FOOTNOTES:

The Koreans.

Ethical Elements.

Since the opening up of Korea, some fresh light has been thrown upon the origins and ethnical relations of its present inhabitants. In his monograph on the Yellow Races[649]Hamyhad included them in the Mongol division, but not without reserve, adding that "while some might be taken for Tibetans, others look like an Oceanic cross; hence the contradictory reports and theories of modern travellers." Since then the study of some skulls forwarded to Paris has enabled him to clear up some of the confusion, which is obviously due to interminglings of different elements dating from remote (neolithic) times. On the data supplied by these skulls Hamy classes the Koreans in three groups:—1. The natives of the northern provinces (Ping-ngan-tao and Hienking-tao), strikingly like their Mongol [Tungus] neighbours; 2. Those of the southern provinces (Klingchang-tao and Thsiusan-lo-tao), descendants of the ancient Chinhans and Pien-hans, showing Japanese affinities; 3. Those of the inner provinces (Hoanghae-tao and Ching-tsing-tao), who present a transitional form between the northerns and southerns, both in their physical type and geographical position[650].

Caucasic features—light eyes, large nose, hair often brown, full beard, fair and even white skin, tall stature—are conspicuous, especially amongst the upper classes and many of the southern Koreans[651]. They are thus shown to be a mixed race, the Mongol element dominating in the north, as might be expected, and the Caucasic in the south.

Korean Origins and Records.

These conclusions seem to be confirmed by what is known of the early movements, migrations, and displacements of the populations in north-east Asia about the dawn of history. In these vicissitudes the Koreans, as they are now called[652], appear to have first taken part in the twelfth centuryB.C., when the peninsula was already occupied, as it still is, by Mongols, theSien-pi, in the north,and in the south by several branches of theHans(San-San), of whom it is recorded that they spoke a language unintelligible to the Sien-pi, and resembled the Japanese in appearance, manners, and customs. From this it may be inferred that the Hans were the true aborigines, probably direct descendants of the Caucasic peoples of the New Stone Age, while the Sien-pi were Mongolic (Tungusic) intruders from the present Manchuria. For some time these Sien-pi played a leading part in the political convulsions prior and subsequent to the erection of the Great Wall by Shih Hwang Ti, founder of the Tsin dynasty (221-209B.C.)[653]. Soon after the completion of this barrier, theHiung-nu, no longer able to scour the fertile plains of the Middle Kingdom, turned their arms against the neighbouringYué-chi, whom they drove westwards to the Sungarian valleys. Here they were soon displaced by theUsuns(Wusun), a fair, blue-eyed people of unknown origin, who have been called "Aryans," and even "Teutons," and whom Ch. de Ujfalvy identifies with the tall long-headed western blonds (de Lapouge'sHomo Europaeus), mixed with brown round-headed hordes of white complexion[654]. Accepting this view, we may go further, and identify the Usuns, as well as the other white peoples of the early Chinese records, with the already described Central Asiatic Caucasians of the Stone Ages, whose osseous remains we now possess, and who come to the surface in the very first Chinese documents dealing with the turbulent populations beyond the Great Wall. The white element, with all the correlated characters, existed beyond all question, for it is continuously referred to in those documents. How is its presence in East Central Asia, including Manchuria and Korea,to be explained? Only on two assumptions—proto-historicmigrations from the Far West, barred by the proto-historic migrations from the Far East, as largely determined by the erection of the Great Wall; orpre-historic(neolithic) migrations, also from the Far West, but barred by no serious obstacle, because antecedent to the arrival of the proto-Mongolic tribes from the Tibetan plateau. The true solution of the endless ethnical complications in the extreme East, as in the Oceanic world, will still be found in the now-demonstrated presence of a Caucasic element antecedent to the Mongol in those regions.

When the Hiung-nu[655]power was weakened by their westerly migrations to Sungaria and south-west Siberia (Upper Irtysh and Lake Balkash depression), and broken into two sections during their wars with the two Han dynasties (201B.C.-220A.D.), the Korean Sien-pi became the dominant nation north of the Great Wall. After destroying the last vestiges of the unstable Hiung-nu empire, and driving the Mongolo-Turki hordes still westwards, the Yuan-yuans, most powerful of all the Sien-pi tribes, remained masters of East Central Asia for about 400 years and then disappeared from history[656]. At least after the sixth centuryA.D.no further mention is made of the Sien-pi principalities either in Manchuria or in Korea. Here, however, they appear still to form a dominant element in the northern (Mongol) provinces, calling themselves Ghirin (Khirin), from the Khirin (Sungari) valley of the Amur, where they once held sway.

Since those days Korea has been alternately a vassal State and a province of the Middle Kingdom, with interludes of Japanese ascendancy, interrupted only by the four centuries of Koraï ascendancy (934-1368). This was the most brilliant epoch in the national records, when Korea was rather the ally than the vassal of China, and when trade, industry, and the arts, especially porcelain and bronze work, flourished in the land. But by centuries of subsequent misrule, a people endowed with excellent natural qualities have been reduced to the lowest state of degradation. Before the reforms introduced by the political events of 1895-96, "the country was eaten up by officialism. It is not only that abuses without number prevailed, but the whole system of government was an abuse, a sea of corruption, without a bottom or a shore, an engine of robbery, crushing the life out of all industry[657]." But an improvement was speedily remarked. "The air of the men has undergone a subtle and real change, and the women, though they nominally keep up their habits by seclusion, have lost the hang-dog air which distinguished them at home. The alacrity of movement is a change also, and has replaced the conceited swing of theyang-ban[nobles] and the heartless lounge of the peasant." This improvement was merely temporary. The last years of the century were marked by the waning of Japanese influence, due to Russian intrigues, the restoration of absolute monarchy together with its worst abuses, the abandonment of reforms and a retrograde movement throughout the kingdom. The successes of Japan in 1904-5 resulted in the restoration of her ascendancy, culminating in 1910 in the cession of sovereignty by the emperor of Korea to the emperor of Japan.

Religion.

The religious sentiment is perhaps less developed than among any other Asiatic people. Buddhism, introduced about 380A.D., never took root, and while theliteratiare satisfied with the moral precepts of Confucius, the rest have not progressed beyond the nature-worship which was the ancient religion of the land. Every mountain, pass, ford or even eddy of a river has a spirit to whom offerings are made. Honour is also paid to ancestors, both royal and domestic, at their temples or altars, and chapels are built and dedicated to men who have specially distinguished themselves in loyalty, virtue or lofty teaching.

The Korean Script.

