The Negrilloes.

The Strandloopers.

When the Hottentots of South Africa were questioned by scientific men a hundred years ago and more regarding their traditions, they were wont to refer to their predecessors on the coast of South Africa as a savage race living on the seashore and subsisting on shellfish and the bodies of stranded whales. From their habits these were styled in Dutch the Strandloopers or "Shore-runners[293]." According to F. C. Shrubsall the Strandlooper of the Cape Colony caves preceded the Bushman in South Africa. They were a race of short but not dwarfish men with a much higher skull capacity than that of the average Bush race. The extreme of cranial capacity in the Strandloopers was a maximum of over 1600 c.c., while the extreme minimum among the Bush people descends as low as 955 c.c. The frontal region of the skull is much better developed than in the Bush race, and in that respect is more like the Negro. There is little or no brow prominence and one at least of the skulls is as orthognathous in facial angle as that of a European. L. Peringuey remarks also that the type was less dolichocephalic than the Bushmen and Hottentots, under 80 in cephalic index. "He was artistically gifted, like the race which occupied and decorated the Altamira ... and other caves of Spain and France. He painted; he possibly carved on rocks; he used bone tools; he made pottery; he perforated stones for either heading clubs or to be used as make-weights for digging tools; his ornaments consisted of sea-shells; and the ostrich egg-shell discs which he made may be said to bea typical product of his industry. And this culture is retained in South Africa by a kindred race, but more dolichocephalic—the Bushmen-Hottentots. Analogous are most of his tools and his expressions of culture to those of Aurignacian man."

The Negrilloes.

Negrilloes at the Courts of the Pharaohs.

The proper domain of the African Negrilloes is the intertropical forest-land, although they appear to be at present confined to somewhat narrow limits, between about six degrees of latitude north and south of the equator, unless the Bushmen be included. But formerly they probably ranged much farther north, and in historic times were certainly known in Egypt some 4000 or 5000 years ago. This is evident from the frequent references to them in the "Book of the Dead" as far back as the 6th Dynasty. Like the dwarfs in medieval times, they were in high request at the courts of the Pharaohs, who sent expeditions to fetch theseDanga(Tank) from the "Island of the Double," that is, the fabulous region of Shade Land beyond Punt, where they dwelt. The first of whom there is authentic record was brought from this region, apparently the White Nile, to King Assa (3300B.C.) by his officer, Baurtet. Some 70 years later Heru-Khuf, another officer, was sent by Pepi II "to bring back a pygmy alive and in good health," from the land of great trees away to the south[294]. That the Danga came from the south we know from a later inscription at Karnak, and that the word meant dwarf is clear from the accompanying determinative of a short person of stunted growth.

It is curious to note in this connection that the limestone statue of the dwarf Nem-hotep, found in his tomb at Sakkara and figured by Ernest Grosse, has a thick elongated head suggesting artificial deformation, unshapely mouth, dull expression, strong full chest, and small deformed feet, on which he seems badly balanced. It will be remembered that Schweinfurth's Akkas from Mangbattuland were also represented as top-heavy, although the best observers, Junker and others, describe those of the Welle and Congo forests as shapely and by no means ill-proportioned.

Negrilloes and Pygmy Folklore.

Kollmann also, who has examined the remains of the Neolithic pygmies from the Schweizersbild Station, Switzerland, "is quite certain that the dwarf-like proportions of the latter have nothing in common with diseased conditions. This, from many points of view, is a highly interesting discovery. It is possible, as Nüesch suggests, that the widely-spread legend as to the former existence of little men, dwarfs and gnomes, who were supposed to haunt caves and retired places in the mountains, may be a reminiscence of these Neolithic pygmies[295]."

The Dume and Doko, reputed Dwarfs.

This is what may be called the picturesque aspect of the Negrillo question, which it seems almost a pity to spoil by too severe a criticism. But "ethnologic truth" obliges us to say that the identification of the African Negrillo with Kollmann's European dwarfs still lacks scientific proof. Even craniology fails us here, and although the Negrilloes are in great majority round-headed, R. Verneau has shown that there may be exceptions[296], while the theory of the general uniformity of the physical type has broken down at some other points. Thus theDume, south of Gallaland, discovered by Donaldson Smith[297]in the district where theDokoNegrilloes had long been heard of, and even seen by Antoine d'Abbadie in 1843, were found to average five feet, or more than one foot over the mean of the true Negrillo. D'Abbadie in fact declared that his "Dokos" were not pygmies at all[298], while Donaldson Smith now tells us that "doko" is only a term of contempt applied by the local tribes to their "poor relations." "Their chief characteristics were a black skin, round features, woolly hair, small oval-shaped eyes, rather thick lips, high cheekbones, a broad forehead, and very well formed bodies" (p. 273).

The expression of the eye was canine, "sometimes timid and suspicious-looking, sometimes very amiable and merry, and then again changing suddenly to a look of intense anger."Pygmies, he adds, "inhabited the whole of the country north of Lakes Stephanie and Rudolf long before any of the tribes now to be found in the neighbourhood; but they have been gradually killed off in war, and have lost their characteristics by inter-marriage with people of large stature, so that only this one little remnant, the Dume, remains to prove the existence of a pygmy race. Formerly they lived principally by hunting, and they still kill a great many elephants with their poisoned arrows" (pp. 274-5).

The Wandorobbo Hunters.

Some of these remarks apply also to theWandorobbo, another small people who range nearly as far north as the Dume, but are found chiefly farther south all over Masailand, and belong, I have little doubt, to the same connection. They are the henchmen of the Masai, whom they provide with big game in return for divers services.

Those met by W. Astor Chanler were also "armed with bows and arrows, and each carried an elephant-spear, which they calledbonati. This spear is six feet in length, thick at either end, and narrowed where grasped by the hand. In one end is bored a hole, into which is fitted an arrow two feet long, as thick as one's thumb, and with a head two inches broad. Their method of killing elephants is to creep cautiously up to the beast, and drive a spear into its loin. A quick twist separates the spear from the arrow, and they make off as fast and silently as possible. In all cases the arrows are poisoned; and if they are well introduced into the animal's body, the elephant does not go far[299]."

The Wochua Mimics.

From some of the peculiarities of the Achua (Wochua) Negrilloes met by Junker south of the Welle one can understand why these little people were such favourites with the old Egyptian kings. These were "distinguished by sharp powers of observation, amazing talent for mimicry, and a good memory. A striking proof of this was afforded by an Achua whom I had seen and measured four years previously in Rumbek, and now again met at Gambari's. His comic ways and quick nimble movements made this little fellow the clown of our society. He imitated with marvellous fidelity the peculiarities of persons whom he had once seen; for instance, the gestures and facialexpressions of Jussuf Pasha esh-Shelahis and of Haj Halil at their devotions, as well as the address and movements of Emin Pasha, 'with the four eyes' (spectacles). His imitation of Hawash Effendi in a towering rage, storming and abusing everybody, was a great success; and now he took me off to the life, rehearsing after four years, down to the minutest details, and with surprising accuracy, my anthropometric performance when measuring his body at Rumbek[300]."

