of the Fulahs, they defeated their dreaded masters," etc.[186]The Kano Chronicle, translated by H. R. Palmer,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVIII.1908, gives a list of Hausa kings (Sarkis) from 999A.D.[187]For references to recent literature see note on p. 58. Also R. S. Rattray,Hausa Folk-lore, 1913; A. J. N. Tremearne,Hausa Superstitions and Customs, 1913, andHausa Folk-Tales, 1914.[188]By a popular etymology these areKa-NÃºri, "People of Light." But, as they are somewhat lukewarm Muhammadans, the zealous Fulahs say it should beKa-Nari, "People of Fire,"i.e.foredoomed to Gehenna![189]E. Gentil,La Chute de l'Empire de Rabah, 1902.[190]The Buduma, who derive their legendary origin from the Fulahs whom they resemble in physique, worship theKarrakatree (a kind of acacia). P. A. Talbot, "The Buduma of Lake Chad,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLI.1911. The anthropology of the region has lately been dealt with inDocuments Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho(1906-9),RÃ©publique FranÃ§aise, MinistÃ¨re des Colonies, Vol.III.1914; R. Gaillard and L. Poutrin,Ã‰tude anthropologique des Populations des RÃ©gions du Tchad et du Kanem, 1914.[191]III.p. 194.[192]Sahara and Sudan,II. p. 628.[193]II.pp. 382-3.[194]That is "Kanem-men," the postfixbu,be, as inTi-bu,Ful-be, answering to the Bantu prefixba,wa, as inBa-Suto,Wa-Swahili, etc. Here may possibly be discovered a link between the Sudanese, Teda-Daza, and Bantu linguistic groups. The transposition of the agglutinated particles would present no difficulty; cf. Umbrian and Latin (Eth.p. 214). The Kanembu are described by Tilho, who explored the Chad basin, 1906-9. His reports were published in 1914.RÃ©publique FranÃ§aise MinistÃ¨re des Colonies, Documents Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho(1906-9), Vol.III.1914.[195]Barth draws a vivid picture of the contrasts, physical and mental, between the Kanuri and the Hausa peoples; "Here we took leave of Hausa with its fine and beautiful country, and its cheerful and industrious population. It is remarkable what a difference there is between the character of the ba-Haushe and the Kanuriâ€”the former lively, spirited, and cheerful, the latter melancholic, dejected, and brutal; and the same difference is visible in their physiognomiesâ€”the former having in general very pleasant and regular features, and more graceful forms, while the Kanuri, with his broad face, his wide nostrils and his large bones, makes a far less agreeable impression, especially the women, who are very plain and certainly among the ugliest in all Negroland" (II.pp. 163-4).[196]See Nachtigal,II.p. 690.[197]For recent literature see Lady Lugard'sA Tropical Dependency, 1905, and the references, note 3, p. 58.[198]These are the same people as theTunjurs(Tunzers) of Darfur, regarding whose ethnical position so much doubt still prevails. Strange to say, they themselves claim to be Arabs, and the claim is allowed by their neighbours, although they are not Muhammadans. Lejean thinks they are Tibus from the north-west, while Nachtigal, who met some as far west as Kanem, concluded from their appearance and speech that they were really Arabs settled for hundreds of years in the country (op. cit.II.p. 256).[199]A. H. Keane, "Wadai,"Travel and Exploration, July, 1910; and H. H. Johnston, on Lieut. Boyd Alexander,Geog. Journ.same date.[200]H. A. MacMichael has investigated the value of these racial claims in the case of the Kababish and indicates the probable admixture of Negro, Mediterranean, Hamite and other strains in the Sudanese Arabs. He says, "Among the more settled tribes any important sheikh or faki can produce a table of his ancestors (i.e.anisba) in support of his asseverations.... I asked a village sheikh if he could show me his pedigree, as I did not know from which of the exalted sources his particular tribe claimed descent. He replied that he did not know yet, but that his village had subscribed 60 piastres the month before to hire a faki to compose anisbafor them, and that he would show me the result when it was finished." "The Kababish: Some Remarks on the Ethnology of a Sudan Arab Tribe,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, p. 216.[201]See the Kababish types, Pl.XXXVIIin C. G. Seligman's "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, but cf. also p. 626 and n. 2.