Philologists now recognise some affinity between the Koreanand Japanese languages, both of which appear to be remotely connected with the Ural-Altaic family. The Koreans possess a true alphabet of 28 letters, which, however, is not a local invention, as is sometimes asserted. It appears to have been introduced by the Buddhist monks about or before the tenth century, and to be based on some cursive form of the Indian (Devanagari) system[658], although scarcely any resemblance can now be traced between the two alphabets. This script is little used except by the lower classes and the women, theliteratipreferring to write either in Chinese, or else in the so-callednido, that is, an adaptation of the Chinese symbols to the phonetic expression of the Korean syllables. Thenidois exactly analogous to the JapaneseKatakanascript, in which modified forms of Chinese ideographs are used phonetically to express 47 syllables (the so-calledI-ro-fasyllabary), raised to 73 by thenigoriandmarudiacritical marks.

The Japanese.

The present population of Japan, according to E. Baelz, shows the following types. The first and most important is the Manchu-Korean type, characteristic of North China and Korea, and most frequent among the upper classes in Japan. The stature is conspicuously tall, the effect being heightened by slender and elegant figure. The face is long, with more or less oblique eyes but no marked prominence of the cheek-bones. The nose is aquiline, the chin slightly receding. With this type is associated a narrow chest, giving an air of elegance rather than of muscularity, an effect which is enhanced by the extremely delicate hands with long slender fingers. The second type is the Mongol, and presents a distinct contrast, with strong and squarely built figure, broad face, prominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, flat nose and wide mouth. This type is not common in the Japanese Islands. The third type, more conspicuous than either of the preceding, is the Malay. The stature is small, with well-knit frame, and broad, well-developed chest. The face is generally round, the nose short, jaws and chin frequently projecting. None of these three types represents the aboriginal race of Japan, for there seems to be no doubt that the Ainu, who now survive in partsof the northern island of Yezo, occupied a greater area in earlier times and to them the prehistoric shell-mounds and other remains are usually attributed[659]. The Ainu are thickly and strongly built, but differ from all other Oriental types in the hairiness of face and body. The head is long, with a cephalic index of 77.8. Face and nose are broad, and the eyes are horizontal, not oblique, lacking the Mongolian fold.

Origins—Constituent Elements.

It is generally assumed that this population represents the easterly migration of that long-headed type which can be traced across the continents of Europe and Asia in the Stone Age, and that their entrance into the islands was effected at a time when the channel separating them from the mainland was neither so wide nor so deep as at the present time. Later Manchu-Korean invaders from the West, Mongols from the South, and Malays from the East pressed the aborigines further and further north, to Yezo, Sakhalin and the Kuriles. But it is possible that the Ainu were not the earliest inhabitants of Japan, for they themselves bear witness to predecessors, theKoro-pok-guru, mentioned above (p. 260). Neither is the assumption of kinship between the Ainu and prehistoric populations of Western Europe accepted without demur. Deniker, while acknowledging the resemblance to certain European types, classes the Ainu as a separate race, thePalaeasiatics. For while in head-length, prominent superciliary ridges, hairiness and the form of the nose they may be compared to Russians, Todas, and Australians, their skin colour, prominent cheek-bones, and other somatic features make any close affinity impossible[660].

Japanese Type.

In spite of these various ingredients the Japanese people may be regarded as fairly homogeneous. Apart from some tall and robust persons amongst the upper classes, and athletes, acrobats, and wrestlers, the general impression that the Japanese are a short finely moulded race is fully borne out by the now regularly recorded military measurements of recruits, showing for height an average of 1.585 m. (5 ft. 2½ in.) to 1.639 m. (5 ft. 4½ in.), for chest 33 in., and disproportionately short legs. Other distinctive characters, all tending to stamp a certain individuality on the people, taken as a whole andirrespective of local peculiarities, are a flat forehead, great distance between the eyebrows, a very small nose with raised nostrils, no glabella, no perceptible nasal root[661]; an active, wiry figure; the exposed skin less yellow than the Chinese, and rather inclining to a light fawn, but the covered parts very light, some say even white; the eyes also less oblique, and all other characteristically Mongol features generally softened, except the black lank hair, which in transverse section is perhaps even rounder than that of most other Mongol peoples[662].

Japanese and Liu-Kiu Islanders.

With this it will be instructive to compare F. H. H. Guillemard's graphic account of the Liu-Kiu islanders, whose Koreo-Japanese affinities are now placed beyond all doubt: "They are a short race, probably even shorter than the Japanese, but much better proportioned, being without the long bodies and short legs of the latter people, and having as a rule extremely well-developed chests. The colour of the skin varies of course with the social position of the individual. Those who work in the fields, clad only in a waist-cloth, are nearly as dark as a Malay, but the upper classes are much fairer, and are at the same time devoid of any of the yellow tint of the Chinaman. To the latter race indeed they cannot be said to bear any resemblance, and though the type is much closer to the Japanese, it is nevertheless very distinct.... In Liu-Kiu the Japanese and natives were easily recognised by us from the first, and must therefore be possessed of very considerable differences. The Liu-Kiuan has the face less flattened, the eyes are more deeply set, and the nose more prominent at its origin. The forehead is high and the cheek-bones somewhat less marked than in the Japanese; the eyebrows are arched and thick, and the eyelashes long. The expression is gentle and pleasing, though somewhat sad, and is apparently a true index of their character[663]."

This description is not accepted without some reserve by Chamberlain, who in fact holds that "the physical type of the Luchuans resembles that of the Japanese almost to identity[664]." In explanation however of the singularly mild, inoffensive, and "even timid disposition" of the Liu-Kiuans, this observer suggests "the probable absence of any admixture of Malayblood in the race[665]." But everybody admits a Malay element in Japan. It would therefore appear that Guillemard must be right, and that, as even shown by all good photographs, differences do exist, due in fact to the presence of this very Malay strain in the Japanese race.

The Languages and Religions.

Elsewhere[666]Chamberlain has given us a scholarly account of the Liu-Kiu language, which is not merely a "sister," as he says, but obviously aneldersister, more archaic in structure and partly in its phonetics, than the oldest known form of Japanese. In the verb, for instance, Japanese retains only one past tense of the indicative, with but one grammatical form, whereas Liu-Kiuan preserves the three original past tenses, each of which possesses a five-fold inflection. All these racial, linguistic, and even mental resemblances, such as the fundamental similarity of many of their customs and ways of thought, he would explain with much probability by the routes followed by the first emigrants from the mainland. While the great bulk spread east and north over the great archipelago, everywhere "driving the aborigines before them," a smaller stream may have trended southward to the little southern group, whose islets stretch like stepping-stones the whole way from Japan to Great Liu-Kiu[667].