A somewhat similar account is given by Ludwig Wolf of the Ba-Twa pygmies visited by him and Wissmann in the Kassai region. Here are whole villages in the forest-glades inhabited by little people with an average height of about 4 feet 3 inches. They are nomads, occupied exclusively with hunting and the preparation of palm-wine, and are regarded by their Ba-Kubu neighbours as benevolent little people, whose special mission is to provide the surrounding tribes with game and palm-wine in exchange for manioc, maize, and bananas[301].

Despite the above-mentioned deviations, occurring chiefly about the borderlands, considerable uniformity both of physical and mental characters is found to prevail amongst the typical Negrillo groups scattered in small hunting communities all over the Welle, Semliki, Congo, and Ogowai woodlands. Their main characters are thus described. Their skin is of a reddish or yellowish brown in colour, sometimes very dark. Their height varies from 1.37 m. to 1.45 m. (4 ft. 4¼ in. to 4 ft. 9¼ in.[302]). Their hair is very short and woolly, usually of a dark rusty brown colour; the face hair is variable, but the body is usually covered with a light downy hair. The cephalic index is 79. The nose is very broad and exceptionally flattened at the root; the lips are usually thin, and the upper one long; the eyes are protuberant; the face is sometimes prognathic. Steatopygia occurs. They are a markedly intelligent people, innately musical, cunning, revengeful and suspicious in disposition, but they never steal.

They are nomadic hunters and collectors, never resorting to agriculture. They have no domestic animals. Only meat is cooked. They wear no clothing. They use bows andpoisoned arrows. Their language is unknown. They live in small communities which centre round a cunning fighter or able hunter. Their dead are buried in the ground. They differ from surrounding Negroes in having no veneration for the departed, no amulets, no magicians or professional priests. They have charms for ensuring luck in hunting, but it is uncertain whether these charms derive their potency from the supreme being, though evidence of belief in a high-god is reported from various pygmy peoples.[303]

Bushmen and Hottentots. Former and Present Range.

Towards the south the Negrillo domain was formerly conterminous with that of the Bushmen, of whom traces were discovered by Sir H. H. Johnston[304]as far north as Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika, and who, it has been conjectured, belong to the same primitive stock. The differences mental and physical now separating the two sections of the family may perhaps be explained by the different environments—hot, moist and densely wooded in the north, and open steppes in the south—but until more is known of the African pygmies their affinities must remain undecided.

The relationship between the Bushmen and the Hottentots is another disputed question. Early authorities regarded the Hottentots as the parent family, and the Bushmen as the offspring, but the researches of Gustav Fritsch, E. T. Hamy, F. Shrubsall[305]and others show that the Hottentots are a cross between the Bushmen—the primitive race—and the Bantu, the Bushman element being seen in the leathery colour, prominent cheek-bones, pointed chin, steatopygia and other special characters.

The Wa-Sandawi.

In prehistoric times the Hottentots ranged over a vast area. Evidence has now been produced of the presence of a belated Hottentot or Hottentot-Bushman group as far north as the Kwa-Kokue district, between Kilimanjaro and Victoria Nyanza. TheWa-Sandawipeople here visited by Oskar Neumann are not Bantus, and speak a language radically distinct from that of the neighbouring Bantus, but full of clicks like that of the Bushmen[306]. Two Sandawi skulls examined by Virchow[307]showed distinct Hottentot characters, with a cranial capacity of 1250 and 1265 c.c., projecting upper jaw and orthodolicho head[308]. The geographical prefixKwa, common in the district (Kwa-Kokue, Kwa-Mtoro, Kwa-Hindi), is pure Hottentot, meaning "people," like the postfixqua(Kwa) of Kora-qua, Nama-qua, etc. in the present Hottentot domain. The transposition of prefixes and postfixes is a common linguistic phenomenon, as seen in the Sumero-Akkadian of Babylonia, in the Neo-Sanskritic tongues of India, and the Latin, Oscan, and other members of the Old Italic group.

Hottentot Geographical Names in Bantuland.

Farther south a widely-diffused Hottentot-Bushman geographical terminology attests the former range of this primitive race all over South Africa, as far north as the Zambesi. Lichtenstein had already discovered such traces in the Zulu country[309], and Vater points out that "for some districts the fact has been fully established; mountains and rivers now occupied by the Koossa [Ama-Xosa] preserve in their Hottentot names the certain proof that they at one time formed a permanent possession of this people[310]."

Thanks to the custom of raising heaps of stones or cairns over the graves of renowned chiefs, the migrations of theHottentots may be followed in various directions to the very heart of South Zambesia. Here the memory of their former presence is perpetuated in the names of such water-courses as Nos-ob, Up, Mol-opo, Hyg-ap, Gar-ib, in which the syllablesob,up,ap,iband others are variants of the Hottentot wordib,ip, water, river, as inGar-ib, the "Great River," now better known as the Orange River. The same indications may be traced right across the continent to the Atlantic, where nearly all the coast streams—even in Hereroland, where the language has long been extinct—have the same ending[311].

Hottentots disappearing.

On the west side the Bushmen are still heard of as far north as the Cunene, and in the interior beyond Lake Ngami nearly to the right bank of the Zambesi. But the Hottentots are now confined mainly to Great and Little Namaqualand. Elsewhere there appear to be no full-blood natives of this race, the Koraquas, Gonaquas, Griquas, etc. being all Hottentot-Boer or Hottentot-Bantu half-castes of Dutch speech. In Cape Colony the tribal organisation ceased to exist in 1810, when the last Hottentot chief was replaced by a European magistrate. Still the Koraquas keep themselves somewhat distinct about the Upper Orange and Vaal Rivers, and the Griquas in Griqualand East, while the Gonaquas, that is, "Borderers," are being gradually merged in the Bantu populations of the Eastern Provinces. There are at present scarcely 180,000 south of the Orange River, and of these the great majority are half-breeds[312].

Bushman Folklore Literature.

