FOOTNOTES:

Social Life.

The inhabitants of the Andaman Islands range in colour from bronze to sooty black. Their hair is extremely frizzly, seeming to grow in spiral tufts and is seldom more than 5 inches long when untwisted. The women usually shave their heads. Their height is about 1.48 m. (4 ft. 10½ in.), with well-proportioned body and small hands. The cephalic index averages 82. The face is broad at the cheek-bones, the eyes are prominent, the nose is much sunken at the root but straight and small; the lips are full but not thick, the chin is small but not retreating, nor do the jaws project. The natives are characterised by honesty, frankness, politeness, modesty, conjugal fidelity, respect for elders and real affection between relatives and friends. The women are on an equal footing with the men and do their full share of work. The food is mainly fish (obtained by netting, spearing or shooting with bow and arrow), wild yams, turtle, pig and honey. They do not till the soil or keep domestic animals. Instead of clothing both sexes wear belts, necklaces, leg-bands, arm-bands etc. made of bones, wood and shell, the women wearing in additiona rudimentary leaf apron. When fully dressed the men wear bunches of shredded Pandanus leaf at wrists and knees, and a circlet of the same leaf folded on the head. They make canoes, some of which have an outrigger, but never venture far from the shore. They usually live in small encampments round an oval dancing ground, their simple huts are open in front and at the sides, or in a large communal hut in which each family has its own particular space, the bachelors and spinsters having theirs. A family consists of a man and his wife and such of their children, own and adopted, as have not passed the period of the ceremonies of adolescence. Between that period and marriage the boys and girls reside in the bachelors' and spinsters' quarters respectively. A man is not regarded as an independent member of the community till he is married and has a child. There is no organised polity. Generally one man excels the rest in hunting, warfare, wisdom and kindliness, and he is deferred to, and becomes, in a sense, chief. A regular feature of Andamanese social life is the meeting at intervals between two or more communities. A visit of a few days is paid and presents are exchanged between hosts and guests, the time being spent in hunting, feasting and dancing.

Religion.

No forms of worship have been noticed, but there is a belief in various kinds of spirits, the most important of whom is Biliku, usually regarded as female, who is identified with the north-east monsoon and is paired with Tarai the south-west monsoon. Biliku and Tarai are the producers of rain, storms, thunder and lightning. Fire was stolen from Biliku. There is always great fluidity in native beliefs, so some tribes regard Puluga (Biliku) as a male. Three things make Biliku angry and cause her to send storms; melting or burning of bees-wax, interfering in any way with a certain number of plants, and killing a cicada or making a noise during the time the cicadae are singing. A. R. Brown[346]gives an interesting explanation of this curious belief. Biliku is supposed to have a human form but nobody ever sees her. Her origin is unknown. The idea of her being a creator is local and is probably secondary, she does not concern herself with human actions other than those noted above.

Speech.

Method of Counting.

E. H. Man has carefully studied and reduced to writing the Andamanese language, of which there are at least nine distinct varieties, corresponding to as many tribal groups. It has no clear affinities to any other tongue[347], the supposed resemblances to Dravidian and Australian being extremely slight, if not visionary. Its phonetic system is astonishingly rich (no less than 24 vowels and 17 consonants, but no sibilants), while the arithmetic stops attwo. Nobody ever attempts to count in any way beyondten, which is reached by a singular process. First the nose is tapped with the finger-tips of either hand, beginning with the little finger, and sayingúbatúl(one), theníkpór(two) with the next, after which each successive tap makesanká, "and this." When the thumb of the second hand is reached, makingten, both hands are brought together to indicate 5 + 5, and the sum is clenched with the wordàrdúru= "all." But this feat is exceptional, and usually aftertwoyou get only words answering to several, many, numerous, countless, which flight of imagination is reached at about 6 or 7.

Grammatical Structure.

Yet with their infantile arithmetic these paradoxical islanders have contrived to develop an astonishingly intricate form of speech characterised by an absolutely bewildering superfluity of pronominal and other elements. Thus the possessive pronouns have as many as sixteen possible variants according to the class of noun (human objects, parts of the body, degrees of kinship, etc.) with which they are in agreement. For instance,myisdía,dót,dóng,dig,dab,dar,dákà,dóto,dai,dár,ad,ad-en,deb, withman,head,wrist,mouth,father,son,step-son,wife, etc. etc.; and so withthy,his,our,your,their! This grouping of nouns in classes is analogous to the Bantu system, and it is curious to note that the number of classes is about the same. On the other hand there is a wealth of postfixes attached as in normal agglutinating forms of speech, so that "in adding their affixes they follow the principles of the ordinary agglutinative tongues; in adding their prefixes they follow the well-defined principles of the South African tongues. Hitherto, as far as I know, the two principles in full play have never been found together in any other language....In Andamanese both are fully developed, so much so as to interfere with each other's grammatical functions[348]." The result often is certainsesquipedalia verbacomparable in length to those of the American polysynthetic languages. A savage people, who can hardly count beyond two, possessed of about the most intricate language spoken by man, is a psychological puzzle which I cannot profess to fathom.

