FOOTNOTES:

The Egyptian Hamites.

It will be noticed that the Tibu domain, with the now absolutely impassable Libyan desert[1117], almost completely separates the Mediterranean branch from the Hamites proper. Continuity, however, is accorded, both on the north along the shores of the Mediterranean to the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt), and on the south through Darfur and Kordofan to the White Nile, and thence down the main stream to Upper Egypt, and through Abyssinia, Galla and Somali lands to the Indian Ocean. Between the Nile and the east coast the domain of the Hamites stretches from the equator northwards to Egypt and the Mediterranean.

It appears therefore that Egypt, occupied for many thousands of years by an admittedly Hamitic people, might have been reached either from the west by the Mediterranean route, or down the Nile, or, lastly, it maybe suggested that the Hamites were specialised in the Nile valley itself. The point is not easy to decide, because, when appeal is made to the evidence of the Stone Ages, we find nothing to choose between such widely separated regions as Somaliland, Upper Egypt, and Mauretania, all of which have yielded superabundant proofs of the presence of man for incalculable ages, estimated bysome palethnologists at several hundred thousand years. In Egypt the palaeoliths indicate not only extreme antiquity, but also that the course of civilisation was uninterrupted by any such crises as have afforded means of chronological classification in Western Europe. The differences in technique are local and geographical, not historic. The Neolithic period tells the same tale, and the use of copper at the beginning of the historic period only slowly replaced the flint industry, which continued during the earlier dynasties down to the period of the Middle Empire and attained a degree of perfection nowhere surpassed. Prehistoric pottery strengthens the evidence of a slow, gradual development, the newer forms nowhere jostling out the old, but co-existing side by side[1118].

Origins.

It might seem therefore that the question of Egyptian origins was settled by the mere statement of the case, and that there could be no hesitation in saying that the Egyptian Hamites were evolved on Egyptian soil, consequently are the true autochthones in the Nile valley. Yet there is no ethnological question more hotly discussed than this of Egyptian origins and culture, for the two seem inseparable. There are broadly speaking two schools: the African, whose fundamental views are thus briefly set forth, and the Asiatic, which brings the Egyptians with all their works from the neighbouring continent. But, seeing that the Egyptians are now admitted to be Hamites, that there are no Hamites to speak of (let it be frankly said, none at all) in Asia, and that they have for untold ages occupied large tracts of Africa, there are several members of the Asiatic school who allow that, not the people themselves, but their culture only came from western Asia (Mesopotamia). If so, this culture would presumably have its roots in the delta, which is first reached by the Isthmus of Suez from Asia, and spread thence, say, from Memphis up the Nile to Thebes and Upper Egypt, and here arises a difficulty. For at that time there was no delta[1119], or at least itwas only in process of formation, a kind of debatable region between land and water, inhabitable mainly by crocodiles, and utterly unsuited to become the seat of a culture whose characteristic features are huge stone monuments, amongst the largest ever erected by man, and consequently needing solid foundations onterra firma. It further appears that although Memphis is very old, Thebes is much older, in other words, that Egyptian culture began in Upper Egypt, and spread not up but down the Nile. On the other hand the Egyptians themselves looked upon the delta as the cradle of their civilisation, although no traces of material culture have survived, or could be expected to survive, in such a soil[1120]. Moreover it is not necessary to introduce Asiatic invaders by way of Lower Egypt. F. Stuhlmann postulates a land connection between Africa and Arabia, but even without this assumption he regards the Red Sea as affording no hindrance to early infiltrations[1121]. Flinders Petrie, while rejecting any considerable water transport for the uncultured prehistoric Egyptians (whom he derives from Libya), detects a succession of subsequent invasions from Asia, the dynastic race crossing the Red Sea to the neighbourhood of Koptos, and Syrian invasions leading to the civilisation of the Twelfth Dynasty, besides the later Hyksos invasions of Semito-Babylonian stock[1122].

Theory of Asiatic Origins.

The theory of Asiatic origins is clearly summed up by H. H. Johnston[1123]. He regards the earliest inhabitants of Egypt as a dwarfish Negro-like race, not unlike the Congo Pygmies of to-day (p. 375), with possibly some trace of Bushman (p. 378), but this population was displaced more than 15,000 years ago by Mediterranean man, who may have penetrated as far as Abyssinia, and may have been linguistically parent of the Fulah[1124]. The Fulah type was displaced by the invasions of the Hamites and the Libyans or Berbers. "The Hamites wereno doubt of common origin, linguistically and racially, with the Semites, and perhaps originated in that great breeding ground of conquering peoples, South-west Asia. They preceded the Semites, and (we may suppose) after a long stay and concentration in Mesopotamia invaded and colonised Arabia, Southern Palestine, Egypt, Abyssinia, Somaliland and North Africa to its Atlantic shores. The Dynastic Egyptians were also Hamites in a sense, both linguistically and physically; but they seem to have attained to a high civilisation in Western Arabia, to have crossed the Red Sea in vessels, and to have made their first base on the Egyptian coast near Berenice in the natural harbour formed by Ras Benas. From here a long, broad wadi or valley—then no doubt fertile—led them to the Nile in the Thebaid, the first seat of their kingly power[1125]. The ancestors of the Dynastic Egyptians may have originated the great dams and irrigation works in Western Arabia; and such long struggles with increasing drought may have first broken them in to the arts of quarrying stone blocks and building with stone. Over population and increasing drought may have caused them to migrate across the Red Sea in search of another home; or their migration may have been partly impelled by the Semitic hordes from the north, whom we can imagine at this period—some 9000 to 10,000 years ago—pressing southwards into Arabia and conquering or fusing with the preceding Hamites; just as these latter, no doubt, at an earlier day, had wrested Arabia from the domain of the Negroid and Dravidian" (p. 382).

Proto-Egyptian Type.

That the founding of the First Dynasty was coincident with a physical change in the population, is proved by the thousands of skeletons and mummies examined by Elliot Smith[1126], who regards the Pre-dynastic Egyptians as "probably the nearest approximation to that anthropological abstraction, a pure race, that we know of (p. 83)." He describes the type as follows (Chap.IV.).

The Proto-Egyptian (i.e.Pre-dynastic) was a man of small stature, his mean height, estimated at a little under 5 ft. 5 in., in the flesh for men, and almost 5 ft. in the case of women,being just about the average for mankind in general, whereas the modern Egyptianfellahaverages about 5 ft. 6 in. He was of very slender build with indications of poor muscular development. In fact there is a suggestion of effeminate grace and frailty about his bones, which is lacking in the more rugged outlines of the skeletons of his more virile successors. The hair of the Proto-Egyptian was precisely similar to that of the brunet South European or Iberian people of the present day. It was a very dark brown or black colour, wavy or almost straight and sometimes curly, never "woolly." There can be no doubt whatever that this dark hair was associated with dark eyes and a bronzed complexion. Elliot Smith emphatically endorses Sergi's identification of the ancient Egyptian as belonging to his Mediterranean Race. "So striking is the family likeness between the Early Neolithic peoples of the British Isles and the Mediterranean and the bulk of the population, both ancient and modern, of Egypt and East Africa, that a description of the bones of an early Briton might apply in all essential details to an inhabitant of Somaliland." But he points out also that there is an equally close relationship linking the Proto-Egyptians with the populations to the east, from the Red Sea as far as India, including Semites as well as Hamites. Rejecting the terms "Mediterranean" or "Hamite" as inadequate he would classify his Mediterranean-Hamite-Semite group as the "Brown Race[1127]."

A most fortunate combination of circumstances afforded Elliot Smith an opportunity for determining the ethnic affinities of the Egyptian people.

The Hearst Expedition of the University of California, under the direction of G. A. Reisner, was occupied from 1901 onwards with excavations at Naga-ed-Dêr in the Thebaid, where a cemetery, excavated by A. M. Lythgoe, contained well-preserved bodies and skeletons of the earliest known Pre-dynastic period. Close by was a series of graves of the First and Second Dynasties; a few hundred yards away tombs of the Second to the Fifth Dynasties (examined by A. C. Mace), with a large number of tombs ranging from the time of the Sixth Dynasty to the Twelfth. "Thus there was provided a chronologically unbroken series of human remains representing every epoch in the history of Upper Egypt from prehistoric times, roughly estimated at 4000B.C., up till the close of theMiddle Empire, more than two thousand years later." To complete the story Coptic (Christian Egyptian) graves of the fifth and sixth centuries were discovered on the same site.

"The study of this extraordinarily complete series of human remains, providing in a manner such as no other site has ever done the materials for the reconstruction of the racial history of one spot during more than forty-five centuries, made it abundantly clear that the people whose remains were buried just before the introduction of Islâm into Egypt were of the same flesh and blood as their forerunners in the same locality before the dawn of history. And nine years' experience in the Anatomical Department of the School of Medicine in Cairo," continues Elliot Smith, "has left me in no doubt that the bulk of the present population in Egypt conforms to precisely the same racial type, which has thus been dominant in the northern portion of the Valley of the Nile for sixty centuries[1128]."

Armenoid Type.