Despite their extremely low state of culture, or, one might say, the almost total lack of culture, the Bushmen are distinguished by two remarkable qualities, a fine sense of pictorial or graphic art[313], and a rich imagination displayed in a copious oral folklore, much of which, collected by Bleek, is preserved in manuscript form in Sir George Grey's library at Cape Town[314]. The materials here stored for future use, perhaps long after the race itself has vanished for ever, comprise no less than 84 thick volumes of3600 double-column pages, besides an unfinished Bushman dictionary with 11,000 entries. There are two great sections, (1) Myths, fables, legends and poetry, with tales about the sun and moon, the stars, theMantisand other animals, legends of peoples who dwelt in the land before the Bushmen, songs, charms, and even prayers; (2) Histories, adventures of men and animals, customs, superstitions, genealogies, and so on.

Bushman-Hottentot Language and Clicks.

In the tales and myths the sun, moon, and animals speak either with their own proper clicks, or else use the ordinary clicks in some way peculiar to themselves. Thus Bleek tells us that the tortoise changes clicks in labials, the ichneumon in palatals, the jackal substitutes linguo-palatals for labials, while the moon, hare, and ant-eater use "a most unpronounceable click" of their own. How many there may be altogether, not one of which can be properly uttered by Europeans, nobody seems to know. But grammarians have enumerated nine, indicated each by a graphic sign as under:

From Bushman—a language in a state of flux, fragmentary as the small tribal or rather family groups that speak it[315]—these strange inarticulate sounds passed to the number of four into the remotely related Hottentot, and thence to the number of three into the wholly unconnected Zulu-Xosa. But they are heard nowhere else to my knowledge except amongst the newly-discovered Wa-Sandawi people of South Masailand. At the same time we know next to nothing of the Negrillo tongues, and should clicks be discovered to form an element in their phonetic system also[316], it would support the assumption of a common origin of all these dwarfish races now somewhat discredited on anatomical grounds.

Bushman Mental Characters.

M. G. Bertin, to whom we are indebted for an excellent monograph on the Bushman[317], rightly remarks that he is not, at least mentally, so debased as he has been described by the early travellers and by the neighbouring Bantus and Boers, by whom he has always been despised and harried. "His greatest love is for freedom, he acknowledges no master, and possesses no slaves. It is this love of independence which made him prefer the wandering life of a hunter to that of a peaceful agriculturist or shepherd, as the Hottentot. He rarely builds a hut, but prefers for abode the natural caves he finds in the rocks. In other localities he forms a kind of nest in the bush—hence his name of Bushman—or digs with his nails subterranean caves, from which he has received the name of 'Earthman.' His garments consist only of a small skin. His weapons are still the spear, arrow and bow in their most rudimentary form. The spear is a mere branch of a tree, to which is tied a piece of bone or flint; the arrow is only a reed treated in the same way. The arrow and spear-heads are always poisoned, to render mortal the slight wounds they inflict. He gathers no flocks, which would impede his movements, and only accepts the help of dogs as wild as himself. The Bushmen have, however, one implement, a rounded stone perforated in the middle, in which is inserted a piece of wood; with this instrument, which carries us back to the first age of man, they dig up a few edible roots growing wild in the desert. To produce fire, he still retains the primitive system of rubbing two pieces of wood—another prehistoric survival."

Bushman Race-names.

Touching their name, it is obvious that these scattered groups, without hereditary chiefs or social organisation of any kind, could have no collective designation. The termKhuai, of uncertain meaning, but probably to be equated with the HottentotKhoi, "Men," is the name only of a single group, though often applied to the whole race.Saan, their Hottentot name, is the plural of Sa, a term also of uncertain origin;Ba-roa, current amongst the Be-Chuanas, has not been explained, while the ZuluAbatwawould seem to connect them even by name with Wolf's and Stanley'sBa-Twaof the Congo forest region. Other so-called tribal names (there are no "tribes" in the strict sense of the word) are either nicknames imposed upon them by theirneighbours, or else terms taken from the localities, as amongst the Fuegians.

We may conclude with the words of W. J. Sollas: "The more we know of these wonderful little people the more we learn to admire and like them. To many solid virtues—untiring energy, boundless patience, and fertile invention, steadfast courage, devoted loyalty, and family affection—they added a native refinement of manners and a rare aesthetic sense. We may learn from them how far the finer excellences of life may be attained in the hunting stage. In their golden age, before the coming of civilised man, they enjoyed their life to the full, glad with the gladness of primeval creatures. The story of their later days, their extermination and the cruel manner of it, is a tale of horror on which we do not care to dwell. They haunt no more the sunlit veldt, their hunting is over, their nation is destroyed; but they leave behind an imperishable memory, they have immortalised themselves in their art[318]."