The Semangs.

In the Malay Peninsula the indigenous element is certainly the Negrito, who, known by many names—Semang, Udai, Pangan, Hami, Menik or Mandi—forms a single ethnical group presenting some striking analogies with the Andamanese. But, surrounded from time out of mind by Malay peoples, some semi-civilised, some nearly as wild as themselves, but all alike slowly crowding them out of the land, these aborigines have developed defensive qualities unneeded by the more favoured insular Negritoes, while their natural development has been arrested at perhaps a somewhat lower plane of culture. In fact, doomed to extinction before their time came, they never have had a chance in the race, as Hugh Clifford sings inThe Song of the Last Semangs:

The paths are rough, the trails are blindThe Jungle People tread;The yams are scarce and hard to findWith which our folk are fed.We suffer yet a little spaceUntil we pass away,The relics of an ancient raceThat ne'er has had its day.

The paths are rough, the trails are blindThe Jungle People tread;The yams are scarce and hard to findWith which our folk are fed.

We suffer yet a little spaceUntil we pass away,The relics of an ancient raceThat ne'er has had its day.

Physical Appearance.

In physical features they in many respects resemble the Andamanese. Their hair is short, universally woolly and black, the skin colour dark chocolate brown approximating to glossy black[349], sometimes with a reddish tinge[350]. There is very little evidence for the stature but the 17 males measured by Annandale and Robinson[351]averaged 1.52 m. (5 ft. 0¼ in.). The average cephalic index is about 78 to 79, extremes ranging from 74 to 84. The face is round, the forehead rounded, narrow and projecting, or as it were "swollen." The nose is short andflattened, with remarkable breadth and distended nostrils. The nasal index of five adult males was 101.2[352]. The cheekbones are broad and the jaws often protrude slightly; the lips are as a rule thick. Martin remarks that characteristic both of Semang and Sakai[353]is the great thickening of the integumental part of the upper lip, the whole mouth region projecting from the lower edge of the nose. This convexity occurs in 79 per cent., and is well shown in his photographs[354].

Hugh Clifford, who has been intimately associated with the "Orang-utan" (Wild-men) as the Malays often call them, describes those of the Plus River valley as "like African Negroes seen through the reverse end of a field-glass. They are sooty-black in colour; their hair is short and woolly, clinging to the scalp in little crisp curls; their noses are flat, their lips protrude, and their features are those of the pure negroid type. They are sturdily built and well set upon their legs, but in stature little better than dwarfs. They live by hunting, and have no permanent dwellings, camping in little family groups wherever, for the moment, game is most plentiful[355]."

Usages.

Their shelters—huts they cannot be called—are exactly like the frailest of the Andamanese, mere lean-to's of matted palm-leaves crazily propped on rough uprights; clothes they have next to none, and their food is chiefly yams and other jungle roots, fish from the stream, and sun-dried monkey, venison and other game, this term having an elastic meaning. Salt, being rarely obtainable, is a great luxury, as amongst almost all wild tribes. They are a nomadic people living by collecting and hunting; the wilder ones will often not remain longer than three days in one place. Very few have taken to agriculture. They make use of bamboo rafts for drifting down stream but have no canoes. All men are on an equal footing, but each tribe has a head, who exercises authority. Division of labour is fairly even between men and women. The men hunt, and the women build the shelters and cook the food. They are strictly monogamous and faithful.

All the faculties are sharpened mainly in the quest of food and of means to elude the enemy now closing round their farthest retreats in the upland forests. When hard pressed and escape seems impossible, they will climb trees and stretch rattan ropes from branch to branch where these are too wide apart to be reached at a bound, and along such frail aërial bridges women and all will pass with their cooking-pots and other effects, with their babies also at the breast, and the little ones clinging to their mother's heels. For like the Andamanese they love their women-folk and children, and in this way rescue them from the Malay raiders and slavers. But unless the British raj soon intervenes their fate is sealed. They may slip from the Malays, but not from their own traitorous kinsmen, who often lead the hunt, and squat all night long on the tree tops, calling one to another and signalling from these look-outs when the leaves rustle and the rattans are heaved across, so that nothing can be done, and another family group is swept away into bondage.

Speech.

Stone Age.

From their physical resemblance, undoubted common descent, and geographical proximity, one might also expect to find some affinity in the speech of the Andaman and Malay Negritoes. But H. Clifford, who made a special study of the dialects on the mainland, discovered no points of contact between them and any other linguistic group[356]. This, however, need cause no surprise, being in no discordance with recognised principles. As in the Andamans, stone implements have been found in the Peninsula, and specimens are now in the Pitt-Rivers collection at Oxford[357]. But the present aborigines do not make or use such tools, and there is good reason for thinking that they were the work of their ancestors, arriving, as in the Andamans, in the remote past. Hence the two groups have been separated for many thousands of years, and their speech has diverged too widely to be now traced back to a common source.

