FOOTNOTES:

Cannibalism.

In the strangest contrast to these survivals of a foreign culture which had probably never struck very deep roots, stand the savage survivals from still more ancient times. Conspicuous amongst these are the cannibal practices, which if not now universal still take some peculiarly revolting forms. Thus captives and criminals are, under certain circumstances, condemned to be eaten alive, and the same fate is or was reserved for those incapacitated for work by age or infirmities. When the time came, we are told by the early European observers and by the reports of the Arabs, the "grandfathers" voluntarily suspended themselves by their arms from an overhanging branch, while friends and neighbours danced round and round, shouting, "when the fruit is ripe it falls." And when it did fall, that is, as soon as it could hold on no longer, the company fell upon it with their krisses, hacking it to pieces, and devouring the remains seasoned with lime-juice, for such feasts were generally held when the limes were ripe[534].

The Achinese.

Early Records.

Grouped chiefly round about Lake Toba, the Battas occupy a very wide domain, stretching south to about the parallel of Mount Ophir, and bordering northwards on the territory of the Achin people. These valiant natives, who have till recently stoutly maintained their political independence against the Dutch, were also at one time Hinduized, as is evident from many of their traditions, their Malayan language largely charged with Sanskrit terms, and even their physical appearance, suggesting a considerable admixture of Hindu as well as of Arab blood. With the Arab traders and settlers came the Koran, and the Achinese people have been not over-zealous followers of the Prophet since the close of the twelfth century. The Muhammadan State, founded in 1205, acquired a dominant position in the Archipelago early in the sixteenth century, when it ruled over about half of Sumatra, exacted tribute from many vassal princes, maintained powerful armaments by land and sea, and entered into political and commercial relations with Egypt, Japan, and several European States.

Islam and Hindu Reminiscences.

There are two somewhat distinct ethnical groups, theOrang-Tunongof the uplands, a comparatively homogeneous Malayan people, and the mixedOrang-Baruhof the lowlands,who are described by A. Lubbers[535]as taller than the average Malay (5 feet 5 or 6 in.), also less round-headed (index 80.5), with prominent nose, rather regular features, and muscular frames; but the complexion is darker than that of the Orang-Maláyu, a trait which has been attributed to a larger infusion of Dravidian blood (Klings and Tamuls) from southern India. The charge of cruelty and treachery brought against them by the Dutch may be received with some reserve, such terms as "patriot" and "rebel" being interchangeable according to the standpoints from which they are considered. In any case no one denies them the virtues of valour and love of freedom, with which are associated industrious habits and a remarkable aptitude for such handicrafts as metal work, jewellery, weaving, and ship-building. The Achinese do not appear to be very strict Muhammadans; polygamy is little practised, their women are free to go abroad unveiled, nor are they condemned to the seclusion of the harem, and a pleasing survival from Buddhist times is theKanduri, a solemn feast, in which the poor are permitted to share. Another reminiscence of Hindu philosophy may perhaps have been an outburst of religious fervour, which took the form of a pantheistic creed, and was so zealously preached, that it had to be stamped out with fire and sword by the dominant Moslem monotheists[536].

Ethnical Relations in Madagascar.

Since the French occupation of Madagascar, the Malagasy problem has naturally been revived. But it may be regretted that so much time and talent have been spent on a somewhat thrashed-out question by a number of writers, who did not first take the trouble to read up the literature of the subject.

Prehistoric Peoples.

By what race Madagascar was first peopled it is no longer possible to say. The local reports or traditions of primitive peoples, either extinct or still surviving in the interior, belong rather to the sphere of Malagasy folklore than to that of ethnological research. In these reports mention is frequently made of theKimos, said to be now or formerly living in the Bara country, and of theVazimbas, who are by some supposed to have been Gallas (Ba-Simba)—though they had no knowledge of iron—whose graves are supposed to be certain monolithic monumentswhich take the form of menhirs disposed in circles, and are believed by the present inhabitants of the land to be still haunted by evil spirits, that is, the ghosts of the long extinct Vazimbas.

Oceanic Immigrants.

Negroid Element.

Much of the confusion prevalent regarding the present ethnical relations may be avoided if certain points (ably summarised by T. A. Joyce[537]) are borne in mind. The greater part of the population is negroid; the language spoken over the whole of the island and many institutions and customs are Malayo-Polynesian. A small section (Antimerina commonly called Hovas)—forming the dominant people in the nineteenth century—is of fairly pure Malay (or Javanese) blood, but is composed of sixteenth-century immigrants, whereas the language belongs to a very early branch of the Malayo-Polynesian (Austronesian) family. It would be natural to suppose that the negroid element was African[538], for in later times large numbers of Africans have been brought over by Arabs and other slavers; but there are several objections to this view. In the first place, the natives of the neighbouring coast are not seamen, and the voyage to Madagascar offers peculiar difficulties owing to the strong currents. In the second place, it seems impossible that the first inhabitants, supposing them to be African, should have abandoned their own language in favour of one introduced by a small minority of immigrants; the few Bantu words found in Madagascar may well have been adopted from the slaves. In the third place, the culture exhibits no distinctively African features, but is far more akin to that of south-east Asia. There is much to be said, therefore, for the view that the earliest and negroid inhabitants of Madagascar were Oceanic negroids, who have always been known as expert seamen.

Arabic Element.

Since the coming of the negroid population, which probably arrived in very early days, various small bands of immigrants or castaways have landed on the shores of Madagascar and imposed themselves as reigning dynasties on the surrounding villages, each thus forming the nucleus of what now appears as a tribe. Among these were immigrants from Arabia, andJ. T. Last, who identifies Madagascar with the island ofMenuthiasdescribed by Arrian in the third centuryA.D.[539], suggests the "possibility that Madagascar may have been reached by Arabs before the Christian era." This "possibility" is converted almost into a certainty by the analysis of the Arabo-Malagasy terms made by Dahle, who clearly shows that such terms "are comparatively very few," and also "very ancient," in fact that, as already suggested by Fleischer of Leipzig, many, perhaps the majority of them, "may be traced back to Himyaritic influence[540]," that is, not merely to pre-Muhammadan, but to pre-Christian times, just like the Sanskritic elements in the Oceanic tongues.

Uniformity of the Language.

The evidence that Malagasy is itself one of these Oceanic tongues, and not an offshoot of the comparatively recent standard Malay is overwhelming, and need not here detain us[541]. The diffusion of this Austronesian language over the whole island—even amongst distinctly Negroid Bantu populations, such as the Betsileos and Tanalas—to the absolute exclusion of all other forms of speech, is an extraordinary linguistic phenomenon more easily proved than explained. There are, of course, provincialisms and even what may be called local dialects, such as that of the Antankarana people at the northern extremity of the island who, although commonly included in the large division of the western Sakalavas, really form a separate ethnical group, speaking a somewhat marked variety of Malagasy. But even this differs much less from the normal form than might be supposed by comparing, for instance, such a term asmaso-mahamay, sun, with the Hovamaso-andro, wheremasoin both means "eye,"mahamayinboth = "burning," andandroin both = "day." Thus the only difference is that one calls the sun "burning eye," while the Hovas call it the "day's eye," as do so many peoples in Malaysia[542].

Malagasy Gothamites.