[202]"The Physical Characters of the Nuba of Kordofan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc.,tom. cit.XLIII.1913.[203]See H. A. MacMichael,The Tribes of Northern and Central KordofÃ¡n, 1912.[204]Cf. A. W. Tucker and C. S. Myers, "A Contribution to the Anthropology of the Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, p. 149.[205]This term, however, has by some authorities been identified with theBarabara, one of the 113 tribes recorded in the inscription on a gateway of Thutmes, by whom they were reduced about 1700B.C.In a later inscription of Rameses II at Karnak (1400B.C.) occurs the formBeraberata, name of a southern people conquered by him. Hence Brugsch (Reisebericht aus Ã†gypten, pp. 127 and 155) is inclined to regard the modernBarabraas a true ethnical name confused in classical times with the Greek and RomanBarbarus, but revived in its proper sense since the Moslem conquest. See also the editorial note on the termBerber, in the new English ed. of Leo Africanus, Vol. 1. p. 199.[206]á¼˜Î¾ á¼€ÏÎ¹ÏƒÏ„ÎµÏá¿¶Î½ Î´á½² á¿¥ÏÏƒÎµÏ‰Ï‚ Ï„Î¿á¿¦ ÎÎµÎ¯Î»Î¿Ï… ÎÎ¿á¿¦Î²Î±Î¹ ÎºÎ±Ï„Î¿Î¹ÎºÎ¿á¿¦ÏƒÎ¹Î½ á¼Î½ Ï„á¿‡ Î›Î¹Î²Ïá¿ƒ, Î¼ÎÎ³Î± á¼”Î¸Î½Î¿Ï‚, etc. (Book XVII. p. 1117, Oxford ed. 1807). Sayce, therefore, is quite wrong in stating that Strabo knew only of "Ethiopians," and not Nubians, "as dwelling northward along the banks of the Nile as far as ElephantinÃ©" (Academy, April 14, 1894).[207]Nubische Grammatik, 1881,passim.[208]B. Z. Seligman, "Note on the Languages of the Nubas of S. Kordofan,"Zeitschr. f. Kol.-spr.I. 1910-11; C. G. Seligman, "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc.,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 621 ff.[209]See A. H. Keane,Man, Past and Present, 1900, p. 74.[210]C. G. Seligman, "The Physical Characters of the Nuba of Kordofan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, p. 512, and "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc.,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913,passim.[211]Archaeological Survey of India, Bull.III.p. 25.[212]See note 1, p. 44.[213]Op. cit.I.p. 263.[214]Travels in Africa, Keane's English ed., Vol.III.p. 247.[215]Ibid.p. 246.[216]C. G. Seligman, Art. "Dinka,"Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.See also the same author's "Cult of Nyakangano the Divine Kings of the Shilluk,"Fourth Report Wellcome Research Lab. Khartoum, Vol. B, 1911, p. 216; S. L. Cummins,Journ. Anthr. Inst.XXXIV.1904, and H. O'Sullivan, "Dinka Laws and Customs,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910. Measurements of Dinka, Shilluk etc. are given by A. W. Tucker and C. S. Myers, "A Contribution to the Anthropology of the Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910. G. A. S. Northcote, "The Nilotic Kavirondo,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1907, describes an allied people, theJaluo.[217]Travels in Africa, Keane's Eng. ed.,III. p. 279. Thus the BantuBa,Wa,Ama, etc., correspond to theAof the Welle lands, as inA-Zandeh,A-Barmbo,A-Madi,A-Bangba,i.e.Zandeh people, Barmbo people, etc. Cf. also Kanembu, Tibu, Fulbe, etc., where the personal particle (bu, be) is postfixed. It would almost seem as if we had here a transition between the northern Sudanese and the southern Bantu groups in the very region where such transitions might be looked for.[218]Schweinfurth,op. cit.II.p. 93.[219]G. Elliot Smith denies that cannibalism occurred in Ancient Egypt,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 48.[220]Africa, 1895, Vol.II.p. 58. In a carefully prepared monograph on "Endocannibalismus," Vienna, 1896, Dr Rudolf S. Steinmetz brings together a great body of evidence tending to show "dass eine hohe Wahrscheinlichkeit dafÃ¼r spricht den Endocannibalismus (indigenous anthropophagy) als stÃ¤ndige Sitte der Urmenschen, sowie der niedrigen Wilden anzunehmen" (pp. 59, 60). It is surprising to learn from the ill-starred BÃ²ttego-Grixoni expedition of 1892-3 that anthropophagy is still rife even in Gallaland, and amongst the white ("floridi") Cormoso Gallas. Like the Fans, these prefer the meat "high," and it would appear that all the dead are eaten. Hence in their country BÃ²ttego found no graves, and one of his native guides explained that "questa gente seppellisce i suoi cari nel ventre, invece che nella terra,"i.e.these people bury their dear ones in their stomach instead of in the ground. Vittorio BÃ²ttego,Viaggi di Scoperta, etc. Rome, 1895.[221]I.p. 245.[222]II.p. 140.