As early as the Second Dynasty certain alien traits began to appear, which became comparatively common in the Sixth to Twelfth series. The non-Egyptian characters are observable in remains from numerous sites excavated by Flinders Petrie in Lower and Middle Egypt, and are particularly marked in the cemetery round the Giza Pyramids (excavated by the Hearst Expedition, 1903), containing remains of more than five hundred individuals, who had lived at the time of the Pyramid-builders; they are therefore referred to by Elliot Smith as "Giza traits," and attributed to Armenoid influence. Soon after the amalgamation of the Egyptian kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt by Menes (Mena), consequent perhaps upon the discovery of copper and the invention of metal implements[1129], expeditions were sent beyond the frontiers of the United Kingdom to obtain copper ore, wood and other objects. Even in the times of the First Dynasty the Egyptians began the exploitation of the mines in the Sinai Peninsula for copper ore. It is claimed by Meyer[1130]that Palestine and the Phoenician coast were Egyptian dependencies, and there is ample evidence that there was intimate intercourse between Egypt and Palestine as far north as the Lebanons before the end of the Third Dynasty. From thistime forward the physical characters of the people of Lower Egypt show the results of foreign admixture, and present marked features of contrast to the pure type of Upper Egypt. The curious blending of characters suggests that the process of racial admixture took place in Syria rather than in Egypt itself[1131]. The alien type is best shown in the Giza necropolis, and its representatives may be regarded as the builders and guardians of the Pyramids. The stature is about the same as that of the Proto-Egyptians, possibly rather lower, but they were built on far sturdier lines, their bones being more massive, with well-developed muscular ridges and impressions, and none of the effeminacy or infantilism of the prehistoric skeletons. The brain-case has greater capacity with no trace of the meagre ill-filled character exhibited by the latter. Characteristic peculiarities were the "Grecian profile" and a jaw closely resembling those of the round-headed Alpine races.

These "Giza traits" were not a local development, for they have been noted in all parts of Palestine and Asia Minor, and abundantly in Persia and Afghanistan. They occur in the Punjab but are absent from India, having an area of greatest concentration in the neighbourhood of the Pamirs; while in a westerly direction, besides being sporadically scattered over North Africa, they are recognised again in the extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands. From these considerations Elliot Smith shapes the following "working hypothesis."

"The Egyptians, Arabs and Sumerians may have been kinsmen of the Brown Race, each diversely specialized by long residence in its own domain; and in Pre-dynastic times, before the wider usefulness of copper as a military instrument of tremendous power was realized, the Middle Pre-dynastic phase of culture became diffused far and wide throughout Arabia and Sumer. Then came the awakening to the knowledge of the supremacy which the possession of metal weapons conferred upon those who wielded them in combat against those not so armed. Upper Egypt vanquished Lower Egypt in virtue of this knowledge and the possession of such weapons. The United Kingdom pushed its way into Syria to obtain wood and ore, and incidentally taught the Arabs the value of metal weapons. The Arabs thereby obtained the supremacyover the Armenoids of Northern Syria, and the hybrid race of Semites formed from this blend were able to descend the Euphrates and vanquish the more cultured Sumerians, because the latter were without metal implements of war. The non-Semitic Armenoids of Asia Minor carried the new knowledge into Europe[1132]."

Asiatic influence on Egyptian Culture.

This hypothesis might explain some of the difficult problems connecting Egypt and Babylonia[1133]. The non-Asiatic origin of the Egyptian people appears to be indicated by recent excavations, but, as mentioned above, there are still many who hold that Egyptian culture and civilisation were derived mainly, if not wholly, from Asiatic (probably Sumerian) sources. The Semitic elements existing in the ancient Egyptian language, certain resemblances between names of Sumerian and Egyptian gods, and the similarity of hieroglyphic characters to the Sumerian system of writing have been cited as proofs of the dependence of the one culture upon the other; while the introduction of the knowledge of metals, metal-working and the crafts of brick-making and tomb construction have, together with the bulbous mace-head, cylinder-seal and domesticated animals and plants[1134], been traced to Babylonia.

But the excavations of Reisner at Naga-ed-Dêr and those of Naville at Abydos (1909-10) appear to place the indigenous development of Egyptian culture beyond question. Reisner's conclusions[1135]are that there was no sudden break of continuity between the neolithic and early dynastic cultures of Egypt. No essential change took place in the Egyptian conception of life after death, or in the rites and practices accompanying interment. The most noticeable changes, in the character of the pottery and household vessels, in the materials for tools and weapons and the introduction of writing, were all gradually introduced, and one period fades into another without anystrongly marked line of division between them. Egypt no doubt had trading relations with surrounding countries. Egyptians and Babylonians must have met in the markets of Syria, and in the tents of Bedouin chiefs. Still, as Meyer points out, far from Egypt taking over a ready-made civilisation from Babylonia, Egypt, as regards cultural influence, was the giver not the receiver[1136].

Negroid Mixture.

One more alien element in Egypt remains to be discussed. Most writers on Egyptian ethnology detect a Negro or at least Negroid element in the Caucasoid population, and although usually assigning priority to the Negro, assume the co-existence of the two races from time immemorial to the present day. Measurements on more than 1000 individuals were made by C. S. Myers, and these are his conclusions. "There is no anthropometric (despite the historic) evidence that the population of Egypt, past or present, is composed of several different races. Our new anthropometric data favour the view which regards the Egyptians always as a homogeneous people, who have varied now towards Caucasian, now towards negroid characters (according to environment), showing such close anthropometric affinity to Libyan, Arabian and like neighbouring peoples, showing such variability and possibly such power of absorption, that from the anthropometric standpoint no evidence is obtainable that the modern Egyptians have been appreciably affected by other than sporadic Sudanese admixture[1137]."

The Fulah.

It was seen above (Chap. III.) that non-Negro elements are found throughout the Sudan from Senegal nearly to Darfur, nowhere forming the whole of the population, but nearly always the dominant native race. These are the Fulah (Fula, Fulbe or Fulani), whose ethnic affinities have given rise to an enormous amount of speculation. Their linguistic peculiarity had led many ethnologists to regard them as the descendants of the first white colonists of North Africa, "Caucasoid invaders," 15,000 years ago, prior to Hamitic intrusions from the east[1138]. Thus would be explained the fact that their language betrays absolutely no structural affinity with Semitic or Libyo-Hamitic groups, or with any otherspeech families outside Africa, though offering faint resemblances in structure with the Lesghian[1139]speech of the Caucasus and the Dravidian tongues of Baluchistan and India. Physically there seems to be nothing to differentiate them from other blends[1140]of Hamite-Negro. The physical type of the pure-bred Fulah H. H. Johnston describes as follows: "Tall of stature (but not gigantic, like the Nilote and South-east Sudanese), olive-skinned or even a pale yellow; well-proportioned, with delicate hands and feet, without steatopygy, with long, oval face, big nose (in men), straight nose in women (nose finely cut, like that of the Caucasian), eyes large and "melting," with an Egyptian look about them, head-hair long, black, kinky or ringlety, never quite straight[1141]." They were at first a quiet people, herdsmen and shepherds with a high and intricate type of pagan religion which still survives in parts of Nigeria. But large numbers of them became converted to Islam from the twelfth century onwards and gained some knowledge of the world outside Africa by their pilgrimages to Mecca. At the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries an uprise of Muhammadan fanaticism and a proud consciousness of their racial superiority to the mere Negro armed them as an aristocracy to wrest political control of all Nigeria from the hands of Negro rulers or the decaying power of Tuareg and Songhai. This race was all unconsciously carrying on the Caucasian invasion and penetration of Africa.

Other Eastern Hamites—Bejas—Somals.

A less controversial problem is presented by the Eastern Hamites, who form a continuous chain of dark Caucasic peoples from the Mediterranean to the equator, and whose ethnical unity is now established by Sergi on anatomical grounds[1142]. Bordering on Upper Egypt, and extending thence to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau, is the Beja section, whose chief divisions—Ababdeh, Hadendoa, Bisharin, Beni Amer—have from the earliest times occupied the whole region between the Nile and the Red Sea.

C. G. Seligman has analysed the physical and cultural characters of the Beja tribes (Bisharin,HadendoaandBeni Amer), theBarabra, nomad Arabs (such as theKababishandKawahla), Nilotes (Shilluk, Dinka, Nuer) and half-Hamites (Ba-Hima, Masai), in an attempt by eliminating the Negro and Semitic elements to deduce the main features which may be held to indicate Hamitic influence. He regards theBeni Ameras approximating most closely to the originalBejatype which he thus describes. "Summarizing their physical characteristics it may be said that they are moderately short, slightly built men, with reddish-brown or brown skins in which a greater or less tinge of black is present, while in some cases the skin is definitely darker and presents some shade of brown-black. The hair is usually curly, in some instances it certainly might be described as wavy, but the method of hair dressing adopted tends to make difficult an exact description of its condition. Often, as is everywhere common amongst wearers of turbans, the head is shaved.... The face is usually long and oval, or approaching the oval in shape, the jaw is often lightly built, which with the presence of a rather pointed chin may tend to make the upper part of the face appear disproportionately broad. The nose is well shaped and thoroughly Caucasian in type and form[1143]." Among the Hadendoa the "Armenoid" or so-called "Jewish" nose is not uncommon. Seligman draws attention to the close resemblance between theBejatype and that of the ancient Egyptians.