The Aetas.

With the Negritoes of the Philippines we enter a region of almost hopeless ethnical complications[358], amid which, however, the dark dwarfishAetapeoples crop out almost everywhere as the indigenous element. The Aeta live in the mountainous districts of the larger islands, and in some of the smaller islands of the Philippines, and the name is conveniently extended to the various groups of Philippine Negritoes, many of whom show the results of mixture with other peoples. Their hair is universally woolly, usually of a dirty black colour, often sun-burnt on the top to a reddish brown. The skin is dark chocolate brown rather than black, sometimes with a yellowish tinge. The average stature of 48 men was 1.46 m. (4 ft. 9 in.), but showed considerable range. The typical nose is broad, flat, and bridgeless, with prominent arched nostrils, the average nasal index for males being 102, and for females 105[359]. The lips are thick, but not protruding, sometimes showing a pronounced convexity between the upper lip and the nose.

John Foreman[360]noted the curious fact that the Aeta were recognised as the owners of the soil long after the arrival of the Malayan intruders.

"For a long time they were the sole masters of Luzon Island, where they exercised seignorial rights over the Tagalogs and other immigrants, until these arrived in such numbers, that the Negritoes were forced to the highlands.

"The taxes imposed upon the primitive Malay settlers by the Negritoes were levied in kind, and, when payment was refused, they swooped down in a posse, and carried off the head of the defaulter. Since the arrival of the Spaniards terror of the white man has made them take definitely to the mountains, where they appear to be very gradually decreasing[361]."

Head-hunters.

At first sight it may seem unaccountable that a race of such extremely low intellect should be able to assert theirsupremacy in this way over the intruding Malayans, assumed to be so much their superiors in physical and mental qualities. But it has to be considered that the invasions took place in very remote times, ages before the appearance on the scene of the semi-civilised Muhammadan Malays of history. Whether of Indonesian or of what is called "Malay" stock, the intruders were rude Oceanic peoples, who in the prehistoric period, prior to the spread of civilising Hindu or Moslem influences in Malaysia, had scarcely advanced in general culture much beyond the indigenous Papuan and Negrito populations of that region. Even at present the Gaddanes, Itaves, Igorrotes, and others of Luzon are mere savages, at the head-hunting stage, quite as wild as, and perhaps even more ferocious than any of the Aetas. Indeed we are told that in some districts the Negrito and Igorrote tribes keep a regular Debtor and Creditor account of heads. Wherever the vendetta still prevails, all alike live in a chronic state of tribal warfare; periodical head-hunting expeditions are organised by the young men, to present the bride's father with as many grim trophies as possible in proof of their prowess, the victims being usually taken by surprise and stricken down with barbarous weapons, such as a long spear with tridented tips, or darts and arrows carrying at the point two rows of teeth made of flint or sea-shells. To avoid these attacks some, like the Central Sudanese Negroes, live in cabins on high posts or trees 60 to 70 feet from the ground, and defend themselves by showering stones on the marauders.

A physical peculiarity of the full-blood Negritoes, noticed by J. Montano[362], is the large, clumsy foot, turned slightly inwards, a trait characteristic also of the African Negrilloes; but in the Aeta the effect is exaggerated by the abnormal divergence of the great toe, as amongst the Annamese.

New Guinea Pygmies.

The presence of a pygmy element in the population of New Guinea had long been suspected, but the actual existence of a pygmy people was first discovered by the British Ornithologists' Union Expedition, 1910, at the source of the Mimika river in the Nassau range[363].

The description of these people, the Tapiro, is as follows. Their stature averages 1.449 m. (4 ft. 9 in.) ranging from 1.326 m. (4 ft. 4½ in.) to 1.529 (5 ft. 0¼ in.). The skull is very variable giving indices from 66.9 to 85.1. The skin colour is lighter than that of the neighbouring Papuans, some individuals being almost yellow. The nose is straight, and though described as "very wide at the nostrils," the mean of the indices is only 83, the extremes being 65.5 and 94. The eyes are noticeably larger and rounder than those of Papuans, and the upper lip of many of the men is long and curiously convex. A Negrito element has also been recognised in the Mafulu people investigated by R. W. Williamson in the Mekeo District[364], here mixed with Papuan and Papuo-Melanesian. Their stature ranges from 1.47 m. (4 ft. 10 in.) to 1.63 m. (5 ft. 4 in.). The average cephalic index is 80 ranging from 74.7 to 86.8. The skin colour is dark sooty brown and the hair, though usually brown or black, is often very much lighter, "not what we in Europe should call dark." The average nasal index is 84 with extremes of 71.4 and 100. Also partly of Negrito origin are the Pĕsĕgĕm of the upper waters of the Lorentz river[365].

Negrito Culture.