[129]For a tentative classification of African tribes see T. A. Joyce, Art. "Africa: Ethnology,"Ency. Brit.1910, p. 329.

[130]Graphically summed up in the classical description of the Negress:"Afra genus, totÃ¢ patriam testante figurÃ¢,Torta comam labroque tumens, et fusca colorem,Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo,Cruribus exilis, spatiosÃ¢ prodiga plantÃ¢."

[130]Graphically summed up in the classical description of the Negress:

"Afra genus, totÃ¢ patriam testante figurÃ¢,Torta comam labroque tumens, et fusca colorem,Pectore lata, jacens mammis, compressior alvo,Cruribus exilis, spatiosÃ¢ prodiga plantÃ¢."

[131]See H. R. Hall, papers and references inMan, 19, 1905.

[132]T. A. Joyce, "Africa: Ethnology,"Ency. Brit.1910,I.327.

[133]J. P. Johnson,The Prehistoric Period in South Africa, 1912.

[134]See H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.

[135]The skeleton found by Hans Reck at Oldoway in 1914 and claimed by him to be of Pleistocene age exhibits all the typical Negro features, including the filed teeth, characteristic of East African negroes at the present day, but the geological evidence is imperfect.

[136]H. H. Johnston,British Central Africa, 1897, p. 393.

[137]Zandeh is the name usually given to the groups of tribes akin to Nilotics, but probably with Fulah element, which includes theAzandehor Niam Niam,Makaraka,Mangbattuand many others. Cf. T. A. Joyce,loc. cit.p. 329.

[138]British Central Africa, p. 472. But see R. E. Dennett,At the Back of the Black Man's Mind, 1906, and A. G. Leonard,The Lower Niger and its Tribes, 1906, for African mentality.

[139]For theories of Bantu migrations see H. H. Johnston,George Grenfell and the Congo, 1908, and "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 391 ff. Also F. Stuhlmann,Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, p. 138, f. 147, with map, Pl. 1. B. For the date see p. 92.

[140]Even a tendency to polysynthesis occurs, as in Vei, and in Yoruba, where the small-pox godShakpannais made up of the three elementsshanto plaster,kpato kill, andeniaa person = one who kills a person by plastering him (with pustules).

[141]The Nilotic languages are to a considerable extent tonic.

[142]A. B. Ellis,The Tshi-speaking Peoples, etc., 1887, pp. 327-8. Only one European, Herr R. Betz, long resident amongst the Dualas of the Cameruns district, has yet succeeded in mastering the drum language; he claims to understand nearly all that is drummed and is also able to drum himself. (AthenÃ¦um, May 7, 1898, p. 611.)

[143]Cf. H. S. Harrison,Handbook to the cases illustrating stages in the evolution of the Domestic Arts. PartII. Horniman Museum and Library. Forest Hill, S.E.

[144]E. T. Hamy, "Les Races NÃ¨gres," inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 257 sq.