Somal Genealogies.

Through the Afars (Danákil) of the arid coastlands between Abyssinia and the sea, the Bejas are connected with the numerous Hamitic populations of the Somali and Galla lands. For the term "Somal," which is quite recent and of course unknown to the natives, H. M. Abud[1144]suggests an interesting and plausible explanation. Being a hospitable people, and milk their staple food, "the first word a stranger would hear on visiting their kraals would be 'Só mál,'i.e.'Go and bring milk.'" Strangers may have named them from this circumstance, and other tribal names may certainly be traced to more improbable sources.

The natives hold that two races inhabit the land: (1)Asha, true Somals, of whom there are two great divisions,DáródandIshák, both claiming descent from certain noble Arab families, though no longer of Arab speech; (2)Háwíya, who are not counted by the others as true Somals, but only "pagans," and also comprise two main branches,AysaandGadabursi. In the national genealogies collected by Abud and Cox, many of the mythical heroes are buried at or near Meit, which may thus be termed the cradle of the Somal race. From this point they spread in all directions, the Dáróds pushing south and driving the Galla beyond the Webbe Shebel, and till lately raiding them as far as the Tana river. It should be noticed that these genealogical tables are far from complete, for they exclude most of the southern sections, notably theRahanwínwho have a very wide range on both sides of the Jub.

In the statements made by the natives about true Somals and "pagans," race and religion are confused, and the distinction between Asha and Háwíya is merely one between Moslem and infidel. The latter are probably of much purer stock than the former, whose very genealogies testify to interminglings of the Moslem Arab intruders with the heathen aborigines.

Despite their dark colour C. Keller[1145]has no difficulty in regarding the Somali as members of the "Caucasic Race." The Semitic type crops out decidedly in several groups, and they are generally speaking of fine physique, well grown, with proud bearing and often with classic profile, though the type is very variable owing to Arab and Negro grafts on the Hamitic stock. The hair is never woolly, but, like that of the Beja, ringlety and less thick than the Abyssinian and Galla, sometimes even quite straight. The forehead is finely rounded and prominent, eye moderately large and rather deep-set, nose straight, but also snub and aquiline, mouth regular, lips not too thick, head sub-dolichocephalic.

Great attention has been paid to all these Eastern Hamitic peoples by Ph. Paulitschke[1146], who regards the Galla as both intellectually and morally superior to the Somals and Afars, the chief reason being that the baneful influences exercised by the Arabs and Abyssinians affect to a far greater extent the two latter than the former group.

The Galla.

The Galla appear to have reached the African coast before the Danákil and Somali, but were driven south-east by pressure from the latter, leaving Galla remnants as serfs among the southern Somali, while the presence of servile negroid tribes among the Galla gives proof of an earlier population which they partially displaced. Subsequent pressure from the Masai on the south forced the Galla into contact with the Danákil, and a branch penetrating inland established themselves on the north and east of Victoria Nyanza, where they are known to-day as the Ba-Hima, Wa-Tusi, Wa-Ruanda and kindred tribes, which have been described on p. 91.

The Masai.

The Masai, the terror of their neighbours, are a mixture of Galla and Nilotic Negro, producing what has been described as the finest type in Africa. The build is slender and the height often over six feet, the face is well formed, with straight nose and finely cut nostrils, the hair is usually frizzly, and the skin dark or reddish brown. They are purely pastoral, possessing enormous herds of cattle in which they take great pride, but they are chiefly remarkable for their military organisation which was hardly surpassed by that of the Zulu. They have everywhere found in the agricultural peoples an easy prey, and until the reduction of their wealth by rinderpest (since 1891) and the restraining influence of the white man, the Masai were regarded as an ever-dreaded scourge by all the less warlike inhabitants of Eastern Africa[1147].

Abyssinian Hamites: Religion.

Amongst the Abyssinian Hamites we find the strangest interminglings of primitive and more advanced religious ideas. On a seething mass of African heathendom, already in pre-historic times affected by early Semitic ideas introduced by the Himyarites from South Arabia, was somewhat suddenly imposed an undeveloped form of Christianity by the preaching of Frumentius in the fourth century, with results that cannot be called satisfactory. While the heterogeneous ethnical elements have been merged in a composite Abyssinian nationality, the discordant religious ideashave never yet been fused in a consistent uniform system. Hence "Abyssinian Christianity" is a sort of by-word even amongst the Eastern Churches, while the social institutions are marked by elementary notions of justice and paradoxical "shamanistic" practices, interspersed with a few sublime moral precepts. Many things came as a surprise to the members of the Rennell Rodd Mission[1148], who could not understand such a strange mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community which, for instance, accounted accidental death as wilful murder. The case is mentioned of a man falling from a tree on a friend below and killing him. "He was adjudged to perish at the hands of the bereaved family, in the same manner as the corpse. But the family refused to sacrifice a second member, so the culprit escaped." Dreams also are resorted to, as in the days of the Pharaohs, for detecting crime. A priest is sent for, and if his prayers and curses fail, a small boy is drugged and told to dream. "Whatever person he dreams of is fixed on as the criminal; no further proof is needed.... If the boy does not dream of the person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him."

To outsiders society seems to be a strange jumble of an iron despotism, which forbids the selling of a horse for over £10 under severe penalties, and a personal freedom or licence, which allows the labourer to claim his wages after a week's work and forthwith decamp to spend them, returning next day or next month as the humour takes him. Yet somehow things hold together, and a few Semitic immigrants from South Arabia have for over 2000 years contrived to maintain some kind of control over the Hamitic aborigines who have always formed the bulk of the population in Abyssinia[1149].