FOOTNOTES:[223]C. Meinhof holds that Proto-Bantu arose through the mixture of a Sudan language with one akin to Fulah.An Introduction to the Study of African Languages, 1915, p. 151 sqq.[224]Bantu, properly Aba-ntu, "people."Abais one of the numerous personal prefixes, each with its corresponding singular form, which are the cause of so much confusion in Bantu nomenclature. Toaba,ab,baanswers a sing.umu,um,mu, so that sing.umu-ntu,um-ntuormu-ntu, a man, a person; plu.aba-ntu,ab-ntu, ba-ntu. But in some groups mu is also plural, the chief dialectic variants being,Ama,Aba,Ma,Ba,Wa,Ova,Va,Vua,U,A,O,Eshi, as in Ama-Zulu, Mu-Sarongo, Ma-Yomba, Wa-Swahili, Ova-Herero, Vua-Twa, Ba-Suto, Eshi-Kongo. For a tentative classification of African tribes see T. A. Joyce, Art. "Africa: Ethnology,"Ency. Brit.1910, p. 329. For the classification of Bantu tongues into 44 groups consult H. H. Johnston, Art. "Bantu Languages,"loc. cit.[225]Eth.Ch. XI.[226]Le Naturaliste, Jan. 1894.[227]Tour de Monde, 1896,I. p. 1 sq.; andLes Bayas;Notes Ethnographiques et Linguistiques, Paris, 1896.[228]D. Randall-MacIver,Mediaeval Rhodesia, 1906. But R. N. Hall,Prehistoric Rhodesia, 1909, strongly opposes this view. See below, p. 105.[229]Even Tipu Tib, their chief leader and "Prince of Slavers," was a half-caste with distinctly Negroid features.[230]"Afilo wurde mir vom Lega-König als ein Negerland bezeichnet, welches von einer Galla-Aristokratie beherrscht wird" (Petermann's Mitt.1883,V. p. 194).[231]The Ba-Hima are herdsmen in Buganda, a sort of aristocracy in Unyoro, a ruling caste in Toro, and the dominant race with dynasties in Ankole. The name varies in different areas.[232]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1895, p. 424. For details of the Ba-Hima type seeEth.p. 389.[233]J. Roscoe,The Northern Bantu, 1915, p. 103. Herein are also described theBakene, lake dwellers, theBagesu, a cannibal tribe, theBasogaand the Nilotic tribes theBatesoandKavirondo.[234]J. Roscoe,loc. cit.pp. 4, 5.[235]"A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 390.[236]Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, p. 147.[237]"Die erste Ausbreitung des Menschengeschlechts."Pol. Anthropol. Revue, 1909, p. 72. Cf. chronology on p. 14 above.[238]Ethnology, p. 199.[239]Uganda is the name now applied to the whole Protectorate, Buganda is the small kingdom, Baganda, the people, Muganda, one person, Luganda, the language. H. H. Johnston,The Uganda Protectorate, 1902, and J. F. Cunningham,Uganda and its Peoples, 1905, cover much of the elementary anthropology of East Central Africa.[240]The legend is given with much detail by H. M. Stanley inThrough the Dark Continent, Vol.I.p. 344 sq. Another and less mythical account of the migrations of "the people with a white skin from the far north-east" is quoted from Emin Pasha by the Rev. R. P. Ashe inTwo Kings of Uganda, p. 336. Here the immigrant Ba-Hima are expressly stated to have "adopted the language of the aborigines" (p. 337).[241]Sir H. H. Johnston,op. cit.p. 514.[242]Except the Lung-fish clan.[243]J. Roscoe,The Baganda, 1911.[244]For theWa-Kikuyusee W. S. and K. Routledge,With a Prehistoric People, 1910, and C. W. Hobley's papers in theJourn. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, andXLI.1911. TheAtharakaare described by A. M. Champion,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLII.1912, p. 68. Consult for this region C. Eliot,The East Africa Protectorate, 1905; K. Weule,Native Life in East Africa, 1909; C. W. Hobley,Ethnology of the A-Kamba and other East African Tribes, 1910; M. Weiss,Die Völkerstämme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas, 1910; and A. Werner, "The Bantu Coast Tribes of the East Africa Protectorate,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLV.1915.[245]Official Report on the East African Protectorate, 1897.[246]Vocabulary of the Giryama Language, S.P.C.K. 1897.[247]Travels in the Coastlands of British East Africa, London, 1898, p. 103 sq.[248]A. Werner, "Girijama Texts,"Zeitschr. f. Kol.-spr.Oct. 1914.[249]Having become the chief medium of intercourse throughout the southern Bantu regions, Ki-swahili has been diligently cultivated, especially by the English missionaries, who have wisely discarded the Arab for the Roman characters. There is already an extensive literature, including grammars, dictionaries, translations of the Bible and other works, and evenA History of Romeissued by the S.P.C.K. in 1898.[250]W. E. H. Barrett, "Notes on the Customs and Beliefs of the Wa-Giriama," etc.,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLI.1911, gives further details. For a full review of the religious beliefs of Bantu tribes see E. S. Hartland, Art. "Bantu and S. Africa,"Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1909.[251]The name still survives inZangue-bar("Zang-land") and the adjacent island ofZanzibar(an Indian corruption).Zangis "black," andbaris the same Arabic word, meaning dry land, that we have inMala-baron the opposite side of the Indian Ocean. Cf. alsobarran wa bahran, "by land and by sea."[252]Viage por Malabar y Costas de Africa, 1512, translated by the Hon. Henry E. J. Stanley, Hakluyt Society, 1868.[253]In preference to the more popular formZulu-Kafir, whereKafiris merely the Arabic "Infidel" applied indiscriminately to any people rejecting Islám; hence theSiah Posh Kafirs("Black-clad Infidels") of Afghanistan; theKufraoasis in the Sahara, whereKufra, plural ofKafir, refers to the pagan Tibus of that district; and the Kafirs generally of the East African seaboard. But according to English usageZuluis applied to the northern part of the territory, mainly Zululand proper and Natal, while Kafirland or Kaffraria is restricted to the southern section between Natal and the Great Kei River. The bulk of these southern "Kafirs" belong to the Xosa connection; hence this term takes the place ofKafir, in the compound expressionZulu-Xosa.Amais explained on p. 86, and theXofXosarepresents an unpronounceable combination of a guttural and a lateral click, this with two other clicks (a dental and a palatal) having infected the speech of these Bantus during their long prehistoric wars with the Hottentots or Bushmen. See p. 129.[254]See p. 86 above.[255]See the admirable monograph on the Ba-Thonga, by H. A. Junod,The Life of a South African Tribe, 1912.[256]Robert Codrington tells us that these A-Ngoni (Aba-Ngoni) spring from a Zulu tribe which crossed the Zambesi about 1825, and established themselves south-east of L. Tanganyika, but later migrated to the uplands west of L. Nyasa, where they founded three petty states. Others went east of the Livingstone range, and are here still known as Magwangwara. But all became gradually assimilated to the surrounding populations. Intermarrying with the women of the country they preserve their speech, dress, and usages for the first generation in a slightly modified form, although the language of daily intercourse is that of the mothers. Then this class becomes the aristocracy of the whole nation, which henceforth comprises a great part of the aborigines ruled by a privileged caste of Zulu origin, "perpetuated almost entirely among themselves" ("Central Angoniland,"Geograph. Jour.May, 1898, p. 512). See A. Werner,The Natives of British Central Africa, 1906.[257]Rev. J. Macdonald,Light in Africa, p. 194. Among recent works on the Zulu-Xosa tribes may be mentioned Dudley Kidd,The Essential Kafir, 1904,Savage Childhood, 1905; H. A. Junod,The Life of a South African Tribe(Ba-Thonga), 1912-3; G. W. Stow and G. M. Theal,The Native Races of South Africa, 1905.[258]FromMwana, lord, master, andtapa, to dig, both common Bantu words.[259]The point was that Portugal had made treaties with this mythical State, in virtue of which she claimed in the "scramble for Africa" all the hinterlands behind her possessions on the east and west coasts (Mozambique and Angola), in fact all South Africa between the Orange and Zambesi rivers. Further details on the "Monomotapa Question" will be found in my monograph on "The Portuguese in South Africa" in Murray'sSouth Africa, from Arab Domination to British Rule, 1891, p. 11 sq. Five years later Mr G. McCall Theal also discovered, no doubt independently, the mythical character of Monomotapaland in his book onThe Portuguese in South Africa, 1896.[260]Proc. R. Geogr. Soc.May, 1892, andThe Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, 1892.