So also the fish-eatingAnorohoropeople, a branch of theSihanakasin the Alaotra valley, are said to have "quite a different dialect from them[543]." But the statement need not be taken too seriously, because these rustic fisherfolk, who may be called the Gothamites of Madagascar, are supposed, by their scornful neighbours, to do everything "contrariwise." Of them it is told that once when cooking eggs they boiled them for hours to make them soft, and then finding they got harder and harder threw them away as unfit for food. Others having only one slave, who could not paddle the canoe properly, cut him in two, putting one half at the prow, the other at the stern, and were surprised at the result. It was not to be expected that such simpletons should speak Malagasy properly, which nevertheless is spoken with surprising uniformity by all the Malayan and Negro or Negroid peoples alike.

Partial Fusion of the Malayan and Negro Races.

In Madagascar, however, the fusion of the two races is far less complete than is commonly supposed. Various shades of transition between the two extremes are no doubt presented by theSakalavasof the west, and theBetsimisarakas,Sitanakas, and others of the east coast. But, strange to say, on the central tableland the two seem to stand almost completely apart, so that here the politically dominant Hovas still present all the essential characteristics of the Oceanic Mongol, while their southern neighbours, theBetsileos, as well as theTanalasandIbaras, are described as "African pure and simple, allied to the south-eastern tribes of that continent[544]."

Specially remarkable is the account given by a careful observer, G. A. Shaw, of the Betsileos, whose "average height is not less than six feet for the men, and a few inches less for the women. They are large-boned and muscular, and their colour is several degrees darker than that of the Hovas, approaching very close to a black. The forehead is low andbroad, the nose flatter, and the lips thicker than those of their conquerors, whilst their hair isinvariablycrisp and woolly. No pure Betsileo is to be met with having the smooth long hair of the Hovas. In this, as in other points, there is a very clear departure from the Malayan type, and a close approximation to the Negro races of the adjacent continent[545]."

Hova Type.

Now compare these brawny negroid giants with the wiry undersized Malayan Hovas. As described by A. Vouchereau[546], their type closely resembles that of the Javanese—short stature, yellowish or light leather complexion, long, black, smooth and rather coarse hair, round head (85.25), flat and straight forehead, flat face, prominent cheek-bones, small straight nose, tolerably wide nostrils, small black and slightly oblique eyes, rather thick lips, slim lithesome figure, small extremities, dull restless expression, cranial capacity 1516 c.c., superior to both Negro and Sakalava[547].

The Black Element from Africa.

Except in respect of this high cranial capacity, the measurements of three Malagasy skulls in the Cambridge University Anatomical Museum, studied by W. L. H. Duckworth[548], correspond fairly well with these descriptions. Thus the cephalic index of the reputed Betsimisaraka (Negroid) and that of the Betsileo (Negro) are respectively 71 and 72.4, while that of the Hova is 82.1; the first two, therefore, are long-headed, the third round-headed, as we should expect. But the cubic capacity of the Hova (presumably Mongoloid) is only 1315 as compared with 1450 and 1480 of two others, presumably African Negroes. Duckworth discusses the question whether the black element in Madagascar is of African or Oceanic (Melanesian-Papuan) origin, about which much diversity of opinion still prevails, and on the evidence of the few cranial specimens available he decides in favour of the African.

Mental Qualities of the Malagasy.

Spread of Christianity.

Despite the low cubic capacity of Duckworth's Hova, the mental powers of these, and indeed of the Malagasy generally, are far from despicable. Before the French occupation the London Missionary Society had succeeded in disseminating Christian principles and even some degree of culture among considerable numbers both in the Hova capital and surrounding districts. The local press had been kept going by native compositors who had issued quite an extensive literature both in Malagasy and English. Agricultural and industrial methods had been improved, some engineering works attempted, and the Hova craftsmen had learnt to build but not to complete houses in the European style, because, although they could master European processes, they could not, Christians though they were, get the better of the old superstitions, one of which is that the owner of a house always dies within a year of its completion. Longevity is therefore ensured by not completing it, with the curious result that the whole city looks unfinished or dilapidated. In the house where Mrs Colvile stayed, "one window was framed and glazed, the other nailed up with rough boards; part of the stair-banister had no top-rail; outside only a portion of the roof had been tiled; and so on throughout[549]."

Culture.

The culture has been thus summarised by T. A. Joyce[550]. Clothing is entirely vegetable, and the Malaysarongis found throughout the east; bark-cloth in the south-east and west. Hairdressing varies considerably, and among the Bara and Sakalava is often elaborate. Silver ornaments are found amongst the Antimerina and some other eastern tribes, made chiefly from European coins dating from the sixteenth century. Circumcision is universal. In the east the tribes are chiefly agricultural; in the north, west and south, pastoral. Fishing is important among those tribes situated on coast, lake or river. Houses are all rectangular and pile-dwellings are found locally. Rice is the staple crop and the cattle are of the humped variety. The Antimerina excel the rest in all crafts. Weaving, basket-work (woven variety) and iron-working are all good; the use of iron is said to have been unknown to the Bara and Vazimba until comparatively recent times. Pottery is poor. Carvings in theround (men and animals) are found amongst the Sakalava and Bara, in relief (arabesques, etc.) among the Betsileo and others. Before the introduction of firearms, the spear was the universal weapon; bows are rare and possibly of late introduction; slings and the blowgun are also found. Shields are circular, made of wood covered with hide. The early system of government was patriarchal, and villages were independent; the later immigrants introduced a system of feudal monarchy with themselves as a ruling caste. Thus the Antimerina have three main castes;Andrianaor nobles (i.e.pure-blooded descendants of the conquerors),Hova, or freemen (descendants of the incorporated Vazimba more or less mixed with the conquerors), andAndevoor slaves. The king was regarded almost as a god. An institution thoroughly suggestive of Malayo-Polynesian sociology is that offadior tabu, which enters into every sphere of human activity. An indefinite creator-god was recognized, but more important were a number of spirits and fetishes, the latter with definite functions. Signs of tree worship and of belief in transmigration are sporadic. At the present time, half the population of the island is, at least nominally, Christian.

Malagasy Folklore.

A good deal of fancy is displayed in the oral literature, comprising histories, or at least legends, fables, songs, riddles, and a great mass of folklore, much of which has already been rescued from oblivion by the "Malagasy Folklore Society." Some of the stories present the usual analogies to others in widely separated lands, stories which seem to be perennial, and to crop up wherever the surface is a little disturbed by investigators. One of those in Dahle's extensive collection, entitled the "History of Andrianarisainaboniamasoboniamanoro" might be described as a variant of our "Beauty and the Beast." Besides this prince with the long name, calledBonia"for short," there is a princess "Golden Beauty," both being of miraculous birth, but the latter a cripple and deformed, until found and wedded by Bonia. Then she is so transfigured that the "Beast" is captivated and contrives to carry her off. Thereupon follows an extraordinary series of adventures, resulting of course in the rescue of Golden Beauty by Bonia, when everything ends happily, not only for the two lovers, but for all other people whose wives had also been abducted. These are now restored to their husbands by the hero, whovanquishes and slays the monster in a fierce fight, just as in our nursery tales of knights and dragons.

The Philippine Natives.