All these Negrito peoples, as has been pointed out, show considerable diversity in physical characters, none of the existing groups, with the exception of the Andamanese, appearing to be homogeneous as regards cephalic or nasal index, while the stature, though always low, shows considerable range. They have certain cultural features in common[366], and these as a rule differentiate them from their neighbours. They seldom practise any deformation of the person, such as tattooing or scarification, though the Tapiro and Mafulu wear a nose-stick. They are invariably collectors and hunters, never, unless modified by contact with other peoples, undertaking any cultivation of the soil. Their huts are simple, the pile dwellings of the Tapiro being evidently copied from their neighbours. All possess the bow and arrow, though only the Semang and Aeta use poison. The Andamanese appear to be one of the very few peoples who possess fire but donot know how to make it afresh. There seems a certain amount of evidence that the Negrito method of making fire was that of splitting a dry stick, keeping the ends open by a piece of wood or stone placed in the cleft, stuffing some tinder into the narrow part of the slit and then drawing a strip of rattan to and fro across the spot until a spark sets fire to the tinder[367]. The social structure is everywhere very simple. The social unit appears to be the family and the power of the headman is very limited. Strict monogamy seems to prevail even where, as among the Aeta, polygyny is not prohibited. The dead are buried, but the bodies of those whom it is wished to honour are placed on platforms or on trees.

The Tasmanians.

Related in certain physical characters to the pygmy Negritoes, although not of pygmy proportions[368], were the aborigines of Tasmania, but their racial affinities are much disputed. Huxley thought they showed some resemblance to the inhabitants of New Caledonia and the Andaman Islands, but Flower was disposed to bring them into closer connection with the Papuans or Melanesians. The leading anthropologists in France do not accept either of these views. Topinard states that there is no close alliance between the New Caledonians and the Tasmanians, while Quatrefages and Hamy remark that "from whatever point of view we look at it, the Tasmanian race presents special characters, so that it is quite impossible to discover any well-defined affinities with any other existing race." Sollas, reviewing these conflicting opinions, concludes that "this probably represents the prevailing opinion of the present day[369]."

The Tasmanians were of medium height, the average for the men being 1.661 m. (5 ft. 5½ in.) with a range from 1.548 m. to 1.732 m. (5 ft. 1 in. to 5 ft. 8 in.); the average height for women being 1.503 m. (4 ft. 11 in.) with a range from 1.295 m. to 1.630 m. (4 ft. 3 in. to 5 ft. 4¼ in.). The skin colour was almost black with a brown tinge. The eyes were small anddeep set beneath prominent overhanging brow-ridges. The nose was short and broad, with a deep notch at the root and widely distended nostrils. The skull was dolichocephalic or low mesaticephalic, with an average index of 75, of peculiar outline when viewed from above. Other peculiarities were the possession of the largest teeth, especially noticeable in comparison with the small jaw, and the smallest known cranial capacity (averaging 1199 c.c. for both sexes, falling in the women to 1093 c.c.).

Tasmanian Culture.

Undeveloped Speech.

The aboriginal Tasmanians stood even at a lower level of culture than the Australians. At the occupation the scattered bands, with no hereditary chiefs or social organisation, numbered altogether 2000 souls at most, speaking several distinct dialects, whether of one or more stock languages is uncertain. In the absence of sibilants and some other features they resembled the Australian, but were of ruder or less developed structure, and so imperfect that according to Joseph Milligan, our best authority on the subject, "they observed no settled order or arrangement of words in the construction of their sentences, but conveyed in a supplementary fashion by tone, manner, and gesture those modifications of meaning which we express by mood, tense, number, etc.[370]" Abstract terms were rare, and for every variety of gum-tree or wattle-tree there was a name, but no word for "tree" in general, or for qualities, such as hard, soft, warm, cold, long, short, round, etc. Anything hard was "like a stone," round "like the moon," and so on, "usually suiting the action to the word, and confirming by some sign the meaning to be understood."

Fire-making, Tools and Weapons.

They made fire by the stick and groove method, but their acquaintance with the fire-drill is uncertain[371]. The stone implements are the subject of much discussion. A great number are so rude and uncouth that, taken alone, we should have little reason to suspect that they had been chipped by man: some, on the other hand, show signs of skilful working. They were formerly classed as "eoliths" and compared to the plateau implements of Kent and Sussex, but the comparison cannot besustained[372]. Sollas illustrates an implement "delusively similar to the head of an axe" and notes its resemblance to a Levallois flake (Acheulean). J. P. Johnson[373]points out the general likeness to pre-Aurignacian forms and there is a remarkable similarity of certain examples to Mousterian types. Weapons were of wood, and consisted of spears pointed and hardened in the fire, and a club or waddy, about two feet long, sometimes knobbed at one end; the range is said to have been about 40 yards.

Diet.

Dwellings.