[261]D. Randall-MacIver,Mediaeval Rhodesia, 1906. But R. N. Hall strongly combats his views,Great Zimbabwe, 1905,Prehistoric Rhodesia, 1909, andSouth African Journal of Science, May, 1912. H. H. Johnston says, "I see nothing inherently improbable in the finding of gold by proto-Arabs in the south-eastern part of Zambezia; nor in the pre-Islamic Arab origin of Zimbabwe," p. 396, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.[262]G. W. Stow,The Native Races of South Africa, 1905.[263]The British Protectorate was limited in 1905 to about 182,000 square miles.[264]Cf. A. St H. Gibbons,Africa South to North through Marotseland, 1904, and C. W. Mackintosh,Coillard of the Zambesi, 1907, with a bibliography.[265]The Ma-Kololo gave the Ba-Rotse their present name. They were originally Aälui, but the conquerors called them Ma-Rotse, people of the plain.[266]Ten Years North of the Orange River.[267]Cf. G. M. Theal,The History of South Africa1908-9, andThe Beginning of South African History, 1902.[268]Op. cit.p. 47.[269]G. Lagden,The Basutos, 1909.[270]Variously termedBa-Kongo,Bashi-KongoorBa-Fiot.[271]Towards the Mountains of the Moon, 1884, p. 128.[272]Dictionary and Grammar of the Kongo Language, 1887, p. xxiii. F. Starr has published aBibliography of the Congo Languages, Bull.V., Dept. of Anthropology, University of Chicago, 1908.[273]"Li Mociconghi cosi nomati nel suo proprio idioma gli abitanti del reame di Congo" (Relatione, etc., Rome, 1591, p. 68). This form is remarkable, being singular (Moci = Mushi) instead of plural (Eshi); yet it is still currently applied to the rude "Mushi-Kongos" on the south side of the estuary. Their real name however is Bashi-Kongo. SeeBrit. Mus. Ethnog. Handbook, p. 219.[274]Often writtenBa-Fiortwith an intrusiver.[275]Under Belgian administration much ethnological work has been undertaken, and published in theAnnales du Musée du Congo, notably the magnificent monograph on theBushongo(Bakuba) by E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, 1911. See also H. H. Johnston,George Grenfell and the Congo, 1908; M. W. Hilton-Simpson,Land and Peoples of the Kasai, 1911; E. Torday,Camp and Tramp in African Wilds, 1913; J. H. Weeks,Among Congo Cannibals, 1913, andAmong the Primitive Bakongo, 1914; and Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg,From the Congo to the Niger and the Nile, 1913.[276]The First Ascent of the Kassai, 1889, p. 20 sq. See also my communication to theAcademy, April 6, 1889, andAfrica(Stanford's Compendium), 1895, Vol.II.p. 117 sq.[277]Op. cit.p. 20.[278]The New World of Central Africa, 1890, p. 466 sq.[279]Op. cit.p. 471.[280]TheseMpangwesavages are constantly confused with theMpongwesof the Gabún, a settled Bantu people who have been long in close contact, and on friendly terms, with the white traders and missionaries in this district.[281]The scanty information about the Ba-Teke is given, with references, by E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Ethnography of the Ba-Huana,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1906.[282]MyAfrica,II.p. 58. Oscar Lenz, who perhaps knew them best, says: "Gut gebaut, schlank und kräftig gewachsen, Hautfarbe viel lichter, manchmal stark ins Gelbe spielend, Haar und Bartwuchs auffallend stark, sehr grosse Kinnbärte" (Skizzen aus West-Afrika, 1878, p. 73).[283]M. H. Kingsley,Travels in West Africa, 1897, pp. 331-2.[284]Official Report, 1886.[285]H. H. Johnston,George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on the Cameroons, 1908.[286]Reclus, English ed.,XII.p. 376.[287]So also in Minahassa, Celebes,Empung, "Grandfather," is the generic name of the gods. "The fundamental ideas of primitive man are the same all the world over. Just as the little black baby of the Negro, the brown baby of the Malay, the yellow baby of the Chinaman are in face and form, in gestures and habits, as well as in the first articulate sounds they mutter, very much alike, so the mind of man, whether he be Aryan or Malay, Mongolian or Negrito, has in the course of its evolution passed through stages which are practically identical" (Sydney J. Hickson,A Naturalist in North Celebes, 1889, p. 240).[288]Op. cit.p. 96.[289]"The God of the Ethiopians," inNature, May 26, 1892.[290]A. B. Ellis,Tshi, p. 23;Ewe, p. 31;Yoruba, p. 36.[291]Cf. E. S. Hartland, Art. "Bantu and S. Africa,"Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1909.[292]This account of the Vaalpens is taken from A. H. Keane,The World's Peoples, 1908, p. 149.[293]This summary of our information about the Strandloopers, with quotations from F. C. Shrubsall and L. Peringuey, is taken from H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 377.[294]Schiaparelli,Una Tomba Egiziana, Rome, 1893.[295]James Geikie,Scottish Geogr. Mag.Sept. 1897.[296]Thus he finds (L'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 153) a presumably Negrillo skull from the Babinga district, Middle Sangha river, to be distinctly long-headed (73.2) with, for this race, the enormous cranial capacity of about 1440 c.c. Cf. the Akka measured by Sir W. Flower (1372 c.c.), and his Andamanese (1128), the highest hitherto known being 1200 (Virchow).[297]Through Unknown African Countries, etc., 1897.[298]Bul. Soc. Géogr.XIX.p. 440.[299]Through Jungle and Desert, 1896, pp. 358-9.[300]Travels,III. p. 86.[301]Im Innern Afrika's, p. 259 sq. As stated inEth.Ch. XI. Dr Wolf connects all these Negrillo peoples with the Bushmen south of the Zambesi.[302]One of the Mambute brought to England by Col. Harrison in 1906 measured just over 3½ feet.[303]See A. C. Haddon, Art. "Negrillos and Negritos,"Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1917.[304]"It would seem as if the earliest known race of man inhabiting what is now British Central Africa was akin to the Bushman-Hottentot type of Negro. Rounded stones with a hole through the centre, similar to those which are used by the Bushmen in the south for weighting their digging-sticks, have been found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika. I have heard that other examples of these 'Bushman' stones have been found nearer to Lake Nyasa, etc." (British Central Africa, p. 52).[305]G. Fritsch,Die Ein-geborenen Sud-Afrikas, 1872, "Schilderungen der Hottentotten,"Globus, 1875, p. 374 ff.; E. T. Hamy, "Les Races nègres,"L'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 257 ff.; F. Shrubsall, "Crania of African Bush Races,"Journ. Anthr. Inst.1897. See also G. McCall Theal,The Yellow and Dark-skinned People South of the Zambesi, 1910.[306]"I have not been able to trace much affinity in word roots between this language and either Bushman or Hottentot, though it is noteworthy that the word for four ... is almost identical with the word for four in all the Hottentot dialects, while the phonology of the language is reminiscent of Bushmen in its nasals and gutturals" (H. H. Johnston, "Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 380).[307]Verhandl. Berliner Gesellsch. f. Anthrop.1895, p. 59.[308]Of another skull undoubtedly Hottentot, from a cave on the Transvaal and Orange Free State frontier, Dr Mies remarks that "seine Form ist orthodolichocephal wie bei den Wassandaui," although differing in some other characters (Centralbl. f. Anthr.1896, p. 50).[309]From which he adds that the Hottentots "schon lange vor der Portugiesischen Umschiffung Afrika's von Kaffer-Stämmen wieder zurückgedrängt wurden" (Reisen,I.p. 400).[310]Adelung und Vater, Berlin, 1812,III. p. 290.[311]Such are, going north from below Walvisch Bay, Chuntop, Kuisip, Swakop, Ugab, Huab, Uniab, Hoanib, Kaurasib, and Khomeb.[312]The returns for 1904 showed a "Hottentot" population of 85,892, but very few were pure Hottentots. The official estimate of those in which Hottentot blood was strongly marked was 56,000.[313]M. H. Tongue and E. D. Bleek,Bushman Paintings, 1909. Cf. W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, p. 399, with bibliography.[314]W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd,Bushman Folklore, 1911.[315]See W. Planert, "Über die Sprache der Hottentotten und Buschmänner,"Mitt. d. Seminars f. Oriental. Sprachen z. Berlin,VIII.(1905), Abt.III. 104-176.[316]"In the Pygmies of the north-eastern corner of the Congo basin and amongst the Bantu tribes of the Equatorial East African coast there is a tendency to faucal gasps or explosive consonants which suggests the vanishing influence of clicks." H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.[317]"The Bushmen and their Language," inJourn. R. Asiatic Soc.XVIII.Part 1.[318]Ancient Hunters, 1915, p. 425.