In the Philippines, where the ethnical confusion is probably greater than in any other part of Malaysia, the great bulk of the inhabitants appear to be of Indonesian and proto-Malayan stocks. Except in the southern island of Mindanao, which is still mainly Muhammadan or heathen, most of the settled populations have long been nominal Roman Catholics under a curious theocratic administration, in which the true rulers are not the civil functionaries, but the priests, and especially the regular clergy[551]. One result has been over three centuries of unstable political and social relations, ending in the occupation of the archipelago by the United States (1898). Another, with which we are here more concerned, has been such a transformation of the subtle Malayan character that those who have lived longest amongst the natives pronounce their temperament unfathomable. Having to comply outwardly with the numerous Christian observances, they seek relief in two ways, first by making the most of the Catholic ceremonial and turning the many feast-days of the calendar into occasions of revelry and dissipation, connived at if not even shared in by the padres[552]; secondly by secretly cherishing the old beliefs and disguising their true feelings, until the opportunity is presented of throwing off the mask and declaring themselves in their true colours. A Franciscan friar, who had spent half his life amongst them, left on record that "the native is an incomprehensible phenomenon, the mainspring of whose line of thought and the guiding motive of whose actions have never yet been, and perhaps never will be, discovered. A native will serve a master satisfactorily for years, and then suddenly abscond, or commit some such hideous crime as conniving with a brigand band to murder the family and pillage the house[553]."

In fact nobody can ever tell what a Tagal, and especially a Visaya, will do at any moment. His character is a succession of surprises; "the experience of each year bringsone to form fresh conclusions, and the most exact definition of such a kaleidoscopic creature is, after all, hypothetical."

After centuries of misrule, it was perhaps not surprising that no kind of sympathy was developed between the natives and the whites. Foreman fells us that everywhere in the archipelago he found mothers teaching their little ones to look on their white rulers as demoniacal beings, evil spirits, or at least something to be dreaded. "If a child cries, it is hushed by the exclamation,Castila!(Spaniard); if a white man approaches a native dwelling, the watchword always isCastila!and the children hasten to retreat from the dreadful object."

Three Social Groups.

The Indios.

For administrative purposes the natives were classed in three social divisions—Indios,Infieles, andMoros—which, as aptly remarked by F. H. H. Guillemard, is "an ecclesiastical rather than a scientific classification[554]." TheIndioswere the Christianized and more or less cultured populations of all the towns and of the settled agricultural districts, speaking a distinct Malayo-Polynesian language of much more archaic type than the standard Malay. According to the census of 1903 the total population of the islands was 7,635,428, of whom nearly 7,000,000 were classed as civilised, and the rest as wild, including 23,000 Negritoes (Aeta, see p. 156). At the time of the Spanish occupation in the sixteenth century theVisayasof the central islands and part of Mindanao were the most advanced among the native tribes, but this distinction is now claimed for theTagalogs, who form the bulk of the population in Manila and other parts of Luzon, and also in Mindanao, and whose language is gradually displacing other dialects throughout the archipelago. Other civilised tribes are theIlocano,Bicol,Pangasinan,PampanganandCagayan, all of Luzon. Less civilised tribes are theManobo,Mandaya,SubanoandBagoboof Mindanao, theBukidnonof Mindanao and the central islands, theTagbanuaandBatakof Palawan, and theIgorotsof Luzon, some of whom are industrious farmers, while among others, head-hunting is still prevalent. These have been described by A. E. Jenks in a monograph[555]. The head form is veryvariable. Of 32 men measured by Jenks the extremes of cephalic index were 91.48 and 67.48. The stature is always low, averaging 1.62 m. (5 ft. 4 in.) but with an appearance of greater height. The hair is black, straight, lank, coarse and abundant but "I doubt whether to-day an entire tribe of perfectly straight-haired primitive Malayan people exists in the archipelago[556]."

The Moros.

UnderMoros("Moors") are comprised the Muhammadans exclusively, some of whom are Malayans (chiefly in Mindanao, Basilan, and Palawan), some true Malays (chiefly in the Sulu archipelago). Many of these are still independent, and not a few, if not actually wild, are certainly but little removed from the savage state. Yet, like the Sumatran Battas, they possess a knowledge of letters, the Sulu people using the Arabic script, as do all the Orang-Maláyu, while the Palawan natives employ a variant of the Devanagari prototype derived directly from the Javanese, as above explained. They number nearly 280,000, of whom more than one half are in Mindanao, and they form the bulk of the population in some of the islands of the Sulu archipelago.

Some of these Sulu people, till lately fierce sea-rovers, get baptized now and then; but, says Foreman, "they appeared to be as much Christian as I was Mussulman[557]." They keep their harems all the same, and when asked how many gods there are, answer "four," presumably Allah plus the Athanasian Trinity. So the Ba-Fiots of Angola add crucifying to their "penal code," and so in King M'tesa's time the Baganda scrupulously kept two weekly holidays, the Mussulman Friday, and the Christian Sunday. Lofty creeds superimposed too rapidly on primitive beliefs are apt to get "mixed"; they need time to become assimilated.

Malayans and Indonesians in Formosa.

The Chinese Settlers.

That in the aborigines of Formosa are represented both Mongol (proto-Malayan) and Indonesian elements may now probably be accepted as an established fact. The long-standing reports of Negritoes also, like the Philippine Aeta, have never been confirmed, and may be dismissed from the present consideration. Probably five-sixths of the whole population areChinese immigrants, amongst whom are a large number of Hakkas and Hok-los from the provinces of Fo-Kien and Kwang-tung[558]. They occupy all the cultivated western lowlands, which from the ethnological standpoint may be regarded as a seaward outpost of the Chinese mainland. The rest of the island, that is, the central highlands and precipitous eastern slopes, may similarly be looked on as a north-eastern outpost of Malaysia, being almost exclusively held by Indonesian and Malayan aborigines from Malaysia (especially the Philippines), with possibly some early intruders both from Polynesia and from the north (Japan). All are classed by the Chinese settlers after their usual fashion in three social divisions:—

1. ThePepohwansof the plains, who although called "Barbarians," are sedentary agriculturists and quite as civilised as their Chinese neighbours themselves, with whom they are gradually merging in a single ethnical group. The Pepohwans are described by P. Ibis as a fine race, very tall, and "fetishists," though the mysterious rites are left to the women. Their national feasts, dances, and other usages forcibly recall those of the Micronesians and Polynesians. They may therefore, perhaps, be regarded as early immigrants from the South Sea Islands, distinct in every respect from the true aborigines.

2. TheSekhwans, "Tame Savages[559]," who are also settled agriculturists, subject to the Chinese (since 1895 to the Japanese) administration, but physically distinct from all the other Formosans—light complexion, large mouth, thick lips, remarkably long and prominent teeth, weak constitution. P. Ibis suspects a strain of Dutch blood dating from the seventeenth century. This is confirmed by the old books and other curious documents found amongst them, which have given rise to so much speculation, and, it may be added, some mystification, regarding a peculiar writing system and a literature formerly current amongst the Formosan aborigines[560].

3. TheChinhwans, "Green Barbarians"—that is, utter savages—the true independent aborigines, of whom there are an unknown number of tribes, but regarding whom the Chinese possess but little definite information. Not so their Japanese successors, one of whom, Kisak Tamai[561], tells us that the Chinhwans show a close resemblance to the Malays of the Malay Peninsula and also to those of the Philippines, and in some respects to the Japanese themselves. When dressed like Japanese and mingling with Japanese women, they can hardly be distinguished from them. The vendetta is still rife amongst many of the ruder tribes, and such is their traditional hatred of the Chinese intruders that no one can either be tattooed or permitted to wear a bracelet until he has carried off a Celestial head or two. In every household there is a frame or bracket on which these heads are mounted, and some of their warriors can proudly point to over seventy of such trophies. It is a relief to hear that with their new Japanese masters they have sworn friendship, these new rulers of the land being their "brothers and sisters." The oath of eternal alliance is taken by digging a hole in the ground, putting a stone in it, throwing earth at each other, then covering the stone with the earth, all of which means that "as the stone in the ground keeps sound, so do we keep our word unbroken."