[145]"Chaque fois que j'ai demandÃ© avec intention Ã un MandÃ©, 'Es-tu Peul, Mossi, Dafina?' il me rÃ©pondait invariablement, 'Je suis MandÃ©.' C'est pourquoi, dans le cours de ma relation, j'ai toujours dÃ©signÃ© ce peuple par le nom deMandÃ©, qui est son vrai nom." (L. G. Binger,Du Niger au Golfe de GuinÃ©e, 1892, Vol.II. p. 373.) At p. 375 this authority gives the following subdivisions of the MandÃ© family, named from their respectivetennÃ©(idol, fetish, totem):1.Bamba, the crocodile:Bammana, notBambara, which means kafir or infidel, and is applied only to the non-Moslem MandÃ© groups.2.Mali, the hippopotamus:Mali'nkÃ©, including the Kagoros and the Tagwas.3.Sama, the elephant:Sama'nkÃ©.4.Sa, the snake:Sa-mokho.Of each there are several sub-groups, while the surrounding peoples call them all collectivelyWakorÃ©,Wangara,Sakhersi, and especiallyDiula. Attention to this point will save the reader much confusion in consulting Barth, CailliÃ©, and other early books of travel.

1.Bamba, the crocodile:Bammana, notBambara, which means kafir or infidel, and is applied only to the non-Moslem MandÃ© groups.2.Mali, the hippopotamus:Mali'nkÃ©, including the Kagoros and the Tagwas.3.Sama, the elephant:Sama'nkÃ©.4.Sa, the snake:Sa-mokho.

Of each there are several sub-groups, while the surrounding peoples call them all collectivelyWakorÃ©,Wangara,Sakhersi, and especiallyDiula. Attention to this point will save the reader much confusion in consulting Barth, CailliÃ©, and other early books of travel.

[146]Travels, Vol.IV. p. 579 sqq.

[147]"La chaÃ®ne des Montagnes de Kong n'a jamais existÃ© que dans l'imagination de quelques voyageurs mal renseignÃ©s,"Du Niger au Golfe de GuinÃ©e, 1892,I. p. 285.

[148]Bertrand-BocandÃ©, "Sur les Floups ou FÃ©loups," inBul. Soc. de GÃ©ogr. 1849.

[149]A full account of this literature will be found in the Rev. C. F. Schlenker's valuable work,A Collection of Temne Traditions, Fables and Proverbs, London, 1861. Here is given the curious explanation of the tribal name, fromo-tem, an old man, andnÃ©, himself, because, as they say, the TemnÃ© people will exist for ever.

[150]There is also a sisterhoodâ€”thebondoâ€”and the two societies work so far in harmony that any person expelled from the one is also excluded from the other.

[151]Reclus, Keane's English ed.,XII. p. 203.

[152]"Da Njoe Testament, translated into the Negro-English Language by the Missionaries of the Unitas Fratrum," Brit. and For. Bible Soc., London, 1829. Here is a specimen quoted by Ellis fromThe Artisanof Sierra Leone, Aug. 4, 1886, "Those who live in ceiled houses love to hear the pit-pat of the rain overhead; whilst those whose houses leak are the subjects of restlessness and anxiety, not to mention the chances of catching cold,that is so frequent a source of leaky roofs."

[153]Right Rev. E. G. Ingham (Bishop of Sierra Leone),Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years, London, 1894, p. 294. Cf. H. C. Lukach,A Bibliography of Sierra Leone, 1911, and T. J. Alldridge,A Transformed Colony, 1910.

[154]This increase, however, appears to be due to a steady immigration from the Southern States, but for which the Liberians proper would die out, or become absorbed in the surrounding native populations.

[155]H. H. Johnston,Liberia, 1906.

[156]Possibly the English word "crew," but more probably an extension ofKraoh, the name of a tribe near Settra-kru, to the whole group.

[157]Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years, p. 280.

[158]Mary H. Kingsley,Travels in West Africa, 1899, pp. 54-5.

[159]Since the establishment of British authority in Nigeria (1900 to 1907) much light has been thrown on ethnological problems. See among other works C. Partridge,The Cross River Natives, 1905; A. G. Leonard,The Lower Niger and its Tribes, 1906; A. J. N. Tremearne,The Niger and the Western Sudan, 1910,The Tailed Head-Hunters of Nigeria, 1912; R. E. Dennett,Nigerian Studies, 1910; E. D. Morel,Nigeria, its People and its Problems, 1911, besides theAnthropological Reportsof N. W. Thomas, 1910, 1913, and papers by J. Parkinson inJourn. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1906,XXXVII.1907.