In the native diet were included "snakes, lizards, grubs and worms," besides the opossum, wombat, kangaroo, birds and fishes, roots, seeds and fruits, but not human flesh, at least normally. Like the Bushmen, they were gross feeders, consuming enormous quantities of food when they could get it, and the case is mentioned of a woman who was seen to eat from 50 to 60 eggs of the sooty petrel (larger than a duck's), besides a double allowance of bread, at the station on Flinders Island. They had frail bundles of bark made fast with thongs or rushes, half float, half boat, to serve as canoes, but no permanent abodes or huts, beyond branches of trees lashed together, supported by stakes, and disposed crescent-shape with the convex side to windward. On the uplands and along the sea-shore they took refuge in caves, rock-shelters and natural hollows. Usually the men went naked, the women wore a loose covering of skins, and personal ornamentation was limited to cosmetics of red ochre, plumbago, and powdered charcoal, with occasionally a necklace of shells strung on a fibrous twine.

Extinction.

Being merely hunters and collectors, with the arrival of English colonists their doom was sealed. "Only in rare instances can a race of hunters contrive to co-exist with an agricultural people. When the hunting ground of a tribe is restricted owing to its partial occupation by the new arrivals, the tribe affected is compelled to infringe on the boundaries of its neighbours: this is to break the most sacred 'law of the Jungle,' and inevitably leads to war: the pressure on one boundary is propagated to the next, the ancient state of equilibrium is profoundly disturbed, and inter-tribal feuds become increasingly frequent.A bitter feeling is naturally aroused against the original offenders, the alien colonists; misunderstandings of all kinds inevitably arise, leading too often to bloodshed, and ending in a general conflict between natives and colonists, in which the former, already weakened by disagreements among themselves, must soon succumb. So it was in Tasmania." After the war of 1825 to 1831 the few wretched survivors, numbering about 200, were gathered together into a settlement, and from 1834 onwards every effort was made for their welfare, "but 'the white man's civilisation proved scarcely less fatal than the white man's bullet,' and in 1877, with the death of Truganini, the last survivor, the race became extinct[374]."