Racial Affinities.

It is interesting to note that this Japanese ethnologist's remarks on the physical resemblances of the aborigines are fully in accord with those of European observers. Thus to Hamy "they recalled the Igorrotes of North Luzon, as well as the Malays of Singapore[562]." G. Taylor also, who has visited several of the wildest groups in the southern and eastern districts[563](Tipuns,Paiwans,Diaramocks,Nickas,Amiasand many others), traces some "probably" to Japan (Tipuns); others to Malaysia (the cruel, predatory Paiwan head-hunters); and others to the Liu-Kiu archipelago (the Pepohwans now of Chinese speech). He describes the Diaramocks as the most dreaded of all thesouthern groups, but doubts whether the charge of cannibalism brought against them by their neighbours is quite justified.

Whether the historical Malays from Singapore or elsewhere, as above suggested, are really represented in Formosa may be doubted, since no survivals either of Hindu or Muhammadan rites appear to have been detected amongst the aborigines. It is of course possible that they may have reached the island at some remote time, and since relapsed into savagery, from which the Orang-laut were never very far removed. But in the absence of proof, it will be safer to regard all the wild tribes as partly of Indonesian, partly of proto-Malayan origin.

Linguistic Affinities.

This view is also in conformity with the character of the numerous Formosan dialects, whose affinities are either with the Gyarung and others of the Asiatic Indonesian tongues, or else with the Austronesian organic speech generally, but not specially with any particular member of that family, least of all with the comparatively recent standard Malay. Thus Arnold Schetelig points out that only about a sixth part of the Formosan vocabulary taken generally corresponds with modern Malay[564]. The analogies of all the rest must be sought in the various branches of the Oceanic stock language, and in the Gyarung and the non-Chinese tongues of Eastern China[565]. Formosa thus presents a curious ethnical and linguistic connecting link between the Continental and Oceanic populations.

The Nicobarese.

In the Nicobar archipelago are distinguished two ethnical groups, the coast people,i.e.theNicobarese[566]proper, and theShom Pen, aborigines of the less accessible inland districts in Great Nicobar. But the distinction appears to be rather social than racial, and we may now conclude with E. H. Man that all the islanders belong essentially to the Mongolic division, the inlanders representing the pure type, the others being "descended froma mongrel Malay stock, the crosses being probably in the majority of cases with Burmese and occasionally with natives of the opposite coast of Siam, and perchance also in remote times with such of the Shom Pen as may have settled in their midst[567]."

Among the numerous usages which point to an Indo-Chinese and Oceanic connection are pile-dwellings; the chewing of betel, which appears to be here mixed with some earthy substance causing a dental incrustation so thick as even to prevent the closing of the lips; distention of the ear-lobe by wooden cylinders; aversion from the use of milk; and thecouvade, as amongst some Bornean Dayaks. The language, which has an extraordinarily rich phonetic system (as many as 25 consonantal and 35 vowel sounds), is polysyllabic and untoned, like the Austronesian, and the type also seems to resemble the Oceanic more than the Continental Mongol subdivision. Mean height 5 ft. 3 in. (Shom Pen one inch less); nose wide and flat; eyes rather obliquely set; cheekbones prominent; features flat, though less so than in the normal Malayan; complexion mostly a yellowish or reddish brown (Shom Pen dull brown); hair a dark rusty brown, rarely quite black, straight, though not seldom wavy and even ringletty, but Shom Pen generally quite straight.

On the other hand they approach nearer to the Burmese in their mental characters; in their frank, independent spirit, inquisitiveness, and kindness towards their women, who enjoy complete social equality, as in Burma; and lastly in their universal belief in spirits callediwiorsíya, who, like thenatsof Indo-China, cause sickness and death unless scared away or appeased by offerings. Like the Burmese, also, they place a piece of money in the mouth or against the cheek of a corpse before burial, to help in the other world.

One of the few industries is the manufacture of a peculiar kind of rough painted pottery, which is absolutely confined to the islet of Chowra, 5 miles north of Teressa. The reason of this restriction is explained by a popular legend, according to which in remote ages the Great Unknown decreed that, on pain of sudden death, an earthquake, or some such calamity, the making of earthenware was to be carried on only in Chowra, and all the work of preparing the clay, mouldingand firing the pots, was to devolve on the women. Once, a long time ago, one of these women, when on a visit in another island, began, heedless of the divine injunction, to make a vessel, and fell dead on the spot. Thus was confirmed the tradition, and no attempt has since been made to infringe the "Chowra monopoly[568]."

All things considered, it may be inferred that the archipelago was originally occupied by primitive peoples of Malayan stock now represented by the Shom Pen of Great Nicobar, and was afterwards re-settled on the coastlands by Indo-Chinese and Malayan intruders, who intermingled, and either extirpated or absorbed, or else drove to the interior the first occupants. Nicobar thus resembles Formosa in its intermediate position between the continental and Oceanic Mongol populations. Another point of analogy is the absence of Negritoes from both of these insular areas, where anthropologists had confidently anticipated the presence of a dark element like that of the Andamanese and Philippine Aeta.