[160]The services rendered to African anthropology by this distinguished officer call for the fullest recognition, all the more that somewhat free and unacknowledged use has been made of the rich materials brought together in his classical works onThe Tshi-speaking Peoples(1887),The Ewe-speaking Peoples(1890), andThe Yoruba-speaking Peoples(1894).

[161]N. W. Thomas classifies Yoruba, Edo, Ibo and Efik as four main stocks in the Western Sudanic language group. "In the Edo and Ibo stocks people only a few miles apart may not be able to communicate owing to diversity of language" (p. 141).Anthropological Report of the Ibo-speaking Peoples of Nigeria, Part 1. 1913.

[162]The Tshi-speaking Peoples, p. 332 sq.

[163]FeitiÃ§o, whence alsofeiticeira, a witch,feiticeria, sorcery, etc., all fromfeitiÃ§o, artificial, handmade, from Lat.facioandfactitius.

[164]Du Culte des Dieux FÃ©tiches, 1760. It is generally supposed that the word was invented, or at least first introduced, by De Brosses; but Ellis shows that this also is a mistake, as it had already been used by Bosman in hisDescription of Guinea, London, 1705.

[165]The Tshi-speaking Peoples, Ch. XII. p. 194 andpassim.See also R. H. Nassau,Fetichism in West Africa, 1904.

[166]That is, from a wax mould destroyed in the casting. After the operation details were often filled in by chasing or executed inrepoussÃ©work.

[167]"Works of Art from Benin City,"Journ. Anthr. Inst.February, 1898, p. 362 sq. See H. Ling Roth,Great Benin, its Customs, etc., 1903.

[168]A. Featherman,Social History of Mankind, The Nigritians, p. 281. See also Reclus, French ed., Vol.XII.p. 718: "Les cavaliers portent encore la cuirasse comme au moyen Ã¢ge.... Les chevaux sont recouverts de la mÃªme maniÃ¨re." In the mythical traditions of Buganda also there is reference to the fierce Wakedi warriors clad in "iron armour" (Ch. IV.). Cf. L. Frobenius,The Voice of Africa,II. 1913, pl. p. 608.

[169]Du Niger au Golfe de GuinÃ©e, 1892,I.p. 377.

[170]Early in the fourteenth century they were strong enough to carry the war into the enemy's camp and make more than one successful expedition against Timbuktu. At present the Mossi power is declining, and their territory has been parcelled out between the British and French Sudanese hinterlands.

[171]AlsoSonrhay,ghandrhbeing interchangeable throughout North Africa;GhatandRhat,GhadamesandRhadames, etc. In the mouth of an Arab the sound is that of the gutturalSymbolghain, which is pronounced by the Berbers and Negroes somewhat like the Northumberlandburr, hence usually transliterated byrhin non-Semitic words.

[172]It should be noticed that these terms are throughout used as strictly defined inEth.Ch. I.

[173]Barth's account of Wulu (IV.p. 299), "inhabited by TawÃ¡rek slaves, who aretrilingues, speaking TemÃ¡shight as well as Songhay and Fulfulde," is at present generally applicable,mutatis mutandis, to most of the Songhai settlements.

[174]As so much has been made of Barth's authority in this connection, it may be well to quote his exact words: "It would seem as if they (the Sonrhay) had received, in more ancient times, several institutions from the Egyptians, with whom, I have no doubt, they maintained an intercourse by means of the energetic inhabitants of Aujila from a relatively ancient period" (IV.p. 426). Barth, therefore, does not bring the people themselves, or their language, from Egypt, but only some of their institutions, and that indirectly through the Aujila Oasis in Cyrenaica, and it may be added that this intercourse with Aujila appears to date only from about 1150A.D.(IV.p. 585).

[175]Hacquard et Dupuis,Manuel de la langue SoÃ±gay, parlÃ©e de Tombouctou Ã Say, dans la boucle du Niger, 1897,passim.

[176]"A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 386.

[177]Barth,IV. pp. 593-4.