Cult of the Dead.

Amongst the common mental traits, mention is made of the Shinto religion, "the simplest and most rustic form" of which still survives in Liu-Kiu. Here, as in Japan, it was originally a rude system of nature-worship, the normal development of which was arrested by Chinese and Buddhist influences. Later it became associated with spirit-worship, the spirits being at first the souls of the dead, and although there is at present no cult of the dead, in the strict sense of the expression, the Liu-Kiu islanders probably pay more respect to the departed than any other people in the world.

Shintoism.

In Japan, Shintoism, as reformed in recent times, has become much more a political institution than a religious system. TheKami-no-michi, that is, the Japanese form of the ChineseShin-to, "way of the Gods," or "spirits," is not merely the national faith, but is inseparably bound up with the interests of the reigning dynasty, holding the Mikado to be the direct descendant of the Sun-goddessHence its three cardinal precepts now are:—1. Honour theKami(spirits), of whom the emperor is the chief representative on earth; 2. Revere him as thy sovereign; 3. Obey the will of his Court, and that is the whole duty of man. There is no moral code, and loyal expositors have declared that the Mikado's will is the only test of right and wrong.

But apart from this political exegesis, Shintoism in its higher form may be called a cultured deism, in its lower a "blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates[668]." There are dim notions about a supreme creator, immortality, and even rewards and penalties in the after-life. Some also talk vaguely, as a pantheist might, of a sublime being or essence pervading all nature, too vast and ethereal to be personified or addressed in prayer, identified with thetenka, "heavens," from which all things emanate, to which all return. Yet, although a personal deity seems thus excluded, there are Shinto temples, apparently for the worship of the heavenly bodies and powers of nature, conceived as self-existing personalities—the so-calledKami, "spirits," "gods," of which there are "eight millions," that is, they are countless.

Buddhism.

One cannot but suspect that some of these notions have been grafted on the old national faith by Buddhism, which was introduced about 550A.D.and for a time had great vogue. It was encouraged especially by the Shoguns, or military usurpers of the Mikado's[669]functions, obviously as a set-off against the Shinto theocracy. During their tenure of power (1192-1868A.D.) the land was covered with Buddhist shrines and temples, some of vast size and quaint design, filled with hideous idols, huge bells, and colossal statues of Buddha.

But with the fall of the Shogun the little prestige still enjoyed by Buddhism came to an end, and the temples, spoiled of their treasures, have more than ever become the resort of pleasure-seekers rather than of pious worshippers. "To all the larger temples are attached regular spectacles, playhouses, panoramas, besides lotteries, games of various sorts, including the famous 'fan-throwing,' and shooting-galleries, where the bow and arrow and the blow-pipe take the place of the rifle.The accumulated treasures of the priests have been confiscated, the monks driven from their monasteries, and many of these buildings converted into profane uses. Countless temple bells have already found their way to America, or have been sold for old metal[670]."

Besides these forms of belief, there is a third religious, or rather philosophic system, the so-calledSiza, based on the ethical teachings of Confucius, a sort of refined materialism, such as underlies the whole religious thought of the nation. Siza, always confined to theliterati, has in recent years found a formidable rival in the "English Philosophy," represented by such writers as Buckle, Mill, Herbert Spencer, Darwin, and Huxley, most of whose works have already been translated into Japanese.

Thus this highly gifted people are being assimilated to the western world in their social and religious, as well as their political institutions. Their intellectual powers, already tested in the fields of war, science, diplomacy, and self-government, are certainly superior to those of all other Asiatic peoples, and this is perhaps the best guarantee for the stability of the stupendous transformation that a single generation has witnessed from an exaggerated form of medieval feudalism to a political and social system in harmony with the most advanced phases of modern thought. The system has doubtless not yet penetrated to the lower strata, especially amongst the rural populations. But their natural receptivity, combined with a singular freedom from "insular prejudice," must ensure the ultimate acceptance of the new order by all classes of the community.