FOOTNOTES:[1000]The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study, W. Z. Ripley, 1900, p. 437.[1001]"Diese Namen sind natürlich rein conventionell. Sie sind historisch berechtigt ... und mögen Geltung behalten, so lange wir keine zutrefferenden an ihre Stelle setzen können" (Anthropologische Studien, etc., p. 15).[1002]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums, 1909, l. 2, discussing the original home of the Indo-Europeans (§ 561,Das Problem der Heimat und Ausbreitung der Indogermanen) remarks (p. 800) that the discovery of Tocharish (Sieg und Siegling, "Tocharish, die Sprache der Indo-skythen,"Sitz. d. Berl. Ak.1908, p. 915 ff.), a language belonging apparently to thecentum(Western and European) group, overthrows all earlier conceptions as to the distribution of the Indogermans and gives weight to the hypothesis of their Asiatic origin.[1003]"Io non dubito di denominareariaquesta stirpe etc." (Umbri,Italici,Arii, Bologna, 1897, p. 14, and elsewhere).[1004]Anthrop. Studien, p. 15, "Diese Gemeinsamkeit der Charakteren beweist uns die Blutverwandtschaft" (ib.).[1005]Sir W. Crooke's anticipation of a possible future failure of the wheat supply as affecting the destinies of the Caucasic peoples (Presidential Address at Meeting Br. Assoc.Bristol, 1898) is an economic question which cannot here be discussed.[1006]Ph. Lake, "The Geology of the Sahara," inScience Progress, July, 1895.[1007]This name, meaning in Berber "running water," has been handed down from a time when the Igharghar was still a mighty stream with a northerly course of some 800 miles, draining an area of many thousand square miles, in which there is not at present a single perennial brooklet. It would appear that even crocodiles still survive from those remote times in the so-called Lake Miharo of the Tassili district, where von Bary detected very distinct traces of their presence in 1876. A. E. Pease also refers to a Frenchman "who had satisfied himself of the existence of crocodiles cut off in ages long ago from watercourses that have disappeared" (Contemp. Review, July, 1896).[1008]Recherches sur les Origines de l'Egypte: L'Age de la Pierre et des Métaux, 1897.[1009]Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 394. This indefatigable explorer remarks, in reference to the continuity of human culture in Tunisia throughout the Old and New Stone Ages, that "ces populations fortement mélangées d'éléments néanderthaloïdes de la Kromirie fabriquent encore des vases de tous points analogues à la poterie néolithique" (ib.).[1010]The Antiquity of Man, 1915, p. 255.[1011]Africa, Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897, p. 404 sq.[1012]"Le nord de l'Afrique entière, y compris le Sahara naguère encore fort peuplé,"i.e.of course relatively speaking, "Du Dniester à la Caspienne," inBul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 81 sq.[1013]Ibid.p. 654 sq.[1014]Résumé de l'Anthropologie de la Tunisie, 1896, p. 4 sq.[1015]This identity is confirmed by the characters of three skulls from the dolmens of Madracen near Batna, Algeria, now in the Constantine Museum, found by Letourneau and Papillaut to present striking affinities with the long-headed Cro-Magnon race (Ceph. Index 70, 74, 78); leptoprosope with prominent glabella, notable alveolar prognathism, and sub-occipital bone projecting chignon-fashion at the back (Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 347).[1016]He shows ("Exploration Anthropologique de l'Ile de Gerba," inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 424 sq.) that the North African brown brachycephalics, forming the substratum in Mauretania, and very pure in Gerba, resemble the European populations the more they have avoided contact with foreign races. He quotes H. Martin: "Le type brun qui domine dans la Grande Kabylie du Jurjura ressemble singulièrement en majorité au type français brun. Si l'on habillait ces hommes de vêtements européens, vous ne les distingueriez pas de paysans ou de soldats français." He compares them especially to the Bretons, and agrees with Martin that "il y a parmi les Berbères bruns des brachycéphales; je croirais volontiers que les brachycéphales bruns sont des Ligures. Libyens et Ligures paraissent avoir été originairement de la même race." He thinks the very names are the same: "Λιβύεςest exactement le même mot queΛιγύες; rien n'était plus fréquent dans les dialectes primitifs que la mutation dubeng."[1017]The Races of Europe, 1900,passim.[1018]"Les Chaouias," etc., inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 1 sq.[1019]Ueber eine Schädelsammlung von den Kanarischen Inseln, with F. von Luschan's appendix; also "Ueber die Urbewohner der Kanarischen Inseln," inBastian-Festschrift, 1896, p. 63. The inferences here drawn are in substantial agreement with those of Henry Wallack, in his paper on "The Guanches," inJourn. Anthr. Inst.June, 1887, p. 158 sq.; and also with J. C. Shrubsall, who, however, distinguishes four pre-Spanish types from a study of numerous skulls and other remains from Tenerife inProc. Cambridge Phil. Soc.IX.154-78. The 152 cave skulls measured by Von Detloff von Behr,Metrische Studien an 152 Guanchenschädeln, 1908, agree in the main with earlier results.[1020]For an interpretation of the significance of Armenoid skulls in the Canary Is. see G. Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 156-7.[1021]"Dénombrement et Types des Crânes Néolithiques de la Gaule," inRev. Mens. de l'École d'Anthrop.1896.[1022]T. Rice Holmes,Ancient Britain, 1907, p. 424.[1023]"Infiltrazioni pacifiche." (Arii e Italici, p. 124.)[1024]L'Anthr.XII.1901, pp. 547-8.[1025]Cf. G. Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 58 ff.[1026]T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 266, with list of authorities. See also Sigmund Feist,Kultur,Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen, 1913, p. 364, and H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, pp. 386 and 387.[1027]T. Rice Holmes,loc. cit.p. 272.[1028]W. Wright,Middlesex Hospital Journal,XII.1908, p. 44.[1029]See A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, pp. 16, 17, 55.[1030]R. S. Conway,The Italic Dialects, 1897, and Art. "Etruria: Language,"Ency. Brit.1911.[1031]Cf. T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 283. "The truth is that linguistic data are insufficient."[1032]I.57.[1033]See p. 465.[1034]For Lydian see E. Littmann,Sardis, "Lydian Inscriptions," 1916, briefly summarised by P. Giles, "Some Notes on the New Lydian Inscriptions,"Camb. Univ. Rep.1917, p. 587.[1035]S. Feist,Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen, 1913, p. 385.[1036]"The attempts to connect the language with the Indo-European family have been unsuccessful," A. H. Sayce, Art. "Lycia,"Ency. Brit.1911. But cf. also S. Feist,loc. cit.pp. 385-7; and Th. Kluge,Die Lykier, ihre Geschichte und ihre Inschriften, 1910.[1037]A. J. Evans,Scripta Minoa, 1909.[1038]T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 289n.4.[1039]Die Verwandtschaft des Baskischen mit den Berbersprachen Nord-Afrikas nachgewiesen, 1894.[1040]"Die Sprachen waren mit einander verwandt, das stand ausser Zweifel." (Pref.IV.)[1041]J. Vinson (Rev. de linguistique,XXXVIII.1905, p. 111) says, "no more absurd book on Basque has appeared of late years." See T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 299n.3.[1042]"In the general series of organised linguistic families it [Basque] would take an intermediate place between the American on the one side and the Ugro-Altaic or Ugrian on the other." Wentworth Webster and Julien Vinson,Ency. Brit.1910, "Basques."[1043]See W. Z. Ripley,The Races of Europe, 1900, Chap.VIII."The Basques," pp. 180-204.[1044]Rev. mensuelle de l'École d'Anthr.X.1900, pp. 225-7.[1045]S. Feist,Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen, 1913.[1046]Hist. de la Gaule,I.1908, p. 271.[1047]"La Race Basque,"L'Anthrop.1894.[1048]W. Z. Ripley,loc. cit.p. 200.[1049]Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 287. Cf. J. Déchelette (Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 27), "As a rule it is wise to attach to this expression (Iberian) merely a geographical value." Reviewing the problems of Iberian origins (which he considers remain unsolved), he quotes as an example of their range, the opinion of C. Jullian (Revue des Études Anciennes, 1903, p. 383), "There is no Iberian race. The Iberians were a state constituted at latest towards the 6th century, in the valley of the Ebro, which received, either from strangers or from the indigenous peoples, the name of the river asnom de guerre."[1050]J. Vinson (Rev. de linguistique,XL.1907, pp. 5, 211) divides the Iberian inscriptions into three groups, each of which, he believes, represents a different language.[1051]The Mediterranean Race, 1901.[1052]Dict. des sc. anthr.p. 247, andRev. de l'École d'Anthr.XVII.1907, p. 365.[1053]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, p. 723.[1054]Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 27n., see also p. 22 for archaeological proofs of "ethnographic distinctions."[1055]Hist. de la Gaule, I. Chap.IV.The author makes it clear, however, that his "Ligurians" are not necessarily an ethnic unit, "De l'unité de nom, ne concluons pas à l'unité de race" (119), and later (p. 120), "Ne considérons donc pas les Ligures comme les représentants uniformes d'une race déterminée. Ils sont la population qui habitait l'Europe occidentale avant les invasions connues des Celtes ou des Étrusques, avant la naissance des peuples latin ou ibère. Ils ne sont pas autre chose."[1056]Gaule av. Gaulois, p. 248.[1057]Loc. cit.p. 23n.I.[1058]Early Age of Greece, 1901, p. 237 ff., and "Who were the Romans?"Proc. Brit. Acad.III.19, 1908, p. 3.[1059]See R. S. Conway, Art. "Liguria,"Ency. Brit.1911. It may be noted, however, as Feist points out (Ausbreitung und Herkunft des Indogermanen, 1913, p. 368), this hypothesis rests on slight foundations ("ruht auf schwachen Füßen").[1060]Arii e Italici, p. 60.[1061]Corresbl. d. d. Ges. f. Anthrop., Feb. 1898, p. 12.[1062]Yet Ligurians are actually planted on the North Atlantic coast of Spain by S. Sempere y Miguel (Revista de Ciencias Historicas,I.v. 1887).[1063]Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 22.[1064]Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 287.[1065]"La Civilisation Primitive dans la Sicilie Orientale," inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 130 sq.; and p. 295 sq.[1066]Præhistorische Studien aus Sicilien, quoted by Patroni.[1067]p. 130.[1068]See p. 21.[1069]It may be mentioned that while Penka makes the Siculi Illyrians from Upper Italy ("Zur Paläoethnologie Mittel- u. Südeuropas," inWiener Anthrop. Ges.1897, p. 18), E. A. Freeman holds that they were not only Aryans, but closely akin to the Romans, speaking "an undeveloped Latin," or "something which did not differ more widely from Latin than one dialect of Greek differed from another" (The History of Sicily, etc.,I.p. 488). On the Siculi and Sicani, see E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums, 1909, I. 2, p. 723, also Art. "Sicily, History,"Ency. Brit.1911. Déchelette (Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 17) suggests that Sikelos or Siculus, the eponymous hero of Sicily, may have been merely the personification of the typical Ligurian implement, the bronzesickle(Lat. secula, sicula).[1070]I.22.[1071]VI.2.[1072]Parte I. Dati Antropologici ed Etnologici, Rome, 1896.[1073]p. 182.[1074]Atti Soc. Rom. d' Antrop.1896, pp. 179 and 201.[1075]Cf. W. Z. Ripley, "Racial Geography of Europe,"Pop. Sci. Monthly, New York, 1897-9, andThe Races of Europe, 1900, pp. 54, 175.[1076]Arii e Italici, p. 188. Hence for these Italian Ligurians he claims the name of "Italici," which he refuses to extend to the Aryan intruders in the peninsula. "A questi primi abitatori spetta legittimamente il nome di Italici, non a popolazioni successive [Aryan Umbrians], che avrebbero sloggiato i primi abitanti" (p. 60). The result is a little confusing, "Italic" being now the accepted name of the Italian branch of the Aryan linguistic family, and also commonly applied to the Aryans of this Italic speech, although the wordItaliaitself may have been indigenous (Ligurian) and not introduced by the Aryans. It would perhaps be better to regard "Italia" as a "geographical expression" applicable to all its inhabitants, whatever their origin or speech.