[223]C. Meinhof holds that Proto-Bantu arose through the mixture of a Sudan language with one akin to Fulah.An Introduction to the Study of African Languages, 1915, p. 151 sqq.

[224]Bantu, properly Aba-ntu, "people."Abais one of the numerous personal prefixes, each with its corresponding singular form, which are the cause of so much confusion in Bantu nomenclature. Toaba,ab,baanswers a sing.umu,um,mu, so that sing.umu-ntu,um-ntuormu-ntu, a man, a person; plu.aba-ntu,ab-ntu, ba-ntu. But in some groups mu is also plural, the chief dialectic variants being,Ama,Aba,Ma,Ba,Wa,Ova,Va,Vua,U,A,O,Eshi, as in Ama-Zulu, Mu-Sarongo, Ma-Yomba, Wa-Swahili, Ova-Herero, Vua-Twa, Ba-Suto, Eshi-Kongo. For a tentative classification of African tribes see T. A. Joyce, Art. "Africa: Ethnology,"Ency. Brit.1910, p. 329. For the classification of Bantu tongues into 44 groups consult H. H. Johnston, Art. "Bantu Languages,"loc. cit.

[225]Eth.Ch. XI.

[226]Le Naturaliste, Jan. 1894.

[227]Tour de Monde, 1896,I. p. 1 sq.; andLes Bayas;Notes Ethnographiques et Linguistiques, Paris, 1896.

[228]D. Randall-MacIver,Mediaeval Rhodesia, 1906. But R. N. Hall,Prehistoric Rhodesia, 1909, strongly opposes this view. See below, p. 105.

[229]Even Tipu Tib, their chief leader and "Prince of Slavers," was a half-caste with distinctly Negroid features.

[230]"Afilo wurde mir vom Lega-König als ein Negerland bezeichnet, welches von einer Galla-Aristokratie beherrscht wird" (Petermann's Mitt.1883,V. p. 194).

[231]The Ba-Hima are herdsmen in Buganda, a sort of aristocracy in Unyoro, a ruling caste in Toro, and the dominant race with dynasties in Ankole. The name varies in different areas.

[232]Journ. Anthr. Inst.1895, p. 424. For details of the Ba-Hima type seeEth.p. 389.

[233]J. Roscoe,The Northern Bantu, 1915, p. 103. Herein are also described theBakene, lake dwellers, theBagesu, a cannibal tribe, theBasogaand the Nilotic tribes theBatesoandKavirondo.

[234]J. Roscoe,loc. cit.pp. 4, 5.

[235]"A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 390.

[236]Handwerk und Industrie in Ostafrika, 1910, p. 147.

[237]"Die erste Ausbreitung des Menschengeschlechts."Pol. Anthropol. Revue, 1909, p. 72. Cf. chronology on p. 14 above.

[238]Ethnology, p. 199.

[239]Uganda is the name now applied to the whole Protectorate, Buganda is the small kingdom, Baganda, the people, Muganda, one person, Luganda, the language. H. H. Johnston,The Uganda Protectorate, 1902, and J. F. Cunningham,Uganda and its Peoples, 1905, cover much of the elementary anthropology of East Central Africa.

[240]The legend is given with much detail by H. M. Stanley inThrough the Dark Continent, Vol.I.p. 344 sq. Another and less mythical account of the migrations of "the people with a white skin from the far north-east" is quoted from Emin Pasha by the Rev. R. P. Ashe inTwo Kings of Uganda, p. 336. Here the immigrant Ba-Hima are expressly stated to have "adopted the language of the aborigines" (p. 337).

[241]Sir H. H. Johnston,op. cit.p. 514.

[242]Except the Lung-fish clan.

[243]J. Roscoe,The Baganda, 1911.

[244]For theWa-Kikuyusee W. S. and K. Routledge,With a Prehistoric People, 1910, and C. W. Hobley's papers in theJourn. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XL.1910, andXLI.1911. TheAtharakaare described by A. M. Champion,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLII.1912, p. 68. Consult for this region C. Eliot,The East Africa Protectorate, 1905; K. Weule,Native Life in East Africa, 1909; C. W. Hobley,Ethnology of the A-Kamba and other East African Tribes, 1910; M. Weiss,Die Völkerstämme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas, 1910; and A. Werner, "The Bantu Coast Tribes of the East Africa Protectorate,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLV.1915.

[245]Official Report on the East African Protectorate, 1897.

[246]Vocabulary of the Giryama Language, S.P.C.K. 1897.

[247]Travels in the Coastlands of British East Africa, London, 1898, p. 103 sq.

[248]A. Werner, "Girijama Texts,"Zeitschr. f. Kol.-spr.Oct. 1914.