FOOTNOTES:[492]Here E. T. Hamy finds connecting links between the true Malays and the Indonesians in the Bicols of Albay and the Bisayas of Panay ("Les Races Malaïques et Américaines," inL'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 136). Used in this extended sense, Hamy'sMalaïquecorresponds generally to ourMalayanas defined presently.[493]Ethnically Malayo-Polynesian is an impossible expression, because it links together the Malays, who belong to the Mongol, and the Polynesians, who belong to the Caucasic division. But as both undoubtedly speak languages of the same linguistic stock the expression is permitted in philology, although, as P. W. Schmidt points out, "Malay" and "Polynesian" are not of equal rank: and the combination is as unbalanced as "Indo-Bavarian" for "Indo-Germanic"; it is best therefore to adopt Schmidt's termAustronesianfor this family of languages (Die Mon-Khmer Völker, 1906, p. 69).[494]Indonesian type: undulating black hair, often tinged with red; tawny skin, often rather light; low stature, 1.54 m.-1.57 m. (5 ft. 0½ in.-5 ft. 1¾ in.); mesaticephalic head (76-78) probably originally dolichocephalic; cheek-bones sometimes projecting; nose often flattened, sometimes concave. It is difficult to isolate this type as it has almost everywhere been mixed with a brachycephalic Proto-Malay stock, but the Muruts of Borneo (cranial index 73) are probably typical (A. C. Haddon,The Races of Man, 1909, p. 14).[495]Recent literature on this area includes F. A. Swettenham,The Real Malay, 1900,British Malaya, 1906; W. W. Skeat,Malay Magic, 1900; N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson,Fasciculi Malayenses, 1903; W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden,Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, 1903.[496]J. Leyden,Malay Annals, 1821, p. 44.[497]In some places quite recent, as in Rembau, Malay Peninsula, whose inhabitants are mainly immigrants from Sumatra in the seventeenth century; and in the neighbouring group of petty Negri Sembilan States, where the very tribal names, such asAnak Acheh, andSri Lemak Menangkabau, betray their late arrival from the Sumatran districts of Achin and Menangkabau.[498]The Malay Archipelago, p. 310.[499]For Celebes see Von Paul und Fritz Sarasin,Reisen in Celebes ausgeführt in den Jahren 1893-6 und 1902-3, 1905, andVersuch einer Anthropologie der Insel Celebes, 1905.[500]In 1898 a troop of Javanese minstrels visited London, and one of them, whom I addressed in a few broken Malay sentences, resented in his sleepy way the imputation that he was an Orang-Maláyu, explaining that he wasOrang Java, a Javanese, and (when further questioned)Orang Solo, a native of the Solo district, East Java. It was interesting to notice the very marked Mongolic features of these natives, vividly recalling the remark of A. R. Wallace, on the difficulty of distinguishing between a Javanese and a Chinaman when both are dressed alike. The resemblance may to a small extent be due to "mixture with Chinese blood" (B. Hagen,Jour. Anthrop. Soc.Vienna, 1889); but occurs over such a wide area that it must mainly be attributed to the common origin of the Chinese and Javanese peoples.[501]A. H. Keane,Eastern Geography, 2nd ed. 1892, p. 121.[502]Academy, May 1, 1897, p. 469.[503]Cool, p. 139.[504]The Malay Archipelago, p. 175.[505]InMalay Sketches, 1895.[506]Cf. M. A. Czaplicka on Arctic Hysteria inAboriginal Siberia, 1914, p. 307.[507]On these national pastimes see Sir Hugh Clifford,In Court and Kampong, 1897, p. 46 sq.[508]Cujo officio he rubar e pescar, "whose business it is to rob and fish" (Barros). Many of the Bajaus lived entirely afloat, passing their lives in boats from the cradle to the grave, and praying Allah that they might die at sea.[509]Thucydides,Pel. War,I.1-16.[510]These are the notedIllanuns, who occupy the south side of the large Philippine island of Mindanao, but many of whom, like the Bajaus of Celebes and the Sulu Islanders, have formed settlements on the north-east coast of Borneo. "Long ago their warfare against the Spaniards degenerated into general piracy. Their usual practice was not to take captives, but to murder all on board any boat they took. Those with us [British North Borneo] have all settled down to a more orderly way of life" (W. B. Pryer,Journ. Anthr. Inst.1886, p. 231).[511]The Malay Archipelago, p. 341.[512]In Central Africa "the belief in 'were' animals, that is to say in human beings who have changed themselves into lions or leopards or some such harmful beasts, is nearly universal. Moreover there are individuals who imagine they possess this power of assuming the form of an animal and killing human beings in that shape." Sir H. H. Johnston,British Central Africa, p. 439.[513]In Court and Kampong, p. 63.[514]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1886, p. 227. The Rajah gives the leading features of the character of his countrymen as "pride of race and birth, extraordinary observance of punctilio, and a bigoted adherence to ancient custom and tradition."[515]The Pygmies(Translation), 1895, p. 26, fig. 15.[516]The Distribution of the Negritos, 1899, p. 50.[517]In the Appendix to C. Hose and W. McDougall,The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, 1912, p. 311.[518]J. H. Kohlbrugge,L'Anthropologie,IX.1898.[519]A. C. Haddon, "A Sketch of the Ethnography of Sarawak,"Archivio per l'Antropologia e l'Etnologia,XXXI.1901; C. Hose and W. McDougall,The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, 1912, Appendix, p. 314.[520]H. Ling Roth,The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, 1896.[521]O. Beccari,Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo, 1904, p. 54.[522]Schwaner, in H. Ling Roth,The Natives of Sarawak, etc., 1896.[523]A. C. Haddon,Head-Hunters, Black, White and Brown, 1901, p. 324.[524]A. C. Haddon,Head-Hunters, Black, White and Brown, 1901, pp. 327-8.[525]For further literature on Borneo see W. H. Furness,The Home-life of the Borneo Head-Hunters, 1902; A. W. Nieuwenhuis,Quer durch Borneo, 1904; E. H. Gomes,Seventeen Years among the Sea-Dyaks of Borneo, 1911; C. Hose and W. McDougall,Journ. Anthr. Inst.,XXXI.1901, andThe Pagan Tribes of Borneo, 1912.[526]Not only in the southern districts for centuries subject to Javanese influences, but also in Battaland, where they were first discovered by H. von Rosenberg in 1853, and figured and described inDer Malayische Archipel, Leipzig, 1878, Vol.I. p. 27 sq. "Nach ihrer Form und ihren Bildwerken zu urtheilen, waren die Gebäude Tempel, worin der Buddha-Kultus gefeiert wurde" (p. 28). These are all the more interesting since Hindu ruins are otherwise rare in Sumatra, where there is nothing comparable to the stupendous monuments of Central and East Java.[527]Von Rosenberg,op. cit.Vol.I.p. 189. Amongst the points of close resemblance may be mentioned the outriggers, for which Mentawi has the same word (abak) as the Samoan (va'r=vaka); the funeral rites; taboo; the facial expression; and the language, in which the numerical systems are identical; cf. Ment.limongapulawith Sam.limagafulu, the Malay beinglimapulah(fifty), where the Sam. infixga(absent in Malay) is pronouncedgna, exactly as in Ment.[528]See Fr. Müller,Ueber den Ursprung der Schrift der Malaiischen Völker, Vienna, 1865; and my Appendix to Stanford'sAustralasia, First Series, 1879, p. 624.[529]Die Mangianenschrift von Mindoro, herausgegeben von A. B. Meyer u. A. Schadenberg, speciell bearbeitet von W. Foy, Dresden, 1895; see also my remarks inJourn. Anthr. Inst.1896, p. 277 sq.