FOOTNOTES:[319]Cf. S. H. Ray,Reports Camb. Anthrop. Exp. Torres Sts.Vol.III.1907, pp. 287, 528. For Melanesian linguistic affinities see also W. Schmidt,Die Mon-Khmer Völker, 1906.[320]C. G. Seligman limits the use of the termPapuasianto the inhabitants of New Guinea and its islands, and following a suggestion of A. C. Haddon's (Geograph. Journ.XVI.1900, pp. 265, 414), recognises therein three great divisions, thePapuans, theWestern Papuo-Melanesians, and theEastern Papuo-Melanesians, orMassim. Cf. C. G. Seligman, "A Classification of the Natives of British New Guinea,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.Vol.XXXIX.1902, andThe Melanesians of British New Guinea, 1910.[321]That is, the indigenous Papuans, who appear to form the great bulk of the New Guinea populations, in contradistinction to the immigrant Melanesians (Motu and others), who are numerous especially along the south-east coast of the mainland and in the neighbouring Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux Archipelagoes (Eth.Ch. XI.).[322]The Melanesians of British New Guinea, 1910, pp. 2, 27.[323]The curly or wavy hair appears more commonly among women than among men.[324]Kanakais a Polynesian word meaning "man," and should therefore be restricted to the brown Indonesian group, but it is indiscriminately applied by French writers to all South Sea Islanders, whether black or brown. This misuse of the term has found its way into some English books of travel even in the corrupt French form "canaque."[325]L'Archipel de la Nouvelle Calédonie, Paris, 1895.[326]Lifu, Mare, Uvea, and Isle of Pines. These Polynesians appear to have all come originally from Tonga, first to Uvea Island (Wallis), and thence in the eighteenth century to Uvea in the Loyalties, cradle of all the New Caledonian Polynesian settlements. Cf. C. M. Woodford, "On some Little-known Polynesian Settlements in the Neighbourhood of the Solomon Islands,"Geog. Journ.XLVIII.1916.[327]This low index is characteristic of most Papuasians, and reaches the extreme of dolichocephaly in the extinct Kai-Colos of Fiji (65°), and amongst some coast Papuans of New Guinea measured by Miklukho-Maclay. But this observer found the characters so variable in New Guinea that he was unable to use it as a racial test. In the New Hebrides, Louisiades, and Bismarck group also he found many of the natives to be broad-headed, with indices as high as 80 and 85; and even in the Solomon Islands Guppy records cephalic indices ranging from 69 to 86, but dolichocephaly predominates (The Solomon Islands, 1887, pp. 112, 114). Thus this feature is no more constant amongst the Oceanic than it is amongst the African Negroes. (See also M.-Maclay's paper inProc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1882, p. 171 sq.)[328]Eth.Ch. VIII.[329]Bernard, p. 262.[330]A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, p. 33.[331]A. C. Haddon,The Races of Man, 1909, p. 21.[332]Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse einer amtlichen Forschungsreise nach dem Bismarck-Archipel im Jahre 1908;Untersuchungen über eine Melanesische Wanderstrasse, 1913; andMitt. aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten, Ergänzungsheft, Nr 5, 1912, Nr 7, 1913. See also S. H. Ray,Nature,CLXXII. 1913, andMan,XIV. 34, 1914.[333]Zeitschr. f. Ethnol.XXXVII.p. 26, 1905. His later writings should also be consulted,Anthropos,IV.1909, pp. 726, 998;Ethnologie, 1914, p. 13.[334]The History of Melanesian Society, 1914.[335]A. C. Haddon,The Races of Man, 1909, pp. 24-8, andHandbook to the Ethnographical Collections British Museum, 1910, pp. 119-139.[336]Besides the earlier works of H. H. Romilly,The Western Pacific and New Guinea, 1886,From My Verandah in New Guinea, 1889; J. Chalmers,Work and Adventure in New Guinea, 1885; O. Finsch,Samoafahrten: Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und Englisch Neu-Guinea, 1888; C. M. Woodford,A Naturalist Among the Head-hunters, 1890; J. P. Thompson,British New Guinea, 1892; and R. H. Codrington,The Melanesians, 1891, the following more recent works may be consulted:—A. C. Haddon,Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown, 1901, andReports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, 1901- ; R. Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee, 1907; G. A. J. van der Sande,Nova Guinea, 1907; B. Thompson,The Fijians, 1908; G. Brown,Melanesians and Polynesians, 1910; F. Speiser,Südsee Urwald Kannibalen, 1913.[337]Eth.Ch. XII.[338]But excluding Celebes, where no trace of Papuan elements has been discovered.[339]For details see F. H. H. Guillemard,Australasia, Vol.II.and Reclus, Vol.XIV.[340]S. J. Hickson,A Naturalist in North Celebes, 1889, p. 203.[341]A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912, p. 304.[342]"A la Recherche des Negritos," etc., inTour du Monde, New Series, Livr. 35-8. The midden was 150 ft. round, and over 12 ft. high.[343]E. H. Man,Journ. Anthr. Inst.Vol.XI.1881, p. 271, andXII.1883, p. 71.[344]Ib.p. 272.[345]Close to Barren is the extinct crater ofNarcondam, i.e.Narak-andam(Narak= Hell), from which theAndamangroup may have taken its name (Sir H. Yule,Marco Polo). Man notes, however, that the Andamanese were not aware of the existence of Barren Island until taken past in the settlement steamer (p. 368).[346]Folk-Lore, 1909, p. 257. See also the criticisms of W. Schmidt, "Puluga, the Supreme Being of the Andamanese,"Man, 2, 1910, and A. Lang, "Puluga,"Man, 30, 1910; A. R. Brown,The Andaman Islands(in the Press).[347]"The Andaman languages are one group; they have no affinities by which we might infer their connection with any other known group" (R. C. Temple, quoted by Man,Anthrop. Jour.1882, p. 123).[348]R. C. Temple, quoted by Man,Anthrop. Jour.1882, p. 123.[349]W. W. Skeat and C. D. Blagden,Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, 1906.[350]R. Martin,Die Inlandstämme der Malayischen Halbinsel, 1905.[351]N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, "Fasciculi Malayensis,"Anthropology, 1903.[352]W. W. Skeat and C. D. Blagden,loc. cit.[353]The Sakai have often been classed among Negritoes, but, although undoubtedly a mixed people, their affinities appear to be pre-Dravidian.[354]Cf. A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912, p. 306.[355]In Court and Kampong, 1897, p. 172.[356]Senoi grammar and glossary inJour. Straits Branch R. Asiat. Soc.1892, No. 24.[357]See L. Wray's paper "On the Cave Dwellers of Perak," inJour. Anthrop. Inst.1897, p. 36 sq. This observer thinks "the earliest cave dwellers were most likely the Negritoes" (p. 47), and the great age of the deposits is shown by the fact that "in some of the caves at least 12 feet of a mixture of shells, bones, and earth has been accumulated and subsequently removed again in the floors of the caves. In places two or three layers of solid stalagmite have been formed and removed, some of these layers having been five feet in thickness" (p. 45).[358]See on this point Prof. Blumentritt's paper on the Manguians of Mindoro inGlobus,LX.No. 14.[359]One Aeta woman of Zambales had a nasal index of 140.7. W. Allen Reed, "Negritoes of Zambales,"Department of the Interior: Ethnological Survey Publications,II.1904, p. 35. For details of physical features see the following:—D. Folkmar,Album of Philippine Types, 1904; Dean C. Worcester, "The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon,"The Philippine Journal of Science,I.1906; and A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912.[360]The Philippine Islands, etc., London and Hongkong, 1890.[361]Op. cit.p. 210.[362]Voyage aux Philippines, etc., Paris, 1886.[363]A. F. R. Wollaston,Pygmies and Papuans, 1912; C. G. Rawling,The Land of the New Guinea Pygmies, 1913.[364]The Mafulu Mountain People of British New Guinea, 1912.[365]Nova Guinea,VII.1913, 1915.[366]A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912, pp. 314-9.[367]It is not certain however that this method is known to the Semang, and it occurs among peoples who are not Negrito, such as the Kayan of Sarawak, and in other places where a Negrito element has not yet been recorded.[368]The term pygmy is usually applied to a people whose stature does not exceed 1.5 m. (4 ft. 11 in.).[369]W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, and W. Turner, "The Aborigines of Australia,"Trans. R. Soc. Edin.1908,XLVI.2, and 1910,XLVII.3.[370]Paper in Brough Smyth's work,II. p. 413.[371]H. Ling Roth,The Aborigines of Australia(2nd ed.), 1899, AppendixLXXXVIII., and "Tasmanian Firesticks,"Nature,LIX.1899, p. 606.[372]W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, pp. 90, 106 ff.[373]Nature,XCII.1913, p. 320.[374]W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, pp. 104-5.