[178]TheIschiaof Leo Africanus, who tells us that in his time the "linguaggio detto Sungai" was current even in the provinces of Walata and Jinni (VI.ch. 2). This statement, however, like others made by Leo at second hand, must be received with caution. In these districts Songhai may have been spoken by the officials and some of the upper classes, but scarcely by the people generally, who were of Mandingan speech.

[179]Barth,IV. p. 414.

[180]Ib.p. 415.

[181]Carried captive into Marakesh, although later restored to his beloved Timbuktu to end his days in perpetuating the past glories of the Songhai nation; the one Negroid man of letters, whose name holds a worthy place beside those of Leo Africanus, Ibn KhaldÃºn, El Tunsi, and other Hamitic writers.

[182]"Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artesIntulit agresti Latio." Hor.Epist.II.1, 156-7.The epithetagrestisis peculiarly applicable to the rude Fulah shepherds, who were almost barbarians compared with the settled, industrious, and even cultured Hausa populations, and whose oppressive rule has at last been relaxed by the intervention of England in the Niger-Benue lands.

[182]

"Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit, et artesIntulit agresti Latio." Hor.Epist.II.1, 156-7.

The epithetagrestisis peculiarly applicable to the rude Fulah shepherds, who were almost barbarians compared with the settled, industrious, and even cultured Hausa populations, and whose oppressive rule has at last been relaxed by the intervention of England in the Niger-Benue lands.

[183]"One of their towns, Kano, has probably the largest market-place in the world, with a daily attendance of from 25,000 to 30,000 people. This same town possesses, what in central Africa is still more surprising, some thirty or forty schools, in which the children are taught to read and write" (Rev. C. H. Robinson,Specimens of Hausa Literature, University Press, Cambridge, 1896, p. x).

[184]See C. H. Robinson,Hausaland, or Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central Soudan, 1896;Specimens of Hausa Literature, 1896;Hausa Grammar, 1897;Hausa Dictionary, 1899. Authorities are undecided whether to class Hausa with the Semitic or the Hamitic family, or in an independent group by itself, and it must be admitted that some of its features are extremely puzzling. While Sudanese Negro in phonology and perhaps in most of its word roots, it is Hamitic in its grammatical features and pronouns. But the Hamitic element is thought by experts to be as much Kushite, or even Koptic, as Libyan. "On the whole, it seems probable," says H. H. Johnston, "that the Hausa speech was shaped by a double influence: from Egypt, and Hamiticized Nubia, as well as by Libyan immigrants from across the Sahara." "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 385. Cf. also Julius Lippert, "Ãœber die Stellung der Hausasprache,"Mitteilungen des SeminÃ¤rs fÃ¼r Orientalische Sprachen, 1906. It is noteworthy that Hausa is the only language in tropical Africa which has been reduced to writing by the natives themselves.

[185]Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger, by Lt Seymour Vandeleur, with an Introduction by Sir George Goldie, 1898. "In camp," writes Lt Vandeleur, "their conduct was exemplary, while pillaging and ill-treatment of the natives were unknown. As to their fighting qualities, it is enough to say that, little over 500 strong (on the Bida expedition of 1897), they withstood for two days 25,000 or 30,000 of the enemy; that, former slaves of the Fulahs, they defeated their dreaded masters," etc.

[186]The Kano Chronicle, translated by H. R. Palmer,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVIII.1908, gives a list of Hausa kings (Sarkis) from 999A.D.

[187]For references to recent literature see note on p. 58. Also R. S. Rattray,Hausa Folk-lore, 1913; A. J. N. Tremearne,Hausa Superstitions and Customs, 1913, andHausa Folk-Tales, 1914.

[188]By a popular etymology these areKa-NÃºri, "People of Light." But, as they are somewhat lukewarm Muhammadans, the zealous Fulahs say it should beKa-Nari, "People of Fire,"i.e.foredoomed to Gehenna!

[189]E. Gentil,La Chute de l'Empire de Rabah, 1902.

[190]The Buduma, who derive their legendary origin from the Fulahs whom they resemble in physique, worship theKarrakatree (a kind of acacia). P. A. Talbot, "The Buduma of Lake Chad,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLI.1911. The anthropology of the region has lately been dealt with inDocuments Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho(1906-9),RÃ©publique FranÃ§aise, MinistÃ¨re des Colonies, Vol.III.1914; R. Gaillard and L. Poutrin,Ã‰tude anthropologique des Populations des RÃ©gions du Tchad et du Kanem, 1914.