[1077]Science Progress, July, 1894. It will be noticed that the facts, accepted by all, are differently interpreted by Beddoe and Sergi, the latter taking the long-headed element in North Italy as the aboriginal (Ligurian), modified by the later intrusion of round-headed Aryan Slavs, Teutons, and especially Kelts, while Beddoe seems to regard the broad-headed Alpine as the original, afterwards modified by intrusive long-headed types "Germanic, Slavic, or of doubtful origin." Either view would no doubt account for the present relations; but Sergi's study of the prehistoric remains (see above) seems to compel acceptance of his explanation. From the statistics an average height of not more than 5 ft. 4 in. results for the whole of Italy.[1078]For the identification of the Mediterranean race in Greece with the Pelasgians, see W. Ridgeway,Early Age of Greece,I.1901, though Ripley contends (The Races of Europe, 1900, p. 407), "Positively no anthropological data on the matter exist."[1079]Τὸ τῶν Πελασγῶν γένος Ἑλληνικόν.[1080]I.57.[1081]Il.X.429;Od.XIX.177.[1082]"We recognize in the Pelasgi an ancient and honourable race, ante-Hellenic, it is true, but distinguished from the Hellenes only in the political and social development of their age.... Herodotus and others take a prejudiced view when, reasoning back from the subsequent Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, they call the ancient Pelasgians a rude and worthless race, their language barbarous, and their deities nameless. Numerous traditionary accounts, of undoubted authenticity, describe them as a brave, moral, and honourable people, which was less a distinct stock and tribe, than a race united by a resemblance in manners and the forms of life" (W. Wachsmuth,The Historical Antiquities of the Greeks, etc., Engl. ed. 1837,I.p. 39). Remarkable words to have been written before the recent revelations of archaeology in Hellas.[1083]That the two cultures went on for a long time side by side is evident from the different social institutions and religious ideas prevailing in different parts of Hellas during the strictly historic period.[1084]κατὰ τὴν Ἑλλάδα πᾶσαν ἐπεπόλασε(Strabo,V.220). This might almost be translated, "they flooded the whole of Greece."[1085]Early Age of Greece, 1901, Chaps.I.andII.[1086]Od.XIX.[1087]Thuc.I.3.[1088]This idea of an independent evolution of western (European) culture is steadily gaining ground, and is strenuously advocated, amongst others, by M. Salomon Reinach, who has made a vigorous attack on what he calls the "oriental mirage,"i.e.the delusion which sees nothing but Asiatic or Egyptian influences everywhere. Sergi of course goes further, regarding the Mediterranean (Iberian, Ligurian, Pelasgian) cultures not only as local growths, but as independent both of Asiatics and of the rude Aryan hordes, who came rather as destroyers than civilisers. This is one of the fundamental ideas pervading the whole of hisArii e Italici, and some earlier writings.[1089]Pausanias,III.20. 5.[1090]G. Sergi,The Mediterranean Race, 1901. In the main he is supported by philologists. "The languages of the indigenous peoples throughout Asia Minor and the Aegean area are commonly believed to have been non-Indo-European." H. M. Chadwick,The Heroic Age, 1912, p. 179 n.[1091]W. Ridgeway,The Early Age of Greece, 1901, p. 681 ff.[1092]The Dawn of History, 1911, p. 40. For his views on Pelasgians, seeJourn. Hell. St.1907, p. 170, and the Art. "Pelasgians" inEncy. Brit.1911.[1093]E. Petersen and F. von Luschan,Reisen in Lykien, 1889.[1094]W. Z. Ripley,The Races of Europe, p. 404 ff. The map (facing p. 402) does not include Greece, and the grouping is based on language, not race.[1095]The Mykenaean skull found by Bent at Antiparos is described as "abnormally dolichocephalic." W. Ridgeway,Early Age of Greece,I.1901, p. 78.[1096]But in Ridgeway's view the "classical Hellenes" were descendants of tall fair-haired invaders from the North, and in this he has the concurrence of J. L. Myres,The Dawn of History, 1911, p. 209.[1097]Mitt. d. K. d. Inst. Athen.XXX.See H. R. Hall,Ancient History of the Near East, 1913, pp. 61-4.[1098]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, § 507.[1099]For a discussion of the meaning of "Pelasgic Argos" see H. M. Chadwick,The Heroic Age, 1912, pp. 274 ff. and 278-9, and for his criticism of Meyer, p. 285.[1100]But see W. Ridgeway,Early Age of Greece,I.1901, p. 138 ff.[1101]Art. "Indo-European Languages,"Ency. Brit.1911.[1102]R. S. Conway, Art. "Aegean Civilisation," inEncy. Brit.1911, whence this summary is derived, including the chronology, which is not in all respects universally adopted (see p. 27). For a full discussion of the chronology see J. Déchelette,Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique, Vol.II.1910,Archéologie celtique ou protohistorique, Ch.II.§ V. Chronologie égéenne, p. 54 ff.[1103]In his valuable and comprehensive work,Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897. It must not be supposed that this classification is unchallenged. T. A. Joyce, "Hamitic Races and Languages,"Ency. Brit.1911, points out that it is impossible to prove the connection between the Eastern and Northern Hamites. The former have a brown skin, with frizzy hair, and are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastors; the latter, whom he would call not Hamites at all, but the Libyan variety of the Mediterranean race, are a white people, with curly hair, and their purest representatives, the Berbers, are agriculturalists. For the fullest and most recent treatment of the subject see the monumental work of Oric Bates,The Eastern Libyans: An Essay, 1913, with bibliography.[1104]"Les Maures du Sénégal,"L'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 258 sq.[1105]That is, theSanhaja-an Litham, those who wear thelithamor veil, which is needed to protect them from the sand, but has now acquired religious significance, and is never worn by the "Moors."[1106]p. 269.[1107]See F. Stuhlmann's invaluable work on African culture and race distribution,Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, especially the map showing the distribution of the Hamites, Pl.II. B.[1108]The Kababish and Baggara tribes, chief mainstays of former Sudanese revolts, claim to be of unsullied Arab descent with long fictitious pedigrees going back to early Muhammadan times (see p. 74).[1109]"Les Chaouias,"L'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 14.[1110]P. 17.[1111]The words collected by Sir H. H. Johnston at Dwirat in Tunis show a great resemblance with the language of the Saharan Tuaregs, and the sheikh of that place "admitted that his people could understand and make themselves understood by those fierce nomads, who range between the southern frontier of Algeria and Tunis and the Sudan" (Geogr. Jour., June, 1898, p. 590).[1112]Cf. Meinhof,Die Moderne Sprachforschung in Africa, 1910.[1113]Ti-bu= "Rock People"; cf.Kanem-bu= "Kanem People," southernmost branch of the family on north side of Lake Chad.[1114]Ὄντων δὲ καὶ αὐτῶν ἤδη μᾶλλον Αἰθιόπων(I. 8). I takeἤδη, which has caused some trouble to commentators, here to mean that, as you advance southwards from the Mediterranean seaboard, you find yourself on entering Garamantian territory already rather amongst Ethiopians than Libyans.[1115]Reclus, Eng. ed. Vol.XI.p. 429. For the complicated ancestral mixture producing the Tibu see Sir H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 386.[1116]Reclus, Eng. ed. Vol.XI.p. 430.[1117]From the enormous sheets of tuffs near the Kharga Oasis Zettel, geologist of G. Rohlf's expedition in 1876, considered that even this sandy waste might have supported a rich vegetation in Quaternary times.[1118]SeeHistoire de la Civilisation Égyptienne, G. Jéquier, 1913, p. 53 ff. Also, concerning pottery, E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 203.[1119]The Egyptians themselves had a tradition that when Menes moved north he found the delta still under water. The sea reached almost as far as the Fayum, and the whole valley, except the Thebais, was a malarious swamp (Herod.II.4). Thus late into historic times memories still survived that the delta was of relatively recent formation, and that theRetu(Romituof the Pyramid texts, laterRotu,Romi, etc.) had already developed their social system before the Lower Nile valley was inhabitable. Hence whether the Nile took 20,000 years (Schweinfurth) or over 70,000, as others hold, to fill in its estuary, the beginning of the Egyptian prehistoric period must still be set back many millenniums before the new era. "Ce que nous savons du Sahara, lui-même alors sillonné de rivières, atteste qu'il [the delta] ne devait pas être habitable, pas être constitué à l'époque quaternaire" (M. Zaborowski,Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 655).[1120]G. Jéquier,Histoire de la Civilisation Égyptienne, 1913, p. 95, but see E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 209.[1121]Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, p. 143.[1122]"Migrations,"Journ. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1906.[1123]"A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.[1124]See p. 482 below.[1125]For an alternative route see E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 209; J. L. Myres,The Dawn of History, 1911, pp. 56-7, also p. 65, and the criticism of Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 88-9.[1126]The Ancient Egyptians, 1911.[1127]The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 56, 58, 62.[1128]The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 104-5.[1129]G. Elliot Smith,loc. cit.pp. 97 and 147.[1130]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, §§ 229, 232, 253.[1131]G. Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 108, but for a different interpretation see J. L. Myres,The Dawn of History, 1911 pp. 51 and 65.[1132]Loc. cit.p. 147.[1133]H. R. Hall (The Ancient History of the Near East, 1913, p. 87n.3) sees "no resemblance whatever between the facial traits of the Memphite grandees of the Old Kingdom and those of Hittites, Syrians, or modern Anatolians, Armenians or Kurds. They were much more like South Europeans, like modern Italians or Cretans."[1134]Cf. H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 383, and also E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 210.[1135]G. A. Reisner, "The Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr," Part 1. Vol.II.ofUniversity of California Publications, 1908, summarised by L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, pp. 326, 334.[1136]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, p. 156.[1137]Journ. Anthr. Inst.XXXIII.1903,XXXV.1905,XXXVI.1906, andJourn. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVIII.1908.[1138]Cf. H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 382.[1139]No physical affinity is suggested. The Lesghian tribes "betray an accentuated brachycephaly, equal to that of the pure Mongols about the Caspians." W. Z. Ripley,The Races of Europe, p. 440.[1140]J. Deniker,The Races of Man, 1900, p. 439, places the Fulahs in a separate group, the Fulah-Zandeh group. Cf. also A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, p. 59.[1141]Loc. cit.p. 401n.[1142]Africa, 1897,passim.[1143]"Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 604. See also C. Crossland,Desert and Water Gardens of the Red Sea, 1913.[1144]Genealogies of the Somal, 1896.[1145]"Reisestudien in den Somaliländern,"Globus,LXX.p. 33 sq.[1146]Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas: Die geistige Kultur der Danákil, Galla u. Somâl, 1896, 2 vols.[1147]M. Merker,Die Masai, 1904; A. C. Hollis,The Masai, their Language and Folklore, 1905. C. Dundas, "The Organization and Laws of some Bantu Tribes in East Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLV.1915, pp. 236-7, thinks that the power of the Masai was over-rated, and that the Galla were really a fiercer race. He quotes Krapf, "Give me the Galla and I have Central Africa." TheNandi(an allied tribe) are described by A. C. Hollis, 1909, andThe Sukby M. W. H. Beech, 1911.[1148]A. E. W. Gleichen,Rennell Rodd's Mission to Menelik, 1897.[1149]Among recent works on Abyssinia may be mentioned A. B. Wylde,Modern Abyssinia, 1901; H. Weld Blundell, "A Journey through Abyssinia,"Geog. Journ.XV. 1900, and "Exploration in the Abai Basin,"ib.XXVII.1906; theAnthropological Survey of Abyssiniapublished by the French Government in 1911; and various publications of the Princeton University Expedition to Abyssinia, edited by E. Littmann.