[319]Cf. S. H. Ray,Reports Camb. Anthrop. Exp. Torres Sts.Vol.III.1907, pp. 287, 528. For Melanesian linguistic affinities see also W. Schmidt,Die Mon-Khmer Völker, 1906.

[320]C. G. Seligman limits the use of the termPapuasianto the inhabitants of New Guinea and its islands, and following a suggestion of A. C. Haddon's (Geograph. Journ.XVI.1900, pp. 265, 414), recognises therein three great divisions, thePapuans, theWestern Papuo-Melanesians, and theEastern Papuo-Melanesians, orMassim. Cf. C. G. Seligman, "A Classification of the Natives of British New Guinea,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.Vol.XXXIX.1902, andThe Melanesians of British New Guinea, 1910.

[321]That is, the indigenous Papuans, who appear to form the great bulk of the New Guinea populations, in contradistinction to the immigrant Melanesians (Motu and others), who are numerous especially along the south-east coast of the mainland and in the neighbouring Louisiade and D'Entrecasteaux Archipelagoes (Eth.Ch. XI.).

[322]The Melanesians of British New Guinea, 1910, pp. 2, 27.

[323]The curly or wavy hair appears more commonly among women than among men.

[324]Kanakais a Polynesian word meaning "man," and should therefore be restricted to the brown Indonesian group, but it is indiscriminately applied by French writers to all South Sea Islanders, whether black or brown. This misuse of the term has found its way into some English books of travel even in the corrupt French form "canaque."

[325]L'Archipel de la Nouvelle Calédonie, Paris, 1895.

[326]Lifu, Mare, Uvea, and Isle of Pines. These Polynesians appear to have all come originally from Tonga, first to Uvea Island (Wallis), and thence in the eighteenth century to Uvea in the Loyalties, cradle of all the New Caledonian Polynesian settlements. Cf. C. M. Woodford, "On some Little-known Polynesian Settlements in the Neighbourhood of the Solomon Islands,"Geog. Journ.XLVIII.1916.

[327]This low index is characteristic of most Papuasians, and reaches the extreme of dolichocephaly in the extinct Kai-Colos of Fiji (65°), and amongst some coast Papuans of New Guinea measured by Miklukho-Maclay. But this observer found the characters so variable in New Guinea that he was unable to use it as a racial test. In the New Hebrides, Louisiades, and Bismarck group also he found many of the natives to be broad-headed, with indices as high as 80 and 85; and even in the Solomon Islands Guppy records cephalic indices ranging from 69 to 86, but dolichocephaly predominates (The Solomon Islands, 1887, pp. 112, 114). Thus this feature is no more constant amongst the Oceanic than it is amongst the African Negroes. (See also M.-Maclay's paper inProc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 1882, p. 171 sq.)

[328]Eth.Ch. VIII.

[329]Bernard, p. 262.

[330]A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, p. 33.

[331]A. C. Haddon,The Races of Man, 1909, p. 21.

[332]Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse einer amtlichen Forschungsreise nach dem Bismarck-Archipel im Jahre 1908;Untersuchungen über eine Melanesische Wanderstrasse, 1913; andMitt. aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten, Ergänzungsheft, Nr 5, 1912, Nr 7, 1913. See also S. H. Ray,Nature,CLXXII. 1913, andMan,XIV. 34, 1914.

[333]Zeitschr. f. Ethnol.XXXVII.p. 26, 1905. His later writings should also be consulted,Anthropos,IV.1909, pp. 726, 998;Ethnologie, 1914, p. 13.

[334]The History of Melanesian Society, 1914.

[335]A. C. Haddon,The Races of Man, 1909, pp. 24-8, andHandbook to the Ethnographical Collections British Museum, 1910, pp. 119-139.

[336]Besides the earlier works of H. H. Romilly,The Western Pacific and New Guinea, 1886,From My Verandah in New Guinea, 1889; J. Chalmers,Work and Adventure in New Guinea, 1885; O. Finsch,Samoafahrten: Reisen in Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und Englisch Neu-Guinea, 1888; C. M. Woodford,A Naturalist Among the Head-hunters, 1890; J. P. Thompson,British New Guinea, 1892; and R. H. Codrington,The Melanesians, 1891, the following more recent works may be consulted:—A. C. Haddon,Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown, 1901, andReports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, 1901- ; R. Parkinson,Dreissig Jahre in der Südsee, 1907; G. A. J. van der Sande,Nova Guinea, 1907; B. Thompson,The Fijians, 1908; G. Brown,Melanesians and Polynesians, 1910; F. Speiser,Südsee Urwald Kannibalen, 1913.