FOOTNOTES:[569]As fully explained inEth.p. 303.[570]Mark Aurel Stein,Sand-buried Cities of Khotan, 1903, andGeog. Journ., July, Sept. 1909.[571]R. Pumpelly,Explorations in Turkestan, 1905, andExplorations in Turkestan; Expedition of 1904, 1908.[572]Sven Hedin,Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902, 1906, andGeog. Journ., April, 1909.[573]Douglas Carruthers,Unknown Mongolia, 1913 (with bibliography).[574]Ellsworth Huntington,The Pulse of Asia, 1910.[575]"The Asiatic Background,"Cambridge Medieval History, Vol.I.1911.[576]Mémoires de la Délégation en Perse; Recherches archéologiques(from 1899).[577]Sand-buried Cities of Khotan, 1903.[578]"Ueber Alte Grabstätten in Sibirien und der Mongolei," inMitt. d. Anthrop. Ges., Vienna, 1895,xxv.9.[579]Th. Volkov, inL'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 82.[580]Too much stress must not, however, be laid upon the theory of gradual desiccation as a factor in depopulation. There are many causes such as earthquake, water-spouts, shifting of currents, neglect of irrigation and, above all, the work of enemies to account for the sand-buried ruins of populous cities in Central Asia. See T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background,"Cambridge Medieval History, Vol.I.1911, p. 326.[581]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1895, p. 318 sq.[582]Cf.Archæologia Cambrensis, 6th Ser.XIV.Part 1, 1914, p. 131, andZeitschr. f. Ethnol.1910, p. 601.[583]"Zur Prähistorik Japans,"Globus, 1896, No. 10.[584]The best account of the archaeology of Japan will be found inPrehistoric Japan, by N. G. Munro, 1912.[585]Die Bronzezeit Finnlands, Helsingfors, 1897.[586]"Akkadian," first applied by Rawlinson to the non-Semitic texts found at Nineveh, is still often used by English writers in place of the more correctSumerian, the Akkadians being now shown to be Semitic immigrants into Northern Babylonia (p. 264).[587]Cf. L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, pp. 5, 6.[588]Ueber die Summerische Sprache, Paper read at the Russian Archaeological Congress, Riga, 1896.[589]"Sumer and Sumerian,"Ency. Brit.1911, with references.[590]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 404.[591]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 406. L. W. King (History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910) discusses Meyer's arguments and points out that the earliest Sumerian gods appear to be free from Semitic influence (p. 51). He is inclined, however, to regard the Sumerians as displacing an earlier Semitic people (Hutchinson'sHistory of the Nations, 1914, pp. 221 and 229).[592]Ellsworth Huntington,The Pulse of Asia, 1910, p. 382.[593]L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, p. 357.[594]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 463.[595]L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, p. 61, and the article, "Chronology. Babylonia and Assyria,"Ency. Brit.1911. Cf. also E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, §§ 329 and 383.[596]The cylinder-seals and tablets of Fara, excavated by Koldewey, Andrae and Noeldeke in 1902-3 may go back to 3400B.C.Cf. L. W. King,loc. cit.p. 65.[597]C. H. W. Johns,Ancient Babylonia, 1913, regards Sharrukin as "Sargon of Akkad," p. 39.[598]L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, pp. 234, 343, where the seal is referred to a period not much earlier than the First Dynasty of Babylon.[599]H. V. Hilprecht,The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, Series D, Vol. v. 1. 1910.[600]SeeThe Times, June 24, 1914.[601]"Babylonia and Elam Four Thousand Years Ago," inKnowledge, May 1, 1896, p. 116 sq. and elsewhere.[602]The term "Elam" is said to have the same meaning as "Akkad" (i.e.Highland) in contradistinction to "Sumer" (Lowland). It should be noted that neither Akkad nor Sumer occurs in the oldest texts, where Akkad is calledKishfrom the name of its capital, and SumerKiengi(Kengi), probably a general name meaning "the land." Kish has been identified with the Kush of Gen. x., one of the best abused words in Palethnology. For this identification, however, there is some ground, seeing that Kush is mentioned in the closest connection with "Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar" (Mesopotamia)v.10.[603]J. de Morgan,Mémoires de la Délégation en Perse, 1899-1906.[604]S. Laing,Human Origins, p. 74.[605]And it has remained so ever since, the present Lur and Bakhtiari inhabitants of Susiana speaking, not the standard Neo-Persian, but dialects of the ruder Kurdish branch of the Iranian family, as if they had been Aryanised from Media, the capital of which was Ekbatana. We have here, perhaps, a clue to the origin of the Medes themselves, who were certainly the above-mentioned Mandas of Nabonidus, their capital being also the same Ekbatana. Now Sayce (Academy, Sept. 7, 1895, p. 189) identified the Kimmerians with these Manda nomads, whose king Tukdammé (Tugdammé) was the Lygdanis of Strabo (I. 3, 16), who led a horde of Kimmerians into Lydia and captured Sardis. We know from Esarhaddon's inscriptions that by the Assyrians these Kimmerians were called Manda, their prince Teupsa (Teispe) being described as "of the people of the Manda." An oracle given to Esar-haddon begins: "The Kimmerian in the mountains has set fire in the land of Ellip,"i.e.the land where Ekbatana was afterwards founded, which is now shown to have already been occupied by the Kimmerian or Manda hordes. It follows that Kimmerians, Mandas, Medes with their modern Kurd and Bakhtiari representatives, were all one people, who were almost certainly of Aryan speech, if not actually of proto-Aryan stock. "The Kurds are the descendants of Aryan invaders and have maintained their type and their language for more than 3300 years," F. v. Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLI.1911, p. 230. For a classification of Kurds see Mark Sykes, "The Kurdish Tribes of the Ottoman Empire,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVIII.1908, p. 451. Cf. also D. G. Hogarth,The Nearer East, 1902.[606]C. H. W. Johns,Ancient Babylonia, 1913, p. 27.[607]Cf. H. Zimmern, article "Babylonians and Assyrians,"Ency. Religion and Ethics, 1909.[608]G. Maspero,Dawn of Civilisation, p. 733.[609]Ibid.p. 71.[610]Ibid.p. 752.[611]Vorgeschichte, etc., BookII.passim.[612]Geschichte Babyloniens u. Assyriens.[613]G. Maspero,The Struggle of the Nations, Egypt, Syria and Assyria, 1910.[614]It is noteworthy thatDalai, "Ocean," is itself a Mongol word, thoughLama, "Priest," is Tibetan. The explanation is that in the thirteenth century a local incarnation of Buddha was raised by the then dominant Mongols to the first rank, and this title ofDalai Lama, the "Ocean Priest,"i.e.the Priest of fathomless wisdom, was bestowed on one of his successors in the sixteenth century, and still retained by the High Pontiff at Lhasa.[615]Aboriginal Siberia, 1914, p. 13.[616]Loc. cit.pp. 18-21.[617]Either from the ChineseTunghu, "Eastern Barbarians," or from the TurkiTinghiz, as in Isaac Massa:per interpretes se Tingoesi vocari dixerunt(Descriptio, etc., Amsterdam, 1612). But there is no collective national name, and at present they call themselvesDon-ki,Boía,Boíe, etc., terms all meaning "Men," "People." In the Chinese records they are referred to under the name ofI-luso early as 263A.D., when they dwelt in the forest region between the Upper Temen and Yalu rivers on the one hand and the Pacific Ocean on the other, and paid tribute in kind—sable furs, bows, and stone arrow-heads. Arrows and stone arrow-heads were also the tribute paid to the emperors of the Shang dynasty (1766-1154B.C.) by theSu-shen, who dwelt north of the Liao-tung peninsula, so that we have here official proof of a Stone Age of long duration in Manchuria. Later, the Chinese chronicles mention theU-kiorMo-ho, a warlike people of the Sungari valley and surrounding uplands, who in the 7th century founded the kingdom ofPu-haī, overthrown in 925 by the Khitans of the Lower Sungari below its Noni confluence, who were themselves Tunguses and according to some Chinese authorities the direct ancestors of the Manchus.[618]"C'est la tendance de la tête à se développer en hauteur, juste en sens inverse de l'aplatissement vertical du Mongol. La tête du Turc est donc à la fois plus haute et plus courte" (L'Anthropologie,VI.3, p. 8).[619]Reclus,VI.; Eng. ed. p. 360.[620]V. M. Mikhailovskii,Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia, translated by Oliver Wardrop,Journ. Anthr. Inst.1895, p. 91.[621]M. A. Czaplicka,Aboriginal Siberia, 1914. PartIII.discusses Shamanism, pp. 166-255.[622]Hakluyt, 1809 ed.,I. p. 317 sq.[623]Quoted by Mikhailovskii, p. 144.[624]Cf. H. A. Giles,China and the Manchus, 1912.