[530]The Rejang, which certainly belongs to the same Indo-Javanese system as all the other Malaysian alphabets, has been regarded by Sayce and Renan as "pure Phoenician," while Neubauer has compared it with that current in the fourth and fifth centuriesB.C.The suggestion that it may have been introduced by the Phoenician crews of Alexander's admiral, Nearchus (Archaeol. Oxon.1895, No. 6), could not have been made by anyone aware of its close connection with the Lampong of South, and the Batta of North Sumatra (see also Prof. Kern,Globus, 70, p. 116).[531]Sing.Batta, pl.Battak, hence the current formBattaksis a solecism, and we should write eitherBattasorBattak. Lassen derives the word from the Sanskritb'háta, "savage."[532]Again confirmed by Volz and H. von Autenrieth, who explored Battaland early in 1898, and penetrated to the territory of the "Cannibal Pakpaks" (Geogr. Journ., June, 1898, p. 672); not however "for the first time," as here stated. The Pakpaks had already been visited in 1853 by Von Rosenberg, who found cannibalism so prevalent that "Niemand Anstand nimmt das essen von Menschenfleisch einzugestehen" (op. cit.1. p. 56).[533]It is interesting to note that by the aid of the Lampong alphabet, South Sumatra, John Mathew reads the wordDaibattahin the legend on the head-dress of a gigantic figure seen by Sir George Grey on the roof of a cave on the Glenelg river, North-west Australia ("The Cave Paintings of Australia," etc., inJourn. Anthr. Inst.1894, p. 44 sq.). He quotes from Coleman'sMythology of the Hindusthe statement that "the Battas of Sumatra believe in the existence of one supreme being, whom they nameDebati Hasi Asi. Since completing the work of creation they suppose him to have remained perfectly quiescent, having wholly committed the government to his three sons, who do not govern in person, but by vakeels or proxies." Here is possibly another confirmation of the view that early Malayan migrations or expeditions, some even to Australia, took place in pre-Muhammadan times, long before the rise and diffusion of the Orang-Maláyu in the Archipelago.[534]Memoir of the Life etc. of Sir T. S. Raffles, by his widow, 1830.[535]"Anthropologie des Atjehs," inRev. Med., Batavia,XXX.6, 1890.[536]See C. Snouck Hurgronje,The Achenese, 1906.[537]Handbook to the Ethnographical Collections, British Museum, 1910, p. 245.[538]This opinion is still held by many competent authorities. Cf. J. Deniker,The Races of Man, 1900, p. 469 ff.[539]"His remarks would scarcely apply to any other island off the East African coast, his descriptions of the rivers, crocodiles, land-tortoises, canoes, sea-turtles, and wicker-work weirs for catching fish, apply exactly to Madagascar of the present day, but to none of the other islands" (Journ. Anthr. Inst.1896, p. 47).[540]Loc. cit.p. 77. Thus, to take the days of the week, we have:—Malagasyalahady,alatsinainy; old Arab. (Himyar.)al-áhadu,al-itsnáni; modern Arab.el-áhad,el-etnén(Sunday, Monday), where the Mal. forms are obviously derived not from the present, but from the ancient Arabic. From all this it seems reasonable to infer that the early Semitic influences in Madagascar may be due to the same Sabaean or Minaean peoples of South Arabia, to whom the Zimbabwe monuments in the auriferous region south of the Zambesi were accredited by Theodore Bent.[541]Those who may still doubt should consult M. Aristide Marre,Les Affinités de la Langue Malgache, Leyden, 1884; Last's above quoted Paper in theJourn. Anthr. Inst.and R. H. Codrington'sMelanesian Languages, Oxford, 1885.[542]Malaymata-ari; Bajaumata-lon; Menadomata-roū; Salayermato-allo, all meaning literally "day's eye" (mata,mato= Malagasymaso= eye;ari,allo, etc. = day, with normal interchange ofrandl).[543]J. Sibree,Antananarivo Annual, 1877, p. 62.[544]W. D. Cowan,The Bara Land, Antananarivo, 1881, p. 67.[545]"The Betsileo, Country and People," inAntananarivo Annual, 1877, p. 79.[546]"Note sur l'Anthropologie de Madagascar," etc., inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 149 sq.[547]The contrast between the two elements is drawn in a few bold strokes by Mrs Z. Colvile, who found that in the east coast districts the natives (Betsimisarakas chiefly) were black "with short, curly hair and negro type of feature, and showed every sign of being of African origin. The Hovas, on the contrary, had complexions little darker than those of the peasantry of Southern Europe, straight black hair, rather sharp features, slim figures, and were unmistakably of the Asiatic type" (Round the Black Man's Garden, 1893, p. 143). But even amongst the Hovas a strain of black blood is betrayed in the generally rather thick lips, and among the lower classes in the wavy hair and dark skin.[548]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1897, p. 285 sq.[549]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1897, p. 153.[550]Handbook to the Ethnological Collection, British Museum, 1910, pp. 246-7.[551]Augustinians, Dominicans, Recollects (Friars Minor of the Strict Observance), and Jesuits.[552]In fact there is no great parade of morality on either side, nor is it any reflection on a woman to have children by the priest.[553]J. Foreman,The Philippine Islands, 1899, p. 181.[554]Australasia, 1894,II.p. 49.[555]The Bontoc Igorot, Eth. Survey Pub. Vol.I.1904. Further information concerning the Philippines is published in theCensus Report in 1903, 1905;Ethnological Survey Publications, 1904- ; C. A. Koeze,Crania Ethnica Philippinica, ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Philippinen, 1901- ; Henry Gannett,People of the Philippines, 1904; R. B. Bean,The Racial Anatomy of the Philippine Islanders, 1910; Fay-Cooper Cole,Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao, 1913.[556]A. E. Jenks,The Bontoc Igorot, 1904, p. 41.[557]Op. cit.p. 247.[558]Girard de Rialle,Rev. d'Anthrop., Jan. and April, 1885. These studies are based largely on the data supplied by M. Paul Ibis and earlier travellers in the island. Nothing better has since appeared except G. Taylor's valuable contributions to theChina Review(see below). The census of 1904 gave 2,860,574 Chinese, 51,770 Japanese and 104,334 aborigines.[559]Lit. "ripe barbarians" (barbares mûrs, Ibis).[560]See facsimiles of bilingual and other MSS. from Formosa in T. de Lacouperie'sFormosa Notes on MSS., Languages, and Races, Hertford, 1887. The whole question is here fully discussed, though the author seems unable to arrive at any definite conclusion even as to thebonaormala fidesof the noted impostor George Psalmanazar.[561]Globus, 70, p. 93 sq.[562]"Les Races Malaïques," etc., inL'Anthropologie, 1896.[563]"The Aborigines of Formosa," inChina Review,XIV.p. 198 sq., also xvi. No. 3 ("A Ramble through Southern Formosa"). The services rendered by this intelligent observer to Formosan ethnology deserve more general recognition than they have hitherto received. See also theReport on the control of the Aborigines of Formosa, Bureau of Aboriginal Affairs, Formosa, 1911.[564]"Sprachen der Ureinwohner Formosa's," inZeitschr. f. Völkerpsychologie, etc., v. p. 437 sq. This anthropologist found to his great surprise that the Polynesian and Maori skulls in the London College of Surgeons presented striking analogies with those collected by himself in Formosa. Here at least is a remarkable harmony between speech and physical characters.[565]De Lacouperie,op. cit.p. 73.[566]The natives of course know nothing of this word, and speak of their island homes asMattai, a vague term applied equally to land, country, village, and even the whole world.[567]"The Nicobar Islanders," inJourn. Anthr. Inst.1889, p. 354 sq. Cf. C. B. Kloss,In the Andamans and Nicobars, 1903.[568]E. H. Man,Journ. Anthr. Inst.1894, p. 21.