[1000]The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study, W. Z. Ripley, 1900, p. 437.

[1001]"Diese Namen sind natürlich rein conventionell. Sie sind historisch berechtigt ... und mögen Geltung behalten, so lange wir keine zutrefferenden an ihre Stelle setzen können" (Anthropologische Studien, etc., p. 15).

[1002]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums, 1909, l. 2, discussing the original home of the Indo-Europeans (§ 561,Das Problem der Heimat und Ausbreitung der Indogermanen) remarks (p. 800) that the discovery of Tocharish (Sieg und Siegling, "Tocharish, die Sprache der Indo-skythen,"Sitz. d. Berl. Ak.1908, p. 915 ff.), a language belonging apparently to thecentum(Western and European) group, overthrows all earlier conceptions as to the distribution of the Indogermans and gives weight to the hypothesis of their Asiatic origin.

[1003]"Io non dubito di denominareariaquesta stirpe etc." (Umbri,Italici,Arii, Bologna, 1897, p. 14, and elsewhere).

[1004]Anthrop. Studien, p. 15, "Diese Gemeinsamkeit der Charakteren beweist uns die Blutverwandtschaft" (ib.).

[1005]Sir W. Crooke's anticipation of a possible future failure of the wheat supply as affecting the destinies of the Caucasic peoples (Presidential Address at Meeting Br. Assoc.Bristol, 1898) is an economic question which cannot here be discussed.

[1006]Ph. Lake, "The Geology of the Sahara," inScience Progress, July, 1895.

[1007]This name, meaning in Berber "running water," has been handed down from a time when the Igharghar was still a mighty stream with a northerly course of some 800 miles, draining an area of many thousand square miles, in which there is not at present a single perennial brooklet. It would appear that even crocodiles still survive from those remote times in the so-called Lake Miharo of the Tassili district, where von Bary detected very distinct traces of their presence in 1876. A. E. Pease also refers to a Frenchman "who had satisfied himself of the existence of crocodiles cut off in ages long ago from watercourses that have disappeared" (Contemp. Review, July, 1896).

[1008]Recherches sur les Origines de l'Egypte: L'Age de la Pierre et des Métaux, 1897.

[1009]Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 394. This indefatigable explorer remarks, in reference to the continuity of human culture in Tunisia throughout the Old and New Stone Ages, that "ces populations fortement mélangées d'éléments néanderthaloïdes de la Kromirie fabriquent encore des vases de tous points analogues à la poterie néolithique" (ib.).

[1010]The Antiquity of Man, 1915, p. 255.

[1011]Africa, Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897, p. 404 sq.

[1012]"Le nord de l'Afrique entière, y compris le Sahara naguère encore fort peuplé,"i.e.of course relatively speaking, "Du Dniester à la Caspienne," inBul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 81 sq.

[1013]Ibid.p. 654 sq.

[1014]Résumé de l'Anthropologie de la Tunisie, 1896, p. 4 sq.

[1015]This identity is confirmed by the characters of three skulls from the dolmens of Madracen near Batna, Algeria, now in the Constantine Museum, found by Letourneau and Papillaut to present striking affinities with the long-headed Cro-Magnon race (Ceph. Index 70, 74, 78); leptoprosope with prominent glabella, notable alveolar prognathism, and sub-occipital bone projecting chignon-fashion at the back (Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 347).

[1016]He shows ("Exploration Anthropologique de l'Ile de Gerba," inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 424 sq.) that the North African brown brachycephalics, forming the substratum in Mauretania, and very pure in Gerba, resemble the European populations the more they have avoided contact with foreign races. He quotes H. Martin: "Le type brun qui domine dans la Grande Kabylie du Jurjura ressemble singulièrement en majorité au type français brun. Si l'on habillait ces hommes de vêtements européens, vous ne les distingueriez pas de paysans ou de soldats français." He compares them especially to the Bretons, and agrees with Martin that "il y a parmi les Berbères bruns des brachycéphales; je croirais volontiers que les brachycéphales bruns sont des Ligures. Libyens et Ligures paraissent avoir été originairement de la même race." He thinks the very names are the same: "Λιβύεςest exactement le même mot queΛιγύες; rien n'était plus fréquent dans les dialectes primitifs que la mutation dubeng."

[1017]The Races of Europe, 1900,passim.

[1018]"Les Chaouias," etc., inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 1 sq.

[1019]Ueber eine Schädelsammlung von den Kanarischen Inseln, with F. von Luschan's appendix; also "Ueber die Urbewohner der Kanarischen Inseln," inBastian-Festschrift, 1896, p. 63. The inferences here drawn are in substantial agreement with those of Henry Wallack, in his paper on "The Guanches," inJourn. Anthr. Inst.June, 1887, p. 158 sq.; and also with J. C. Shrubsall, who, however, distinguishes four pre-Spanish types from a study of numerous skulls and other remains from Tenerife inProc. Cambridge Phil. Soc.IX.154-78. The 152 cave skulls measured by Von Detloff von Behr,Metrische Studien an 152 Guanchenschädeln, 1908, agree in the main with earlier results.

[1020]For an interpretation of the significance of Armenoid skulls in the Canary Is. see G. Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 156-7.

[1021]"Dénombrement et Types des Crânes Néolithiques de la Gaule," inRev. Mens. de l'École d'Anthrop.1896.

[1022]T. Rice Holmes,Ancient Britain, 1907, p. 424.

[1023]"Infiltrazioni pacifiche." (Arii e Italici, p. 124.)

[1024]L'Anthr.XII.1901, pp. 547-8.

[1025]Cf. G. Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 58 ff.

[1026]T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 266, with list of authorities. See also Sigmund Feist,Kultur,Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen, 1913, p. 364, and H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, pp. 386 and 387.

[1027]T. Rice Holmes,loc. cit.p. 272.

[1028]W. Wright,Middlesex Hospital Journal,XII.1908, p. 44.

[1029]See A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, pp. 16, 17, 55.

[1030]R. S. Conway,The Italic Dialects, 1897, and Art. "Etruria: Language,"Ency. Brit.1911.

[1031]Cf. T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 283. "The truth is that linguistic data are insufficient."

[1032]I.57.

[1033]See p. 465.

[1034]For Lydian see E. Littmann,Sardis, "Lydian Inscriptions," 1916, briefly summarised by P. Giles, "Some Notes on the New Lydian Inscriptions,"Camb. Univ. Rep.1917, p. 587.

[1035]S. Feist,Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen, 1913, p. 385.

[1036]"The attempts to connect the language with the Indo-European family have been unsuccessful," A. H. Sayce, Art. "Lycia,"Ency. Brit.1911. But cf. also S. Feist,loc. cit.pp. 385-7; and Th. Kluge,Die Lykier, ihre Geschichte und ihre Inschriften, 1910.