[625]Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, 1853,I. 162.[626]Through Siberia, 1882, Vol.II.p. 172.[627]European visitors often notice with surprise the fine physique of these natives, many of whom average nearly six feet in height. But there is an extraordinary disparity between the two sexes, perhaps greater than in any other country. The much smaller stature and feebler constitution of the women is no doubt due to the detestable custom of crippling the feet in childhood, thereby depriving them of natural exercise during the period of growth. It may be noted that the anti-foot-bandaging movement is making progress throughout China, the object being to abolish the cruel practice by making thekin lien("golden lilies") unfashionable, and theti mien, the "heavenly feet,"—i.e.the natural—popular in their stead.[628]H. Lansdell,Through Siberia, 1882,II.p. 172.[629]De l'Harmonie des Voyelles dans les Langues Uralo-Altaïques, 1874, p. 67 sq.[630]General Principles of the Structure of Language, 1885, Vol.I.p. 357. The evidence here chiefly relied upon is that afforded by the Yakutic, a pure Turki idiom, which is spoken in the region of extremest heat and cold (Middle and Lower Lena basin), and in which the principle of progressive assonance attains its greatest development.[631]Explained and illustrated by General Krahmer inGlobus, 1896, p. 208 sq.[632]H. Lansdell,Through Siberia, 1882,I.p. 299.[633]"Ueber die Sprache der Jukagiren," inMélanges Asiatiques, 1859,III.p. 595 sq.[634]W. I. Jochelson recently discovered two independent Yukaghir dialects. "Essay on the Grammar of the Yukaghir Language,"Annals N. Y. Ac. Sc.1905;The Yukaghir and the Yukaghirized Tungus.Memoir of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol.IX.1910. For the Koryak see his monograph in the same series, Vol.VI.1905-8.[635]Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski.[636]"Ueber die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe verwandten Tchouktchen,"in Bul. Acad. Sc., St Petersburg,XII.p. 99.[637]Peschel,Races of Man, p. 391, who says the Chukchi are "as closely related to the Itelmes in speech as are Spaniards to Portuguese."[638]Petermann's Mitt.Vol. 25, 1879, p. 138.[639]"The Girl and the Dogs, an Eskimo Folk-tale,"Amer. Anthropologist, June 1898, p. 181 sq.[640]Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering Strait, 1898.[641]Cf. W. Bogoras,The Chukchee, Memoir of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol.VII.1904-10[642]This, however, applies only to the fishing Koryaks, for G. Kennan speaks highly of the domestic virtues, hospitality, and other good qualities of the nomad groups (Tent Life in Siberia, 1871).[643]See L. Sternberg,The Tribes of the Amur River, Memoirs of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol.IV.1900.[644]Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc.XX.Supplement, Moscow, 1877.[645]"Scheinen grosse Aenlichkeit in Sprache, Gesichtsbildung und Sitten mit den Aino zu haben" (Ueber die Aino, Berlin, 1881, p. 12).[646]Through Siberia, 1882,II.p. 227.[647]Ibid.p. 235.[648]Ibid.p. 221.[649]L'Anthropologie,VI.No. 3.[650]Bul. du Muséum d'Hist. Nat.1896, No. 4. All the skulls were brachy or sub-brachy, varying from 81 to 83.8 and 84.8. The author remarks generally that "photographes et crânes diffèrent, du tout au tout, des choses similaires venues jusqu'à présent de Mongolie et de Chine, et font plutôt penser au Japon, à Formose, et d'une manière plus générale à ce vaste ensemble de peuples maritimes que Lesson désignait jadis sous le nom de 'Mongols-pélasgiens,'" p. 3.[651]On this juxtaposition of the yellow and blond types in Korea V. de Saint-Martin's language is highly significative: "Cette dualité de type, un type tout à fait caucasique à côté du type mongol, est un fait commun à toute la ceinture d'îles qui couvre les côtes orientales de l'Asie, depuis les Kouriles jusqu'à Formose, et même jusqu'à la zone orientale de l'Indo-Chine" (Art. Corée, p. 800).[652]FromKoraï, in JapaneseKome(ChineseKaoli), name of a petty state, which enjoyed political predominance in the peninsula for about 500 years (tenth to fourteenth centuryA.D.). An older designation still in official use isTsio-sien, that is, the ChineseChao-sien, "Bright Dawn" (Klaproth,Asia Polyglotta, p. 334 sq.).[653]This stupendous work, on which about 1,000,000 hands are said to have been engaged for five years, possesses great ethnical as well as political importance. Running for over 1500 miles across hills, valleys, and rivers along the northern frontier of China proper, it long arrested the southern movements of the restless Mongolo-Turki hordes, and thus gave a westerly direction to their incursions many centuries before the great invasions of Jenghiz-Khan and his successors. It is strange to reflect that the ethnological relations were thus profoundly disturbed throughout the eastern hemisphere by the work of a ruthless despot who reigned only twelve years, and in that time waged war against all the best traditions of the empire, destroying the books of Confucius and the other sages, and burying alive 460 men of letters for their efforts to rescue those writings from total extinction.[654]Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud de l'Hindou-Kouch, 1896, p. 25. This writer does not think that the Usuns should be identified with the tall race of horse-like face, large nose, and deep-set eyes mentioned in the early Chinese records, because no reference is made to "blue eyes," which would not have been omitted had they existed. But, if I remember, "green eyes" are spoken of, and we know that none of the early writers use colour terms with strict accuracy.[655]I have not thought it desirable to touch on the interminable controversy respecting the ethnical relations of the Hiung-nu, regarding them, not as a distinct ethnical group, but like the Huns, their later western representatives, as a heterogeneous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki, and perhaps even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste. At the same time I have little doubt that Mongolo-Tungus elements greatly predominated in the eastern regions (Mongolia proper, Manchuria) both amongst the Hiung-nu and their Yuan-yuan (Sien-pi) successors, and that all the founders of the first great empires prior to that of the Turki Assena in the Altai region (sixth centuryA.D.) were full-blood Mongols, as indeed recognised by Jenghiz-Khan himself. For the migrations of these and neighbouring peoples, consult A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, pp. 16 and 28.[656]On the authority of the Wei-Shu documents contained in the Wei-Chī, E. H. Parker gives (in theChina ReviewandA Thousand Years of the Tartars, Shanghai, 1895) the dates 386-556A.D.as the period covered by the "Sien-pi Tartar dynasty of Wei." This is not to be confused with the Chinese dynasty of Wei (224-264, or according to Kwong Ki-Chiu 234-274A.D.). The term "Tartar" (Ta-Ta), it may be explained, is used by Parker, as well as by the Chinese historians generally, in a somewhat wide sense, so as to include all the nomad populations north of the Great Wall, whether of Tungus (Manchu), Mongol, or even Turki stock. The original tribes bearing the name were Mongols, and Jenghiz-Khan himself was a Tata on his mother's side.[657]Mrs Bishop,Korea and Her Neighbours, 1898.[658]T. de Lacouperie says on "a Tibeto-Indian base" (Beginnings of Writing in Central and Eastern Asia, 1894, p. 148); and E. H. Parker: "It is demonstrable that the Korean letters are an adaptation from the Sanskrit,"i.e.the Devanagari (Academy, Dec. 21, 1895, p. 550).[659]See p. 261. Also Koganei, "Ueber die Urbewohner von Japan,"Mitt. d. Deutsch. Gesell. f. Natur- u. Völkerkunde Ostasiens,IX.3, 1903, containing an exhaustive review of recent literature, and N. G. Munro,Prehistoric Japan, 1912.[660]J. Deniker,Races of Man, 1900, pp. 371-2. See also J. Batchelor,The Ainu of Japan, 1892, and the article "Ainus" inEncy. of Religion and Ethics, 1908.[661]G. Baudens,Bul. Soc. Geogr.X.p. 419.[662]See especially E. Baelz, "Die körperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner," inMitt. der Deutsch. Gesell. f. Natur- u. Völkerkunde Ostasiens, 28 and 32.[663]Cruise of the Marchesa, 1886,I.p. 36.[664]Geogr. Journ.1895,II.p. 318.[665]Geogr. Journ.1895,II.p. 460.[666]Journ. Anthrop. Soc.1897, p. 47 sq.[667]Ibid.p. 58.[668]Ripley and Dana,Amer. Cyc.IX.538.[669]ShogunfromSho= general, andgún= army, hence Commander-in-chief;Mikadofrommi= sublime, andkado= gate, with which cf. the "Sublime Porte" (J. J. Rein,Japan nach Reisen u. Studien,1881,I.p. 245). But Mikado has become somewhat antiquated, being now generally replaced by the titleKotei,"Emperor."[670]Keane'sAsia,I.p. 487.