[191]III.p. 194.

[192]Sahara and Sudan,II. p. 628.

[193]II.pp. 382-3.

[194]That is "Kanem-men," the postfixbu,be, as inTi-bu,Ful-be, answering to the Bantu prefixba,wa, as inBa-Suto,Wa-Swahili, etc. Here may possibly be discovered a link between the Sudanese, Teda-Daza, and Bantu linguistic groups. The transposition of the agglutinated particles would present no difficulty; cf. Umbrian and Latin (Eth.p. 214). The Kanembu are described by Tilho, who explored the Chad basin, 1906-9. His reports were published in 1914.RÃ©publique FranÃ§aise MinistÃ¨re des Colonies, Documents Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho(1906-9), Vol.III.1914.

[195]Barth draws a vivid picture of the contrasts, physical and mental, between the Kanuri and the Hausa peoples; "Here we took leave of Hausa with its fine and beautiful country, and its cheerful and industrious population. It is remarkable what a difference there is between the character of the ba-Haushe and the Kanuriâ€”the former lively, spirited, and cheerful, the latter melancholic, dejected, and brutal; and the same difference is visible in their physiognomiesâ€”the former having in general very pleasant and regular features, and more graceful forms, while the Kanuri, with his broad face, his wide nostrils and his large bones, makes a far less agreeable impression, especially the women, who are very plain and certainly among the ugliest in all Negroland" (II.pp. 163-4).

[196]See Nachtigal,II.p. 690.

[197]For recent literature see Lady Lugard'sA Tropical Dependency, 1905, and the references, note 3, p. 58.

[198]These are the same people as theTunjurs(Tunzers) of Darfur, regarding whose ethnical position so much doubt still prevails. Strange to say, they themselves claim to be Arabs, and the claim is allowed by their neighbours, although they are not Muhammadans. Lejean thinks they are Tibus from the north-west, while Nachtigal, who met some as far west as Kanem, concluded from their appearance and speech that they were really Arabs settled for hundreds of years in the country (op. cit.II.p. 256).

[199]A. H. Keane, "Wadai,"Travel and Exploration, July, 1910; and H. H. Johnston, on Lieut. Boyd Alexander,Geog. Journ.same date.

[200]H. A. MacMichael has investigated the value of these racial claims in the case of the Kababish and indicates the probable admixture of Negro, Mediterranean, Hamite and other strains in the Sudanese Arabs. He says, "Among the more settled tribes any important sheikh or faki can produce a table of his ancestors (i.e.anisba) in support of his asseverations.... I asked a village sheikh if he could show me his pedigree, as I did not know from which of the exalted sources his particular tribe claimed descent. He replied that he did not know yet, but that his village had subscribed 60 piastres the month before to hire a faki to compose anisbafor them, and that he would show me the result when it was finished." "The Kababish: Some Remarks on the Ethnology of a Sudan Arab Tribe,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, p. 216.

[201]See the Kababish types, Pl.XXXVIIin C. G. Seligman's "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, but cf. also p. 626 and n. 2.

[202]"The Physical Characters of the Nuba of Kordofan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc.,tom. cit.XLIII.1913.

[203]See H. A. MacMichael,The Tribes of Northern and Central KordofÃ¡n, 1912.

[204]Cf. A. W. Tucker and C. S. Myers, "A Contribution to the Anthropology of the Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, p. 149.

[205]This term, however, has by some authorities been identified with theBarabara, one of the 113 tribes recorded in the inscription on a gateway of Thutmes, by whom they were reduced about 1700B.C.In a later inscription of Rameses II at Karnak (1400B.C.) occurs the formBeraberata, name of a southern people conquered by him. Hence Brugsch (Reisebericht aus Ã†gypten, pp. 127 and 155) is inclined to regard the modernBarabraas a true ethnical name confused in classical times with the Greek and RomanBarbarus, but revived in its proper sense since the Moslem conquest. See also the editorial note on the termBerber, in the new English ed. of Leo Africanus, Vol. 1. p. 199.