[1037]A. J. Evans,Scripta Minoa, 1909.

[1038]T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 289n.4.

[1039]Die Verwandtschaft des Baskischen mit den Berbersprachen Nord-Afrikas nachgewiesen, 1894.

[1040]"Die Sprachen waren mit einander verwandt, das stand ausser Zweifel." (Pref.IV.)

[1041]J. Vinson (Rev. de linguistique,XXXVIII.1905, p. 111) says, "no more absurd book on Basque has appeared of late years." See T. Rice Holmes,Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 299n.3.

[1042]"In the general series of organised linguistic families it [Basque] would take an intermediate place between the American on the one side and the Ugro-Altaic or Ugrian on the other." Wentworth Webster and Julien Vinson,Ency. Brit.1910, "Basques."

[1043]See W. Z. Ripley,The Races of Europe, 1900, Chap.VIII."The Basques," pp. 180-204.

[1044]Rev. mensuelle de l'École d'Anthr.X.1900, pp. 225-7.

[1045]S. Feist,Kultur, Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen, 1913.

[1046]Hist. de la Gaule,I.1908, p. 271.

[1047]"La Race Basque,"L'Anthrop.1894.

[1048]W. Z. Ripley,loc. cit.p. 200.

[1049]Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 287. Cf. J. Déchelette (Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 27), "As a rule it is wise to attach to this expression (Iberian) merely a geographical value." Reviewing the problems of Iberian origins (which he considers remain unsolved), he quotes as an example of their range, the opinion of C. Jullian (Revue des Études Anciennes, 1903, p. 383), "There is no Iberian race. The Iberians were a state constituted at latest towards the 6th century, in the valley of the Ebro, which received, either from strangers or from the indigenous peoples, the name of the river asnom de guerre."

[1050]J. Vinson (Rev. de linguistique,XL.1907, pp. 5, 211) divides the Iberian inscriptions into three groups, each of which, he believes, represents a different language.

[1051]The Mediterranean Race, 1901.

[1052]Dict. des sc. anthr.p. 247, andRev. de l'École d'Anthr.XVII.1907, p. 365.

[1053]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, p. 723.

[1054]Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 27n., see also p. 22 for archaeological proofs of "ethnographic distinctions."

[1055]Hist. de la Gaule, I. Chap.IV.The author makes it clear, however, that his "Ligurians" are not necessarily an ethnic unit, "De l'unité de nom, ne concluons pas à l'unité de race" (119), and later (p. 120), "Ne considérons donc pas les Ligures comme les représentants uniformes d'une race déterminée. Ils sont la population qui habitait l'Europe occidentale avant les invasions connues des Celtes ou des Étrusques, avant la naissance des peuples latin ou ibère. Ils ne sont pas autre chose."

[1056]Gaule av. Gaulois, p. 248.

[1057]Loc. cit.p. 23n.I.

[1058]Early Age of Greece, 1901, p. 237 ff., and "Who were the Romans?"Proc. Brit. Acad.III.19, 1908, p. 3.

[1059]See R. S. Conway, Art. "Liguria,"Ency. Brit.1911. It may be noted, however, as Feist points out (Ausbreitung und Herkunft des Indogermanen, 1913, p. 368), this hypothesis rests on slight foundations ("ruht auf schwachen Füßen").

[1060]Arii e Italici, p. 60.

[1061]Corresbl. d. d. Ges. f. Anthrop., Feb. 1898, p. 12.

[1062]Yet Ligurians are actually planted on the North Atlantic coast of Spain by S. Sempere y Miguel (Revista de Ciencias Historicas,I.v. 1887).

[1063]Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 22.

[1064]Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1911, p. 287.

[1065]"La Civilisation Primitive dans la Sicilie Orientale," inL'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 130 sq.; and p. 295 sq.

[1066]Præhistorische Studien aus Sicilien, quoted by Patroni.

[1067]p. 130.

[1068]See p. 21.

[1069]It may be mentioned that while Penka makes the Siculi Illyrians from Upper Italy ("Zur Paläoethnologie Mittel- u. Südeuropas," inWiener Anthrop. Ges.1897, p. 18), E. A. Freeman holds that they were not only Aryans, but closely akin to the Romans, speaking "an undeveloped Latin," or "something which did not differ more widely from Latin than one dialect of Greek differed from another" (The History of Sicily, etc.,I.p. 488). On the Siculi and Sicani, see E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums, 1909, I. 2, p. 723, also Art. "Sicily, History,"Ency. Brit.1911. Déchelette (Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique,II.1910, p. 17) suggests that Sikelos or Siculus, the eponymous hero of Sicily, may have been merely the personification of the typical Ligurian implement, the bronzesickle(Lat. secula, sicula).

[1070]I.22.

[1071]VI.2.

[1072]Parte I. Dati Antropologici ed Etnologici, Rome, 1896.

[1073]p. 182.

[1074]Atti Soc. Rom. d' Antrop.1896, pp. 179 and 201.

[1075]Cf. W. Z. Ripley, "Racial Geography of Europe,"Pop. Sci. Monthly, New York, 1897-9, andThe Races of Europe, 1900, pp. 54, 175.

[1076]Arii e Italici, p. 188. Hence for these Italian Ligurians he claims the name of "Italici," which he refuses to extend to the Aryan intruders in the peninsula. "A questi primi abitatori spetta legittimamente il nome di Italici, non a popolazioni successive [Aryan Umbrians], che avrebbero sloggiato i primi abitanti" (p. 60). The result is a little confusing, "Italic" being now the accepted name of the Italian branch of the Aryan linguistic family, and also commonly applied to the Aryans of this Italic speech, although the wordItaliaitself may have been indigenous (Ligurian) and not introduced by the Aryans. It would perhaps be better to regard "Italia" as a "geographical expression" applicable to all its inhabitants, whatever their origin or speech.

[1077]Science Progress, July, 1894. It will be noticed that the facts, accepted by all, are differently interpreted by Beddoe and Sergi, the latter taking the long-headed element in North Italy as the aboriginal (Ligurian), modified by the later intrusion of round-headed Aryan Slavs, Teutons, and especially Kelts, while Beddoe seems to regard the broad-headed Alpine as the original, afterwards modified by intrusive long-headed types "Germanic, Slavic, or of doubtful origin." Either view would no doubt account for the present relations; but Sergi's study of the prehistoric remains (see above) seems to compel acceptance of his explanation. From the statistics an average height of not more than 5 ft. 4 in. results for the whole of Italy.

[1078]For the identification of the Mediterranean race in Greece with the Pelasgians, see W. Ridgeway,Early Age of Greece,I.1901, though Ripley contends (The Races of Europe, 1900, p. 407), "Positively no anthropological data on the matter exist."

[1079]Τὸ τῶν Πελασγῶν γένος Ἑλληνικόν.

[1080]I.57.

[1081]Il.X.429;Od.XIX.177.

[1082]"We recognize in the Pelasgi an ancient and honourable race, ante-Hellenic, it is true, but distinguished from the Hellenes only in the political and social development of their age.... Herodotus and others take a prejudiced view when, reasoning back from the subsequent Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, they call the ancient Pelasgians a rude and worthless race, their language barbarous, and their deities nameless. Numerous traditionary accounts, of undoubted authenticity, describe them as a brave, moral, and honourable people, which was less a distinct stock and tribe, than a race united by a resemblance in manners and the forms of life" (W. Wachsmuth,The Historical Antiquities of the Greeks, etc., Engl. ed. 1837,I.p. 39). Remarkable words to have been written before the recent revelations of archaeology in Hellas.

[1083]That the two cultures went on for a long time side by side is evident from the different social institutions and religious ideas prevailing in different parts of Hellas during the strictly historic period.

[1084]κατὰ τὴν Ἑλλάδα πᾶσαν ἐπεπόλασε(Strabo,V.220). This might almost be translated, "they flooded the whole of Greece."

[1085]Early Age of Greece, 1901, Chaps.I.andII.

[1086]Od.XIX.

[1087]Thuc.I.3.

[1088]This idea of an independent evolution of western (European) culture is steadily gaining ground, and is strenuously advocated, amongst others, by M. Salomon Reinach, who has made a vigorous attack on what he calls the "oriental mirage,"i.e.the delusion which sees nothing but Asiatic or Egyptian influences everywhere. Sergi of course goes further, regarding the Mediterranean (Iberian, Ligurian, Pelasgian) cultures not only as local growths, but as independent both of Asiatics and of the rude Aryan hordes, who came rather as destroyers than civilisers. This is one of the fundamental ideas pervading the whole of hisArii e Italici, and some earlier writings.

[1089]Pausanias,III.20. 5.

[1090]G. Sergi,The Mediterranean Race, 1901. In the main he is supported by philologists. "The languages of the indigenous peoples throughout Asia Minor and the Aegean area are commonly believed to have been non-Indo-European." H. M. Chadwick,The Heroic Age, 1912, p. 179 n.

[1091]W. Ridgeway,The Early Age of Greece, 1901, p. 681 ff.