[569]As fully explained inEth.p. 303.

[570]Mark Aurel Stein,Sand-buried Cities of Khotan, 1903, andGeog. Journ., July, Sept. 1909.

[571]R. Pumpelly,Explorations in Turkestan, 1905, andExplorations in Turkestan; Expedition of 1904, 1908.

[572]Sven Hedin,Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902, 1906, andGeog. Journ., April, 1909.

[573]Douglas Carruthers,Unknown Mongolia, 1913 (with bibliography).

[574]Ellsworth Huntington,The Pulse of Asia, 1910.

[575]"The Asiatic Background,"Cambridge Medieval History, Vol.I.1911.

[576]Mémoires de la Délégation en Perse; Recherches archéologiques(from 1899).

[577]Sand-buried Cities of Khotan, 1903.

[578]"Ueber Alte Grabstätten in Sibirien und der Mongolei," inMitt. d. Anthrop. Ges., Vienna, 1895,xxv.9.

[579]Th. Volkov, inL'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 82.

[580]Too much stress must not, however, be laid upon the theory of gradual desiccation as a factor in depopulation. There are many causes such as earthquake, water-spouts, shifting of currents, neglect of irrigation and, above all, the work of enemies to account for the sand-buried ruins of populous cities in Central Asia. See T. Peisker, "The Asiatic Background,"Cambridge Medieval History, Vol.I.1911, p. 326.

[581]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1895, p. 318 sq.

[582]Cf.Archæologia Cambrensis, 6th Ser.XIV.Part 1, 1914, p. 131, andZeitschr. f. Ethnol.1910, p. 601.

[583]"Zur Prähistorik Japans,"Globus, 1896, No. 10.

[584]The best account of the archaeology of Japan will be found inPrehistoric Japan, by N. G. Munro, 1912.

[585]Die Bronzezeit Finnlands, Helsingfors, 1897.

[586]"Akkadian," first applied by Rawlinson to the non-Semitic texts found at Nineveh, is still often used by English writers in place of the more correctSumerian, the Akkadians being now shown to be Semitic immigrants into Northern Babylonia (p. 264).

[587]Cf. L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, pp. 5, 6.

[588]Ueber die Summerische Sprache, Paper read at the Russian Archaeological Congress, Riga, 1896.

[589]"Sumer and Sumerian,"Ency. Brit.1911, with references.

[590]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 404.

[591]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 406. L. W. King (History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910) discusses Meyer's arguments and points out that the earliest Sumerian gods appear to be free from Semitic influence (p. 51). He is inclined, however, to regard the Sumerians as displacing an earlier Semitic people (Hutchinson'sHistory of the Nations, 1914, pp. 221 and 229).

[592]Ellsworth Huntington,The Pulse of Asia, 1910, p. 382.

[593]L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, p. 357.

[594]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, p. 463.

[595]L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, p. 61, and the article, "Chronology. Babylonia and Assyria,"Ency. Brit.1911. Cf. also E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 2nd ed. 1909, §§ 329 and 383.

[596]The cylinder-seals and tablets of Fara, excavated by Koldewey, Andrae and Noeldeke in 1902-3 may go back to 3400B.C.Cf. L. W. King,loc. cit.p. 65.

[597]C. H. W. Johns,Ancient Babylonia, 1913, regards Sharrukin as "Sargon of Akkad," p. 39.

[598]L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, pp. 234, 343, where the seal is referred to a period not much earlier than the First Dynasty of Babylon.

[599]H. V. Hilprecht,The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, Series D, Vol. v. 1. 1910.

[600]SeeThe Times, June 24, 1914.

[601]"Babylonia and Elam Four Thousand Years Ago," inKnowledge, May 1, 1896, p. 116 sq. and elsewhere.

[602]The term "Elam" is said to have the same meaning as "Akkad" (i.e.Highland) in contradistinction to "Sumer" (Lowland). It should be noted that neither Akkad nor Sumer occurs in the oldest texts, where Akkad is calledKishfrom the name of its capital, and SumerKiengi(Kengi), probably a general name meaning "the land." Kish has been identified with the Kush of Gen. x., one of the best abused words in Palethnology. For this identification, however, there is some ground, seeing that Kush is mentioned in the closest connection with "Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar" (Mesopotamia)v.10.

[603]J. de Morgan,Mémoires de la Délégation en Perse, 1899-1906.

[604]S. Laing,Human Origins, p. 74.