[249]Having become the chief medium of intercourse throughout the southern Bantu regions, Ki-swahili has been diligently cultivated, especially by the English missionaries, who have wisely discarded the Arab for the Roman characters. There is already an extensive literature, including grammars, dictionaries, translations of the Bible and other works, and evenA History of Romeissued by the S.P.C.K. in 1898.

[250]W. E. H. Barrett, "Notes on the Customs and Beliefs of the Wa-Giriama," etc.,Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLI.1911, gives further details. For a full review of the religious beliefs of Bantu tribes see E. S. Hartland, Art. "Bantu and S. Africa,"Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1909.

[251]The name still survives inZangue-bar("Zang-land") and the adjacent island ofZanzibar(an Indian corruption).Zangis "black," andbaris the same Arabic word, meaning dry land, that we have inMala-baron the opposite side of the Indian Ocean. Cf. alsobarran wa bahran, "by land and by sea."

[252]Viage por Malabar y Costas de Africa, 1512, translated by the Hon. Henry E. J. Stanley, Hakluyt Society, 1868.

[253]In preference to the more popular formZulu-Kafir, whereKafiris merely the Arabic "Infidel" applied indiscriminately to any people rejecting Islám; hence theSiah Posh Kafirs("Black-clad Infidels") of Afghanistan; theKufraoasis in the Sahara, whereKufra, plural ofKafir, refers to the pagan Tibus of that district; and the Kafirs generally of the East African seaboard. But according to English usageZuluis applied to the northern part of the territory, mainly Zululand proper and Natal, while Kafirland or Kaffraria is restricted to the southern section between Natal and the Great Kei River. The bulk of these southern "Kafirs" belong to the Xosa connection; hence this term takes the place ofKafir, in the compound expressionZulu-Xosa.Amais explained on p. 86, and theXofXosarepresents an unpronounceable combination of a guttural and a lateral click, this with two other clicks (a dental and a palatal) having infected the speech of these Bantus during their long prehistoric wars with the Hottentots or Bushmen. See p. 129.

[254]See p. 86 above.

[255]See the admirable monograph on the Ba-Thonga, by H. A. Junod,The Life of a South African Tribe, 1912.

[256]Robert Codrington tells us that these A-Ngoni (Aba-Ngoni) spring from a Zulu tribe which crossed the Zambesi about 1825, and established themselves south-east of L. Tanganyika, but later migrated to the uplands west of L. Nyasa, where they founded three petty states. Others went east of the Livingstone range, and are here still known as Magwangwara. But all became gradually assimilated to the surrounding populations. Intermarrying with the women of the country they preserve their speech, dress, and usages for the first generation in a slightly modified form, although the language of daily intercourse is that of the mothers. Then this class becomes the aristocracy of the whole nation, which henceforth comprises a great part of the aborigines ruled by a privileged caste of Zulu origin, "perpetuated almost entirely among themselves" ("Central Angoniland,"Geograph. Jour.May, 1898, p. 512). See A. Werner,The Natives of British Central Africa, 1906.

[257]Rev. J. Macdonald,Light in Africa, p. 194. Among recent works on the Zulu-Xosa tribes may be mentioned Dudley Kidd,The Essential Kafir, 1904,Savage Childhood, 1905; H. A. Junod,The Life of a South African Tribe(Ba-Thonga), 1912-3; G. W. Stow and G. M. Theal,The Native Races of South Africa, 1905.

[258]FromMwana, lord, master, andtapa, to dig, both common Bantu words.

[259]The point was that Portugal had made treaties with this mythical State, in virtue of which she claimed in the "scramble for Africa" all the hinterlands behind her possessions on the east and west coasts (Mozambique and Angola), in fact all South Africa between the Orange and Zambesi rivers. Further details on the "Monomotapa Question" will be found in my monograph on "The Portuguese in South Africa" in Murray'sSouth Africa, from Arab Domination to British Rule, 1891, p. 11 sq. Five years later Mr G. McCall Theal also discovered, no doubt independently, the mythical character of Monomotapaland in his book onThe Portuguese in South Africa, 1896.

[260]Proc. R. Geogr. Soc.May, 1892, andThe Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, 1892.

[261]D. Randall-MacIver,Mediaeval Rhodesia, 1906. But R. N. Hall strongly combats his views,Great Zimbabwe, 1905,Prehistoric Rhodesia, 1909, andSouth African Journal of Science, May, 1912. H. H. Johnston says, "I see nothing inherently improbable in the finding of gold by proto-Arabs in the south-eastern part of Zambezia; nor in the pre-Islamic Arab origin of Zimbabwe," p. 396, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.

[262]G. W. Stow,The Native Races of South Africa, 1905.

[263]The British Protectorate was limited in 1905 to about 182,000 square miles.

[264]Cf. A. St H. Gibbons,Africa South to North through Marotseland, 1904, and C. W. Mackintosh,Coillard of the Zambesi, 1907, with a bibliography.

[265]The Ma-Kololo gave the Ba-Rotse their present name. They were originally Aälui, but the conquerors called them Ma-Rotse, people of the plain.

[266]Ten Years North of the Orange River.

[267]Cf. G. M. Theal,The History of South Africa1908-9, andThe Beginning of South African History, 1902.

[268]Op. cit.p. 47.

[269]G. Lagden,The Basutos, 1909.

[270]Variously termedBa-Kongo,Bashi-KongoorBa-Fiot.

[271]Towards the Mountains of the Moon, 1884, p. 128.

[272]Dictionary and Grammar of the Kongo Language, 1887, p. xxiii. F. Starr has published aBibliography of the Congo Languages, Bull.V., Dept. of Anthropology, University of Chicago, 1908.

[273]"Li Mociconghi cosi nomati nel suo proprio idioma gli abitanti del reame di Congo" (Relatione, etc., Rome, 1591, p. 68). This form is remarkable, being singular (Moci = Mushi) instead of plural (Eshi); yet it is still currently applied to the rude "Mushi-Kongos" on the south side of the estuary. Their real name however is Bashi-Kongo. SeeBrit. Mus. Ethnog. Handbook, p. 219.

[274]Often writtenBa-Fiortwith an intrusiver.

[275]Under Belgian administration much ethnological work has been undertaken, and published in theAnnales du Musée du Congo, notably the magnificent monograph on theBushongo(Bakuba) by E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, 1911. See also H. H. Johnston,George Grenfell and the Congo, 1908; M. W. Hilton-Simpson,Land and Peoples of the Kasai, 1911; E. Torday,Camp and Tramp in African Wilds, 1913; J. H. Weeks,Among Congo Cannibals, 1913, andAmong the Primitive Bakongo, 1914; and Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg,From the Congo to the Niger and the Nile, 1913.