[1092]The Dawn of History, 1911, p. 40. For his views on Pelasgians, seeJourn. Hell. St.1907, p. 170, and the Art. "Pelasgians" inEncy. Brit.1911.

[1093]E. Petersen and F. von Luschan,Reisen in Lykien, 1889.

[1094]W. Z. Ripley,The Races of Europe, p. 404 ff. The map (facing p. 402) does not include Greece, and the grouping is based on language, not race.

[1095]The Mykenaean skull found by Bent at Antiparos is described as "abnormally dolichocephalic." W. Ridgeway,Early Age of Greece,I.1901, p. 78.

[1096]But in Ridgeway's view the "classical Hellenes" were descendants of tall fair-haired invaders from the North, and in this he has the concurrence of J. L. Myres,The Dawn of History, 1911, p. 209.

[1097]Mitt. d. K. d. Inst. Athen.XXX.See H. R. Hall,Ancient History of the Near East, 1913, pp. 61-4.

[1098]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, § 507.

[1099]For a discussion of the meaning of "Pelasgic Argos" see H. M. Chadwick,The Heroic Age, 1912, pp. 274 ff. and 278-9, and for his criticism of Meyer, p. 285.

[1100]But see W. Ridgeway,Early Age of Greece,I.1901, p. 138 ff.

[1101]Art. "Indo-European Languages,"Ency. Brit.1911.

[1102]R. S. Conway, Art. "Aegean Civilisation," inEncy. Brit.1911, whence this summary is derived, including the chronology, which is not in all respects universally adopted (see p. 27). For a full discussion of the chronology see J. Déchelette,Manuel d'Archéologie préhistorique, Vol.II.1910,Archéologie celtique ou protohistorique, Ch.II.§ V. Chronologie égéenne, p. 54 ff.

[1103]In his valuable and comprehensive work,Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica, Turin, 1897. It must not be supposed that this classification is unchallenged. T. A. Joyce, "Hamitic Races and Languages,"Ency. Brit.1911, points out that it is impossible to prove the connection between the Eastern and Northern Hamites. The former have a brown skin, with frizzy hair, and are nomadic or semi-nomadic pastors; the latter, whom he would call not Hamites at all, but the Libyan variety of the Mediterranean race, are a white people, with curly hair, and their purest representatives, the Berbers, are agriculturalists. For the fullest and most recent treatment of the subject see the monumental work of Oric Bates,The Eastern Libyans: An Essay, 1913, with bibliography.

[1104]"Les Maures du Sénégal,"L'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 258 sq.

[1105]That is, theSanhaja-an Litham, those who wear thelithamor veil, which is needed to protect them from the sand, but has now acquired religious significance, and is never worn by the "Moors."

[1106]p. 269.

[1107]See F. Stuhlmann's invaluable work on African culture and race distribution,Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, especially the map showing the distribution of the Hamites, Pl.II. B.

[1108]The Kababish and Baggara tribes, chief mainstays of former Sudanese revolts, claim to be of unsullied Arab descent with long fictitious pedigrees going back to early Muhammadan times (see p. 74).

[1109]"Les Chaouias,"L'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 14.

[1110]P. 17.

[1111]The words collected by Sir H. H. Johnston at Dwirat in Tunis show a great resemblance with the language of the Saharan Tuaregs, and the sheikh of that place "admitted that his people could understand and make themselves understood by those fierce nomads, who range between the southern frontier of Algeria and Tunis and the Sudan" (Geogr. Jour., June, 1898, p. 590).

[1112]Cf. Meinhof,Die Moderne Sprachforschung in Africa, 1910.

[1113]Ti-bu= "Rock People"; cf.Kanem-bu= "Kanem People," southernmost branch of the family on north side of Lake Chad.

[1114]Ὄντων δὲ καὶ αὐτῶν ἤδη μᾶλλον Αἰθιόπων(I. 8). I takeἤδη, which has caused some trouble to commentators, here to mean that, as you advance southwards from the Mediterranean seaboard, you find yourself on entering Garamantian territory already rather amongst Ethiopians than Libyans.

[1115]Reclus, Eng. ed. Vol.XI.p. 429. For the complicated ancestral mixture producing the Tibu see Sir H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 386.

[1116]Reclus, Eng. ed. Vol.XI.p. 430.

[1117]From the enormous sheets of tuffs near the Kharga Oasis Zettel, geologist of G. Rohlf's expedition in 1876, considered that even this sandy waste might have supported a rich vegetation in Quaternary times.

[1118]SeeHistoire de la Civilisation Égyptienne, G. Jéquier, 1913, p. 53 ff. Also, concerning pottery, E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 203.

[1119]The Egyptians themselves had a tradition that when Menes moved north he found the delta still under water. The sea reached almost as far as the Fayum, and the whole valley, except the Thebais, was a malarious swamp (Herod.II.4). Thus late into historic times memories still survived that the delta was of relatively recent formation, and that theRetu(Romituof the Pyramid texts, laterRotu,Romi, etc.) had already developed their social system before the Lower Nile valley was inhabitable. Hence whether the Nile took 20,000 years (Schweinfurth) or over 70,000, as others hold, to fill in its estuary, the beginning of the Egyptian prehistoric period must still be set back many millenniums before the new era. "Ce que nous savons du Sahara, lui-même alors sillonné de rivières, atteste qu'il [the delta] ne devait pas être habitable, pas être constitué à l'époque quaternaire" (M. Zaborowski,Bul. Soc. d'Anthrop.1896, p. 655).

[1120]G. Jéquier,Histoire de la Civilisation Égyptienne, 1913, p. 95, but see E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 209.

[1121]Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, p. 143.

[1122]"Migrations,"Journ. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1906.

[1123]"A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.

[1124]See p. 482 below.

[1125]For an alternative route see E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 209; J. L. Myres,The Dawn of History, 1911, pp. 56-7, also p. 65, and the criticism of Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 88-9.

[1126]The Ancient Egyptians, 1911.

[1127]The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 56, 58, 62.

[1128]The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, pp. 104-5.

[1129]G. Elliot Smith,loc. cit.pp. 97 and 147.

[1130]E. Meyer,Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, §§ 229, 232, 253.

[1131]G. Elliot Smith,The Ancient Egyptians, 1911, p. 108, but for a different interpretation see J. L. Myres,The Dawn of History, 1911 pp. 51 and 65.

[1132]Loc. cit.p. 147.

[1133]H. R. Hall (The Ancient History of the Near East, 1913, p. 87n.3) sees "no resemblance whatever between the facial traits of the Memphite grandees of the Old Kingdom and those of Hittites, Syrians, or modern Anatolians, Armenians or Kurds. They were much more like South Europeans, like modern Italians or Cretans."

[1134]Cf. H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Soc.XLIII.1913, p. 383, and also E. Naville, "The Origin of Egyptian Civilisation,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVII.1907, p. 210.

[1135]G. A. Reisner, "The Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr," Part 1. Vol.II.ofUniversity of California Publications, 1908, summarised by L. W. King,History of Sumer and Akkad, 1910, pp. 326, 334.

[1136]Geschichte des Altertums,I.2, 1909, p. 156.

[1137]Journ. Anthr. Inst.XXXIII.1903,XXXV.1905,XXXVI.1906, andJourn. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVIII.1908.

[1138]Cf. H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 382.

[1139]No physical affinity is suggested. The Lesghian tribes "betray an accentuated brachycephaly, equal to that of the pure Mongols about the Caspians." W. Z. Ripley,The Races of Europe, p. 440.

[1140]J. Deniker,The Races of Man, 1900, p. 439, places the Fulahs in a separate group, the Fulah-Zandeh group. Cf. also A. C. Haddon,The Wanderings of Peoples, 1911, p. 59.

[1141]Loc. cit.p. 401n.

[1142]Africa, 1897,passim.

[1143]"Some Aspects of the Hamitic Problem in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 604. See also C. Crossland,Desert and Water Gardens of the Red Sea, 1913.

[1144]Genealogies of the Somal, 1896.

[1145]"Reisestudien in den Somaliländern,"Globus,LXX.p. 33 sq.

[1146]Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas: Die geistige Kultur der Danákil, Galla u. Somâl, 1896, 2 vols.

[1147]M. Merker,Die Masai, 1904; A. C. Hollis,The Masai, their Language and Folklore, 1905. C. Dundas, "The Organization and Laws of some Bantu Tribes in East Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLV.1915, pp. 236-7, thinks that the power of the Masai was over-rated, and that the Galla were really a fiercer race. He quotes Krapf, "Give me the Galla and I have Central Africa." TheNandi(an allied tribe) are described by A. C. Hollis, 1909, andThe Sukby M. W. H. Beech, 1911.

[1148]A. E. W. Gleichen,Rennell Rodd's Mission to Menelik, 1897.

[1149]Among recent works on Abyssinia may be mentioned A. B. Wylde,Modern Abyssinia, 1901; H. Weld Blundell, "A Journey through Abyssinia,"Geog. Journ.XV. 1900, and "Exploration in the Abai Basin,"ib.XXVII.1906; theAnthropological Survey of Abyssiniapublished by the French Government in 1911; and various publications of the Princeton University Expedition to Abyssinia, edited by E. Littmann.

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