[605]And it has remained so ever since, the present Lur and Bakhtiari inhabitants of Susiana speaking, not the standard Neo-Persian, but dialects of the ruder Kurdish branch of the Iranian family, as if they had been Aryanised from Media, the capital of which was Ekbatana. We have here, perhaps, a clue to the origin of the Medes themselves, who were certainly the above-mentioned Mandas of Nabonidus, their capital being also the same Ekbatana. Now Sayce (Academy, Sept. 7, 1895, p. 189) identified the Kimmerians with these Manda nomads, whose king Tukdammé (Tugdammé) was the Lygdanis of Strabo (I. 3, 16), who led a horde of Kimmerians into Lydia and captured Sardis. We know from Esarhaddon's inscriptions that by the Assyrians these Kimmerians were called Manda, their prince Teupsa (Teispe) being described as "of the people of the Manda." An oracle given to Esar-haddon begins: "The Kimmerian in the mountains has set fire in the land of Ellip,"i.e.the land where Ekbatana was afterwards founded, which is now shown to have already been occupied by the Kimmerian or Manda hordes. It follows that Kimmerians, Mandas, Medes with their modern Kurd and Bakhtiari representatives, were all one people, who were almost certainly of Aryan speech, if not actually of proto-Aryan stock. "The Kurds are the descendants of Aryan invaders and have maintained their type and their language for more than 3300 years," F. v. Luschan, "The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLI.1911, p. 230. For a classification of Kurds see Mark Sykes, "The Kurdish Tribes of the Ottoman Empire,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVIII.1908, p. 451. Cf. also D. G. Hogarth,The Nearer East, 1902.

[606]C. H. W. Johns,Ancient Babylonia, 1913, p. 27.

[607]Cf. H. Zimmern, article "Babylonians and Assyrians,"Ency. Religion and Ethics, 1909.

[608]G. Maspero,Dawn of Civilisation, p. 733.

[609]Ibid.p. 71.

[610]Ibid.p. 752.

[611]Vorgeschichte, etc., BookII.passim.

[612]Geschichte Babyloniens u. Assyriens.

[613]G. Maspero,The Struggle of the Nations, Egypt, Syria and Assyria, 1910.

[614]It is noteworthy thatDalai, "Ocean," is itself a Mongol word, thoughLama, "Priest," is Tibetan. The explanation is that in the thirteenth century a local incarnation of Buddha was raised by the then dominant Mongols to the first rank, and this title ofDalai Lama, the "Ocean Priest,"i.e.the Priest of fathomless wisdom, was bestowed on one of his successors in the sixteenth century, and still retained by the High Pontiff at Lhasa.

[615]Aboriginal Siberia, 1914, p. 13.

[616]Loc. cit.pp. 18-21.

[617]Either from the ChineseTunghu, "Eastern Barbarians," or from the TurkiTinghiz, as in Isaac Massa:per interpretes se Tingoesi vocari dixerunt(Descriptio, etc., Amsterdam, 1612). But there is no collective national name, and at present they call themselvesDon-ki,Boía,Boíe, etc., terms all meaning "Men," "People." In the Chinese records they are referred to under the name ofI-luso early as 263A.D., when they dwelt in the forest region between the Upper Temen and Yalu rivers on the one hand and the Pacific Ocean on the other, and paid tribute in kind—sable furs, bows, and stone arrow-heads. Arrows and stone arrow-heads were also the tribute paid to the emperors of the Shang dynasty (1766-1154B.C.) by theSu-shen, who dwelt north of the Liao-tung peninsula, so that we have here official proof of a Stone Age of long duration in Manchuria. Later, the Chinese chronicles mention theU-kiorMo-ho, a warlike people of the Sungari valley and surrounding uplands, who in the 7th century founded the kingdom ofPu-haī, overthrown in 925 by the Khitans of the Lower Sungari below its Noni confluence, who were themselves Tunguses and according to some Chinese authorities the direct ancestors of the Manchus.

[618]"C'est la tendance de la tête à se développer en hauteur, juste en sens inverse de l'aplatissement vertical du Mongol. La tête du Turc est donc à la fois plus haute et plus courte" (L'Anthropologie,VI.3, p. 8).

[619]Reclus,VI.; Eng. ed. p. 360.

[620]V. M. Mikhailovskii,Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia, translated by Oliver Wardrop,Journ. Anthr. Inst.1895, p. 91.

[621]M. A. Czaplicka,Aboriginal Siberia, 1914. PartIII.discusses Shamanism, pp. 166-255.

[622]Hakluyt, 1809 ed.,I. p. 317 sq.

[623]Quoted by Mikhailovskii, p. 144.

[624]Cf. H. A. Giles,China and the Manchus, 1912.

[625]Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, 1853,I. 162.

[626]Through Siberia, 1882, Vol.II.p. 172.

[627]European visitors often notice with surprise the fine physique of these natives, many of whom average nearly six feet in height. But there is an extraordinary disparity between the two sexes, perhaps greater than in any other country. The much smaller stature and feebler constitution of the women is no doubt due to the detestable custom of crippling the feet in childhood, thereby depriving them of natural exercise during the period of growth. It may be noted that the anti-foot-bandaging movement is making progress throughout China, the object being to abolish the cruel practice by making thekin lien("golden lilies") unfashionable, and theti mien, the "heavenly feet,"—i.e.the natural—popular in their stead.

[628]H. Lansdell,Through Siberia, 1882,II.p. 172.

[629]De l'Harmonie des Voyelles dans les Langues Uralo-Altaïques, 1874, p. 67 sq.

[630]General Principles of the Structure of Language, 1885, Vol.I.p. 357. The evidence here chiefly relied upon is that afforded by the Yakutic, a pure Turki idiom, which is spoken in the region of extremest heat and cold (Middle and Lower Lena basin), and in which the principle of progressive assonance attains its greatest development.

[631]Explained and illustrated by General Krahmer inGlobus, 1896, p. 208 sq.

[632]H. Lansdell,Through Siberia, 1882,I.p. 299.

[633]"Ueber die Sprache der Jukagiren," inMélanges Asiatiques, 1859,III.p. 595 sq.

[634]W. I. Jochelson recently discovered two independent Yukaghir dialects. "Essay on the Grammar of the Yukaghir Language,"Annals N. Y. Ac. Sc.1905;The Yukaghir and the Yukaghirized Tungus.Memoir of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol.IX.1910. For the Koryak see his monograph in the same series, Vol.VI.1905-8.

[635]Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski.

[636]"Ueber die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe verwandten Tchouktchen,"in Bul. Acad. Sc., St Petersburg,XII.p. 99.

[637]Peschel,Races of Man, p. 391, who says the Chukchi are "as closely related to the Itelmes in speech as are Spaniards to Portuguese."

[638]Petermann's Mitt.Vol. 25, 1879, p. 138.

[639]"The Girl and the Dogs, an Eskimo Folk-tale,"Amer. Anthropologist, June 1898, p. 181 sq.

[640]Through the Gold Fields of Alaska to Bering Strait, 1898.