[206]á¼˜Î¾ á¼€ÏÎ¹ÏƒÏ„ÎµÏá¿¶Î½ Î´á½² á¿¥ÏÏƒÎµÏ‰Ï‚ Ï„Î¿á¿¦ ÎÎµÎ¯Î»Î¿Ï… ÎÎ¿á¿¦Î²Î±Î¹ ÎºÎ±Ï„Î¿Î¹ÎºÎ¿á¿¦ÏƒÎ¹Î½ á¼Î½ Ï„á¿‡ Î›Î¹Î²Ïá¿ƒ, Î¼ÎÎ³Î± á¼”Î¸Î½Î¿Ï‚, etc. (Book XVII. p. 1117, Oxford ed. 1807). Sayce, therefore, is quite wrong in stating that Strabo knew only of "Ethiopians," and not Nubians, "as dwelling northward along the banks of the Nile as far as ElephantinÃ©" (Academy, April 14, 1894).

[207]Nubische Grammatik, 1881,passim.

[208]B. Z. Seligman, "Note on the Languages of the Nubas of S. Kordofan,"Zeitschr. f. Kol.-spr.I. 1910-11; C. G. Seligman, "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc.,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 621 ff.

[209]See A. H. Keane,Man, Past and Present, 1900, p. 74.

[210]C. G. Seligman, "The Physical Characters of the Nuba of Kordofan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, p. 512, and "Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem," etc.,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913,passim.

[211]Archaeological Survey of India, Bull.III.p. 25.

[212]See note 1, p. 44.

[213]Op. cit.I.p. 263.

[214]Travels in Africa, Keane's English ed., Vol.III.p. 247.

[215]Ibid.p. 246.

[216]C. G. Seligman, Art. "Dinka,"Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics.See also the same author's "Cult of Nyakangano the Divine Kings of the Shilluk,"Fourth Report Wellcome Research Lab. Khartoum, Vol. B, 1911, p. 216; S. L. Cummins,Journ. Anthr. Inst.XXXIV.1904, and H. O'Sullivan, "Dinka Laws and Customs,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910. Measurements of Dinka, Shilluk etc. are given by A. W. Tucker and C. S. Myers, "A Contribution to the Anthropology of the Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910. G. A. S. Northcote, "The Nilotic Kavirondo,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1907, describes an allied people, theJaluo.

[217]Travels in Africa, Keane's Eng. ed.,III. p. 279. Thus the BantuBa,Wa,Ama, etc., correspond to theAof the Welle lands, as inA-Zandeh,A-Barmbo,A-Madi,A-Bangba,i.e.Zandeh people, Barmbo people, etc. Cf. also Kanembu, Tibu, Fulbe, etc., where the personal particle (bu, be) is postfixed. It would almost seem as if we had here a transition between the northern Sudanese and the southern Bantu groups in the very region where such transitions might be looked for.

[218]Schweinfurth,op. cit.II.p. 93.

[219]G. Elliot Smith denies that cannibalism occurred in Ancient Egypt,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 48.

[220]Africa, 1895, Vol.II.p. 58. In a carefully prepared monograph on "Endocannibalismus," Vienna, 1896, Dr Rudolf S. Steinmetz brings together a great body of evidence tending to show "dass eine hohe Wahrscheinlichkeit dafÃ¼r spricht den Endocannibalismus (indigenous anthropophagy) als stÃ¤ndige Sitte der Urmenschen, sowie der niedrigen Wilden anzunehmen" (pp. 59, 60). It is surprising to learn from the ill-starred BÃ²ttego-Grixoni expedition of 1892-3 that anthropophagy is still rife even in Gallaland, and amongst the white ("floridi") Cormoso Gallas. Like the Fans, these prefer the meat "high," and it would appear that all the dead are eaten. Hence in their country BÃ²ttego found no graves, and one of his native guides explained that "questa gente seppellisce i suoi cari nel ventre, invece che nella terra,"i.e.these people bury their dear ones in their stomach instead of in the ground. Vittorio BÃ²ttego,Viaggi di Scoperta, etc. Rome, 1895.

[221]I.p. 245.

[222]II.p. 140.

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