[276]The First Ascent of the Kassai, 1889, p. 20 sq. See also my communication to theAcademy, April 6, 1889, andAfrica(Stanford's Compendium), 1895, Vol.II.p. 117 sq.

[277]Op. cit.p. 20.

[278]The New World of Central Africa, 1890, p. 466 sq.

[279]Op. cit.p. 471.

[280]TheseMpangwesavages are constantly confused with theMpongwesof the Gabún, a settled Bantu people who have been long in close contact, and on friendly terms, with the white traders and missionaries in this district.

[281]The scanty information about the Ba-Teke is given, with references, by E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, "Notes on the Ethnography of the Ba-Huana,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XXXVI.1906.

[282]MyAfrica,II.p. 58. Oscar Lenz, who perhaps knew them best, says: "Gut gebaut, schlank und kräftig gewachsen, Hautfarbe viel lichter, manchmal stark ins Gelbe spielend, Haar und Bartwuchs auffallend stark, sehr grosse Kinnbärte" (Skizzen aus West-Afrika, 1878, p. 73).

[283]M. H. Kingsley,Travels in West Africa, 1897, pp. 331-2.

[284]Official Report, 1886.

[285]H. H. Johnston,George Grenfell and the Congo ... and Notes on the Cameroons, 1908.

[286]Reclus, English ed.,XII.p. 376.

[287]So also in Minahassa, Celebes,Empung, "Grandfather," is the generic name of the gods. "The fundamental ideas of primitive man are the same all the world over. Just as the little black baby of the Negro, the brown baby of the Malay, the yellow baby of the Chinaman are in face and form, in gestures and habits, as well as in the first articulate sounds they mutter, very much alike, so the mind of man, whether he be Aryan or Malay, Mongolian or Negrito, has in the course of its evolution passed through stages which are practically identical" (Sydney J. Hickson,A Naturalist in North Celebes, 1889, p. 240).

[288]Op. cit.p. 96.

[289]"The God of the Ethiopians," inNature, May 26, 1892.

[290]A. B. Ellis,Tshi, p. 23;Ewe, p. 31;Yoruba, p. 36.

[291]Cf. E. S. Hartland, Art. "Bantu and S. Africa,"Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1909.

[292]This account of the Vaalpens is taken from A. H. Keane,The World's Peoples, 1908, p. 149.

[293]This summary of our information about the Strandloopers, with quotations from F. C. Shrubsall and L. Peringuey, is taken from H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 377.

[294]Schiaparelli,Una Tomba Egiziana, Rome, 1893.

[295]James Geikie,Scottish Geogr. Mag.Sept. 1897.

[296]Thus he finds (L'Anthropologie, 1896, p. 153) a presumably Negrillo skull from the Babinga district, Middle Sangha river, to be distinctly long-headed (73.2) with, for this race, the enormous cranial capacity of about 1440 c.c. Cf. the Akka measured by Sir W. Flower (1372 c.c.), and his Andamanese (1128), the highest hitherto known being 1200 (Virchow).

[297]Through Unknown African Countries, etc., 1897.

[298]Bul. Soc. Géogr.XIX.p. 440.

[299]Through Jungle and Desert, 1896, pp. 358-9.

[300]Travels,III. p. 86.

[301]Im Innern Afrika's, p. 259 sq. As stated inEth.Ch. XI. Dr Wolf connects all these Negrillo peoples with the Bushmen south of the Zambesi.

[302]One of the Mambute brought to England by Col. Harrison in 1906 measured just over 3½ feet.

[303]See A. C. Haddon, Art. "Negrillos and Negritos,"Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1917.

[304]"It would seem as if the earliest known race of man inhabiting what is now British Central Africa was akin to the Bushman-Hottentot type of Negro. Rounded stones with a hole through the centre, similar to those which are used by the Bushmen in the south for weighting their digging-sticks, have been found at the south end of Lake Tanganyika. I have heard that other examples of these 'Bushman' stones have been found nearer to Lake Nyasa, etc." (British Central Africa, p. 52).

[305]G. Fritsch,Die Ein-geborenen Sud-Afrikas, 1872, "Schilderungen der Hottentotten,"Globus, 1875, p. 374 ff.; E. T. Hamy, "Les Races nègres,"L'Anthropologie, 1897, p. 257 ff.; F. Shrubsall, "Crania of African Bush Races,"Journ. Anthr. Inst.1897. See also G. McCall Theal,The Yellow and Dark-skinned People South of the Zambesi, 1910.

[306]"I have not been able to trace much affinity in word roots between this language and either Bushman or Hottentot, though it is noteworthy that the word for four ... is almost identical with the word for four in all the Hottentot dialects, while the phonology of the language is reminiscent of Bushmen in its nasals and gutturals" (H. H. Johnston, "Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913, p. 380).

[307]Verhandl. Berliner Gesellsch. f. Anthrop.1895, p. 59.

[308]Of another skull undoubtedly Hottentot, from a cave on the Transvaal and Orange Free State frontier, Dr Mies remarks that "seine Form ist orthodolichocephal wie bei den Wassandaui," although differing in some other characters (Centralbl. f. Anthr.1896, p. 50).

[309]From which he adds that the Hottentots "schon lange vor der Portugiesischen Umschiffung Afrika's von Kaffer-Stämmen wieder zurückgedrängt wurden" (Reisen,I.p. 400).

[310]Adelung und Vater, Berlin, 1812,III. p. 290.

[311]Such are, going north from below Walvisch Bay, Chuntop, Kuisip, Swakop, Ugab, Huab, Uniab, Hoanib, Kaurasib, and Khomeb.

[312]The returns for 1904 showed a "Hottentot" population of 85,892, but very few were pure Hottentots. The official estimate of those in which Hottentot blood was strongly marked was 56,000.

[313]M. H. Tongue and E. D. Bleek,Bushman Paintings, 1909. Cf. W. J. Sollas,Ancient Hunters, 1915, p. 399, with bibliography.

[314]W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd,Bushman Folklore, 1911.

[315]See W. Planert, "Über die Sprache der Hottentotten und Buschmänner,"Mitt. d. Seminars f. Oriental. Sprachen z. Berlin,VIII.(1905), Abt.III. 104-176.

[316]"In the Pygmies of the north-eastern corner of the Congo basin and amongst the Bantu tribes of the Equatorial East African coast there is a tendency to faucal gasps or explosive consonants which suggests the vanishing influence of clicks." H. H. Johnston, "A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa,"Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst.XLIII.1913.

[317]"The Bushmen and their Language," inJourn. R. Asiatic Soc.XVIII.Part 1.

[318]Ancient Hunters, 1915, p. 425.

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