[641]Cf. W. Bogoras,The Chukchee, Memoir of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol.VII.1904-10

[642]This, however, applies only to the fishing Koryaks, for G. Kennan speaks highly of the domestic virtues, hospitality, and other good qualities of the nomad groups (Tent Life in Siberia, 1871).

[643]See L. Sternberg,The Tribes of the Amur River, Memoirs of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Vol.IV.1900.

[644]Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc.XX.Supplement, Moscow, 1877.

[645]"Scheinen grosse Aenlichkeit in Sprache, Gesichtsbildung und Sitten mit den Aino zu haben" (Ueber die Aino, Berlin, 1881, p. 12).

[646]Through Siberia, 1882,II.p. 227.

[647]Ibid.p. 235.

[648]Ibid.p. 221.

[649]L'Anthropologie,VI.No. 3.

[650]Bul. du Muséum d'Hist. Nat.1896, No. 4. All the skulls were brachy or sub-brachy, varying from 81 to 83.8 and 84.8. The author remarks generally that "photographes et crânes diffèrent, du tout au tout, des choses similaires venues jusqu'à présent de Mongolie et de Chine, et font plutôt penser au Japon, à Formose, et d'une manière plus générale à ce vaste ensemble de peuples maritimes que Lesson désignait jadis sous le nom de 'Mongols-pélasgiens,'" p. 3.

[651]On this juxtaposition of the yellow and blond types in Korea V. de Saint-Martin's language is highly significative: "Cette dualité de type, un type tout à fait caucasique à côté du type mongol, est un fait commun à toute la ceinture d'îles qui couvre les côtes orientales de l'Asie, depuis les Kouriles jusqu'à Formose, et même jusqu'à la zone orientale de l'Indo-Chine" (Art. Corée, p. 800).

[652]FromKoraï, in JapaneseKome(ChineseKaoli), name of a petty state, which enjoyed political predominance in the peninsula for about 500 years (tenth to fourteenth centuryA.D.). An older designation still in official use isTsio-sien, that is, the ChineseChao-sien, "Bright Dawn" (Klaproth,Asia Polyglotta, p. 334 sq.).

[653]This stupendous work, on which about 1,000,000 hands are said to have been engaged for five years, possesses great ethnical as well as political importance. Running for over 1500 miles across hills, valleys, and rivers along the northern frontier of China proper, it long arrested the southern movements of the restless Mongolo-Turki hordes, and thus gave a westerly direction to their incursions many centuries before the great invasions of Jenghiz-Khan and his successors. It is strange to reflect that the ethnological relations were thus profoundly disturbed throughout the eastern hemisphere by the work of a ruthless despot who reigned only twelve years, and in that time waged war against all the best traditions of the empire, destroying the books of Confucius and the other sages, and burying alive 460 men of letters for their efforts to rescue those writings from total extinction.

[654]Les Aryens au Nord et au Sud de l'Hindou-Kouch, 1896, p. 25. This writer does not think that the Usuns should be identified with the tall race of horse-like face, large nose, and deep-set eyes mentioned in the early Chinese records, because no reference is made to "blue eyes," which would not have been omitted had they existed. But, if I remember, "green eyes" are spoken of, and we know that none of the early writers use colour terms with strict accuracy.

[655]I have not thought it desirable to touch on the interminable controversy respecting the ethnical relations of the Hiung-nu, regarding them, not as a distinct ethnical group, but like the Huns, their later western representatives, as a heterogeneous collection of Mongol, Tungus, Turki, and perhaps even Finnish hordes under a Mongol military caste. At the same time I have little doubt that Mongolo-Tungus elements greatly predominated in the eastern regions (Mongolia proper, Manchuria) both amongst the Hiung-nu and their Yuan-yuan (Sien-pi) successors, and that all the founders of the first great empires prior to that of the Turki Assena in the Altai region (sixth centuryA.D.) were full-blood Mongols, as indeed recognised by Jenghiz-Khan himself. For the migrations of these and neighbouring peoples, consult A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, pp. 16 and 28.

[656]On the authority of the Wei-Shu documents contained in the Wei-Chī, E. H. Parker gives (in theChina ReviewandA Thousand Years of the Tartars, Shanghai, 1895) the dates 386-556A.D.as the period covered by the "Sien-pi Tartar dynasty of Wei." This is not to be confused with the Chinese dynasty of Wei (224-264, or according to Kwong Ki-Chiu 234-274A.D.). The term "Tartar" (Ta-Ta), it may be explained, is used by Parker, as well as by the Chinese historians generally, in a somewhat wide sense, so as to include all the nomad populations north of the Great Wall, whether of Tungus (Manchu), Mongol, or even Turki stock. The original tribes bearing the name were Mongols, and Jenghiz-Khan himself was a Tata on his mother's side.

[657]Mrs Bishop,Korea and Her Neighbours, 1898.

[658]T. de Lacouperie says on "a Tibeto-Indian base" (Beginnings of Writing in Central and Eastern Asia, 1894, p. 148); and E. H. Parker: "It is demonstrable that the Korean letters are an adaptation from the Sanskrit,"i.e.the Devanagari (Academy, Dec. 21, 1895, p. 550).

[659]See p. 261. Also Koganei, "Ueber die Urbewohner von Japan,"Mitt. d. Deutsch. Gesell. f. Natur- u. Völkerkunde Ostasiens,IX.3, 1903, containing an exhaustive review of recent literature, and N. G. Munro,Prehistoric Japan, 1912.

[660]J. Deniker,Races of Man, 1900, pp. 371-2. See also J. Batchelor,The Ainu of Japan, 1892, and the article "Ainus" inEncy. of Religion and Ethics, 1908.

[661]G. Baudens,Bul. Soc. Geogr.X.p. 419.

[662]See especially E. Baelz, "Die körperlichen Eigenschaften der Japaner," inMitt. der Deutsch. Gesell. f. Natur- u. Völkerkunde Ostasiens, 28 and 32.

[663]Cruise of the Marchesa, 1886,I.p. 36.

[664]Geogr. Journ.1895,II.p. 318.

[665]Geogr. Journ.1895,II.p. 460.

[666]Journ. Anthrop. Soc.1897, p. 47 sq.

[667]Ibid.p. 58.

[668]Ripley and Dana,Amer. Cyc.IX.538.

[669]ShogunfromSho= general, andgún= army, hence Commander-in-chief;Mikadofrommi= sublime, andkado= gate, with which cf. the "Sublime Porte" (J. J. Rein,Japan nach Reisen u. Studien,1881,I.p. 245). But Mikado has become somewhat antiquated, being now generally replaced by the titleKotei,"Emperor."

[670]Keane'sAsia,I.p. 487.

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