[337]Eth.Ch. XII.

[338]But excluding Celebes, where no trace of Papuan elements has been discovered.

[339]For details see F. H. H. Guillemard,Australasia, Vol.II.and Reclus, Vol.XIV.

[340]S. J. Hickson,A Naturalist in North Celebes, 1889, p. 203.

[341]A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912, p. 304.

[342]"A la Recherche des Negritos," etc., inTour du Monde, New Series, Livr. 35-8. The midden was 150 ft. round, and over 12 ft. high.

[343]E. H. Man,Journ. Anthr. Inst.Vol.XI.1881, p. 271, andXII.1883, p. 71.

[344]Ib.p. 272.

[345]Close to Barren is the extinct crater ofNarcondam, i.e.Narak-andam(Narak= Hell), from which theAndamangroup may have taken its name (Sir H. Yule,Marco Polo). Man notes, however, that the Andamanese were not aware of the existence of Barren Island until taken past in the settlement steamer (p. 368).

[346]Folk-Lore, 1909, p. 257. See also the criticisms of W. Schmidt, "Puluga, the Supreme Being of the Andamanese,"Man, 2, 1910, and A. Lang, "Puluga,"Man, 30, 1910; A. R. Brown,The Andaman Islands(in the Press).

[347]"The Andaman languages are one group; they have no affinities by which we might infer their connection with any other known group" (R. C. Temple, quoted by Man,Anthrop. Jour.1882, p. 123).

[348]R. C. Temple, quoted by Man,Anthrop. Jour.1882, p. 123.

[349]W. W. Skeat and C. D. Blagden,Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, 1906.

[350]R. Martin,Die Inlandstämme der Malayischen Halbinsel, 1905.

[351]N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, "Fasciculi Malayensis,"Anthropology, 1903.

[352]W. W. Skeat and C. D. Blagden,loc. cit.

[353]The Sakai have often been classed among Negritoes, but, although undoubtedly a mixed people, their affinities appear to be pre-Dravidian.

[354]Cf. A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912, p. 306.

[355]In Court and Kampong, 1897, p. 172.

[356]Senoi grammar and glossary inJour. Straits Branch R. Asiat. Soc.1892, No. 24.

[357]See L. Wray's paper "On the Cave Dwellers of Perak," inJour. Anthrop. Inst.1897, p. 36 sq. This observer thinks "the earliest cave dwellers were most likely the Negritoes" (p. 47), and the great age of the deposits is shown by the fact that "in some of the caves at least 12 feet of a mixture of shells, bones, and earth has been accumulated and subsequently removed again in the floors of the caves. In places two or three layers of solid stalagmite have been formed and removed, some of these layers having been five feet in thickness" (p. 45).

[358]See on this point Prof. Blumentritt's paper on the Manguians of Mindoro inGlobus,LX.No. 14.

[359]One Aeta woman of Zambales had a nasal index of 140.7. W. Allen Reed, "Negritoes of Zambales,"Department of the Interior: Ethnological Survey Publications,II.1904, p. 35. For details of physical features see the following:—D. Folkmar,Album of Philippine Types, 1904; Dean C. Worcester, "The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon,"The Philippine Journal of Science,I.1906; and A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912.

[360]The Philippine Islands, etc., London and Hongkong, 1890.

[361]Op. cit.p. 210.

[362]Voyage aux Philippines, etc., Paris, 1886.

[363]A. F. R. Wollaston,Pygmies and Papuans, 1912; C. G. Rawling,The Land of the New Guinea Pygmies, 1913.

[364]The Mafulu Mountain People of British New Guinea, 1912.

[365]Nova Guinea,VII.1913, 1915.

[366]A. C. Haddon, "The Pygmy Question," Appendix B to A. F. R. Wollaston'sPygmies and Papuans, 1912, pp. 314-9.

[367]It is not certain however that this method is known to the Semang, and it occurs among peoples who are not Negrito, such as the Kayan of Sarawak, and in other places where a Negrito element has not yet been recorded.

[368]The term pygmy is usually applied to a people whose stature does not exceed 1.5 m. (4 ft. 11 in.).

[369]W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, and W. Turner, "The Aborigines of Australia,"Trans. R. Soc. Edin.1908,XLVI.2, and 1910,XLVII.3.

[370]Paper in Brough Smyth's work,II. p. 413.

[371]H. Ling Roth,The Aborigines of Australia(2nd ed.), 1899, AppendixLXXXVIII., and "Tasmanian Firesticks,"Nature,LIX.1899, p. 606.

[372]W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, pp. 90, 106 ff.

[373]Nature,XCII.1913, p. 320.

[374]W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, pp. 104-5.

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