[492]Here E. T. Hamy finds connecting links between the true Malays and the Indonesians in the Bicols of Albay and the Bisayas of Panay ("Les Races Malaïques et Américaines," inL'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 136). Used in this extended sense, Hamy'sMalaïquecorresponds generally to ourMalayanas defined presently.

[493]Ethnically Malayo-Polynesian is an impossible expression, because it links together the Malays, who belong to the Mongol, and the Polynesians, who belong to the Caucasic division. But as both undoubtedly speak languages of the same linguistic stock the expression is permitted in philology, although, as P. W. Schmidt points out, "Malay" and "Polynesian" are not of equal rank: and the combination is as unbalanced as "Indo-Bavarian" for "Indo-Germanic"; it is best therefore to adopt Schmidt's termAustronesianfor this family of languages (Die Mon-Khmer Völker, 1906, p. 69).

[494]Indonesian type: undulating black hair, often tinged with red; tawny skin, often rather light; low stature, 1.54 m.-1.57 m. (5 ft. 0½ in.-5 ft. 1¾ in.); mesaticephalic head (76-78) probably originally dolichocephalic; cheek-bones sometimes projecting; nose often flattened, sometimes concave. It is difficult to isolate this type as it has almost everywhere been mixed with a brachycephalic Proto-Malay stock, but the Muruts of Borneo (cranial index 73) are probably typical (A. C. Haddon,The Races of Man, 1909, p. 14).

[495]Recent literature on this area includes F. A. Swettenham,The Real Malay, 1900,British Malaya, 1906; W. W. Skeat,Malay Magic, 1900; N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson,Fasciculi Malayenses, 1903; W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden,Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula, 1903.

[496]J. Leyden,Malay Annals, 1821, p. 44.

[497]In some places quite recent, as in Rembau, Malay Peninsula, whose inhabitants are mainly immigrants from Sumatra in the seventeenth century; and in the neighbouring group of petty Negri Sembilan States, where the very tribal names, such asAnak Acheh, andSri Lemak Menangkabau, betray their late arrival from the Sumatran districts of Achin and Menangkabau.

[498]The Malay Archipelago, p. 310.

[499]For Celebes see Von Paul und Fritz Sarasin,Reisen in Celebes ausgeführt in den Jahren 1893-6 und 1902-3, 1905, andVersuch einer Anthropologie der Insel Celebes, 1905.

[500]In 1898 a troop of Javanese minstrels visited London, and one of them, whom I addressed in a few broken Malay sentences, resented in his sleepy way the imputation that he was an Orang-Maláyu, explaining that he wasOrang Java, a Javanese, and (when further questioned)Orang Solo, a native of the Solo district, East Java. It was interesting to notice the very marked Mongolic features of these natives, vividly recalling the remark of A. R. Wallace, on the difficulty of distinguishing between a Javanese and a Chinaman when both are dressed alike. The resemblance may to a small extent be due to "mixture with Chinese blood" (B. Hagen,Jour. Anthrop. Soc.Vienna, 1889); but occurs over such a wide area that it must mainly be attributed to the common origin of the Chinese and Javanese peoples.

[501]A. H. Keane,Eastern Geography, 2nd ed. 1892, p. 121.

[502]Academy, May 1, 1897, p. 469.

[503]Cool, p. 139.

[504]The Malay Archipelago, p. 175.

[505]InMalay Sketches, 1895.

[506]Cf. M. A. Czaplicka on Arctic Hysteria inAboriginal Siberia, 1914, p. 307.

[507]On these national pastimes see Sir Hugh Clifford,In Court and Kampong, 1897, p. 46 sq.

[508]Cujo officio he rubar e pescar, "whose business it is to rob and fish" (Barros). Many of the Bajaus lived entirely afloat, passing their lives in boats from the cradle to the grave, and praying Allah that they might die at sea.

[509]Thucydides,Pel. War,I.1-16.

[510]These are the notedIllanuns, who occupy the south side of the large Philippine island of Mindanao, but many of whom, like the Bajaus of Celebes and the Sulu Islanders, have formed settlements on the north-east coast of Borneo. "Long ago their warfare against the Spaniards degenerated into general piracy. Their usual practice was not to take captives, but to murder all on board any boat they took. Those with us [British North Borneo] have all settled down to a more orderly way of life" (W. B. Pryer,Journ. Anthr. Inst.1886, p. 231).

[511]The Malay Archipelago, p. 341.

[512]In Central Africa "the belief in 'were' animals, that is to say in human beings who have changed themselves into lions or leopards or some such harmful beasts, is nearly universal. Moreover there are individuals who imagine they possess this power of assuming the form of an animal and killing human beings in that shape." Sir H. H. Johnston,British Central Africa, p. 439.

[513]In Court and Kampong, p. 63.

[514]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1886, p. 227. The Rajah gives the leading features of the character of his countrymen as "pride of race and birth, extraordinary observance of punctilio, and a bigoted adherence to ancient custom and tradition."

[515]The Pygmies(Translation), 1895, p. 26, fig. 15.

[516]The Distribution of the Negritos, 1899, p. 50.

[517]In the Appendix to C. Hose and W. McDougall,The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, 1912, p. 311.

[518]J. H. Kohlbrugge,L'Anthropologie,IX.1898.

[519]A. C. Haddon, "A Sketch of the Ethnography of Sarawak,"Archivio per l'Antropologia e l'Etnologia,XXXI.1901; C. Hose and W. McDougall,The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, 1912, Appendix, p. 314.

[520]H. Ling Roth,The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, 1896.

[521]O. Beccari,Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo, 1904, p. 54.

[522]Schwaner, in H. Ling Roth,The Natives of Sarawak, etc., 1896.

[523]A. C. Haddon,Head-Hunters, Black, White and Brown, 1901, p. 324.

[524]A. C. Haddon,Head-Hunters, Black, White and Brown, 1901, pp. 327-8.

[525]For further literature on Borneo see W. H. Furness,The Home-life of the Borneo Head-Hunters, 1902; A. W. Nieuwenhuis,Quer durch Borneo, 1904; E. H. Gomes,Seventeen Years among the Sea-Dyaks of Borneo, 1911; C. Hose and W. McDougall,Journ. Anthr. Inst.,XXXI.1901, andThe Pagan Tribes of Borneo, 1912.

[526]Not only in the southern districts for centuries subject to Javanese influences, but also in Battaland, where they were first discovered by H. von Rosenberg in 1853, and figured and described inDer Malayische Archipel, Leipzig, 1878, Vol.I. p. 27 sq. "Nach ihrer Form und ihren Bildwerken zu urtheilen, waren die Gebäude Tempel, worin der Buddha-Kultus gefeiert wurde" (p. 28). These are all the more interesting since Hindu ruins are otherwise rare in Sumatra, where there is nothing comparable to the stupendous monuments of Central and East Java.

[527]Von Rosenberg,op. cit.Vol.I.p. 189. Amongst the points of close resemblance may be mentioned the outriggers, for which Mentawi has the same word (abak) as the Samoan (va'r=vaka); the funeral rites; taboo; the facial expression; and the language, in which the numerical systems are identical; cf. Ment.limongapulawith Sam.limagafulu, the Malay beinglimapulah(fifty), where the Sam. infixga(absent in Malay) is pronouncedgna, exactly as in Ment.

[528]See Fr. Müller,Ueber den Ursprung der Schrift der Malaiischen Völker, Vienna, 1865; and my Appendix to Stanford'sAustralasia, First Series, 1879, p. 624.

[529]Die Mangianenschrift von Mindoro, herausgegeben von A. B. Meyer u. A. Schadenberg, speciell bearbeitet von W. Foy, Dresden, 1895; see also my remarks inJourn. Anthr. Inst.1896, p. 277 sq.

[530]The Rejang, which certainly belongs to the same Indo-Javanese system as all the other Malaysian alphabets, has been regarded by Sayce and Renan as "pure Phoenician," while Neubauer has compared it with that current in the fourth and fifth centuriesB.C.The suggestion that it may have been introduced by the Phoenician crews of Alexander's admiral, Nearchus (Archaeol. Oxon.1895, No. 6), could not have been made by anyone aware of its close connection with the Lampong of South, and the Batta of North Sumatra (see also Prof. Kern,Globus, 70, p. 116).

[531]Sing.Batta, pl.Battak, hence the current formBattaksis a solecism, and we should write eitherBattasorBattak. Lassen derives the word from the Sanskritb'háta, "savage."

[532]Again confirmed by Volz and H. von Autenrieth, who explored Battaland early in 1898, and penetrated to the territory of the "Cannibal Pakpaks" (Geogr. Journ., June, 1898, p. 672); not however "for the first time," as here stated. The Pakpaks had already been visited in 1853 by Von Rosenberg, who found cannibalism so prevalent that "Niemand Anstand nimmt das essen von Menschenfleisch einzugestehen" (op. cit.1. p. 56).

[533]It is interesting to note that by the aid of the Lampong alphabet, South Sumatra, John Mathew reads the wordDaibattahin the legend on the head-dress of a gigantic figure seen by Sir George Grey on the roof of a cave on the Glenelg river, North-west Australia ("The Cave Paintings of Australia," etc., inJourn. Anthr. Inst.1894, p. 44 sq.). He quotes from Coleman'sMythology of the Hindusthe statement that "the Battas of Sumatra believe in the existence of one supreme being, whom they nameDebati Hasi Asi. Since completing the work of creation they suppose him to have remained perfectly quiescent, having wholly committed the government to his three sons, who do not govern in person, but by vakeels or proxies." Here is possibly another confirmation of the view that early Malayan migrations or expeditions, some even to Australia, took place in pre-Muhammadan times, long before the rise and diffusion of the Orang-Maláyu in the Archipelago.

[534]Memoir of the Life etc. of Sir T. S. Raffles, by his widow, 1830.

[535]"Anthropologie des Atjehs," inRev. Med., Batavia,XXX.6, 1890.

[536]See C. Snouck Hurgronje,The Achenese, 1906.

[537]Handbook to the Ethnographical Collections, British Museum, 1910, p. 245.

[538]This opinion is still held by many competent authorities. Cf. J. Deniker,The Races of Man, 1900, p. 469 ff.

[539]"His remarks would scarcely apply to any other island off the East African coast, his descriptions of the rivers, crocodiles, land-tortoises, canoes, sea-turtles, and wicker-work weirs for catching fish, apply exactly to Madagascar of the present day, but to none of the other islands" (Journ. Anthr. Inst.1896, p. 47).

[540]Loc. cit.p. 77. Thus, to take the days of the week, we have:—Malagasyalahady,alatsinainy; old Arab. (Himyar.)al-áhadu,al-itsnáni; modern Arab.el-áhad,el-etnén(Sunday, Monday), where the Mal. forms are obviously derived not from the present, but from the ancient Arabic. From all this it seems reasonable to infer that the early Semitic influences in Madagascar may be due to the same Sabaean or Minaean peoples of South Arabia, to whom the Zimbabwe monuments in the auriferous region south of the Zambesi were accredited by Theodore Bent.

[541]Those who may still doubt should consult M. Aristide Marre,Les Affinités de la Langue Malgache, Leyden, 1884; Last's above quoted Paper in theJourn. Anthr. Inst.and R. H. Codrington'sMelanesian Languages, Oxford, 1885.

[542]Malaymata-ari; Bajaumata-lon; Menadomata-roū; Salayermato-allo, all meaning literally "day's eye" (mata,mato= Malagasymaso= eye;ari,allo, etc. = day, with normal interchange ofrandl).

[543]J. Sibree,Antananarivo Annual, 1877, p. 62.

[544]W. D. Cowan,The Bara Land, Antananarivo, 1881, p. 67.

[545]"The Betsileo, Country and People," inAntananarivo Annual, 1877, p. 79.

[546]"Note sur l'Anthropologie de Madagascar," etc., inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 149 sq.

[547]The contrast between the two elements is drawn in a few bold strokes by Mrs Z. Colvile, who found that in the east coast districts the natives (Betsimisarakas chiefly) were black "with short, curly hair and negro type of feature, and showed every sign of being of African origin. The Hovas, on the contrary, had complexions little darker than those of the peasantry of Southern Europe, straight black hair, rather sharp features, slim figures, and were unmistakably of the Asiatic type" (Round the Black Man's Garden, 1893, p. 143). But even amongst the Hovas a strain of black blood is betrayed in the generally rather thick lips, and among the lower classes in the wavy hair and dark skin.

[548]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1897, p. 285 sq.

[549]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1897, p. 153.

[550]Handbook to the Ethnological Collection, British Museum, 1910, pp. 246-7.

[551]Augustinians, Dominicans, Recollects (Friars Minor of the Strict Observance), and Jesuits.

[552]In fact there is no great parade of morality on either side, nor is it any reflection on a woman to have children by the priest.

[553]J. Foreman,The Philippine Islands, 1899, p. 181.

[554]Australasia, 1894,II.p. 49.

[555]The Bontoc Igorot, Eth. Survey Pub. Vol.I.1904. Further information concerning the Philippines is published in theCensus Report in 1903, 1905;Ethnological Survey Publications, 1904- ; C. A. Koeze,Crania Ethnica Philippinica, ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Philippinen, 1901- ; Henry Gannett,People of the Philippines, 1904; R. B. Bean,The Racial Anatomy of the Philippine Islanders, 1910; Fay-Cooper Cole,Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao, 1913.

[556]A. E. Jenks,The Bontoc Igorot, 1904, p. 41.

[557]Op. cit.p. 247.

[558]Girard de Rialle,Rev. d'Anthrop., Jan. and April, 1885. These studies are based largely on the data supplied by M. Paul Ibis and earlier travellers in the island. Nothing better has since appeared except G. Taylor's valuable contributions to theChina Review(see below). The census of 1904 gave 2,860,574 Chinese, 51,770 Japanese and 104,334 aborigines.

[559]Lit. "ripe barbarians" (barbares mûrs, Ibis).

[560]See facsimiles of bilingual and other MSS. from Formosa in T. de Lacouperie'sFormosa Notes on MSS., Languages, and Races, Hertford, 1887. The whole question is here fully discussed, though the author seems unable to arrive at any definite conclusion even as to thebonaormala fidesof the noted impostor George Psalmanazar.

[561]Globus, 70, p. 93 sq.

[562]"Les Races Malaïques," etc., inL'Anthropologie, 1896.

[563]"The Aborigines of Formosa," inChina Review,XIV.p. 198 sq., also xvi. No. 3 ("A Ramble through Southern Formosa"). The services rendered by this intelligent observer to Formosan ethnology deserve more general recognition than they have hitherto received. See also theReport on the control of the Aborigines of Formosa, Bureau of Aboriginal Affairs, Formosa, 1911.

[564]"Sprachen der Ureinwohner Formosa's," inZeitschr. f. Völkerpsychologie, etc., v. p. 437 sq. This anthropologist found to his great surprise that the Polynesian and Maori skulls in the London College of Surgeons presented striking analogies with those collected by himself in Formosa. Here at least is a remarkable harmony between speech and physical characters.

[565]De Lacouperie,op. cit.p. 73.

[566]The natives of course know nothing of this word, and speak of their island homes asMattai, a vague term applied equally to land, country, village, and even the whole world.

[567]"The Nicobar Islanders," inJourn. Anthr. Inst.1889, p. 354 sq. Cf. C. B. Kloss,In the Andamans and Nicobars, 1903.

[568]E. H. Man,Journ. Anthr. Inst.1894, p. 21.

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