----“quo non præsentius ullumAuxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena.”
----“quo non præsentius ullumAuxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena.”
----“quo non præsentius ullumAuxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena.”
----“quo non præsentius ullum
Auxilium venit, ac membris agit atra venena.”
The powers of the habit should, at the same time, be supported by brandy, strong coffee, and cordials. The sufferer should be kept awake; and, if possible,in a continued gentle motion.Dr. Currie[428]has recommended the affusion of warm water at 106°, or 108°, for removing the stupor.
A case is recorded byDr. Marcet, in the first volume of the Medico-chirurgical Transactions, where six ounces of laudanum were taken by a young man, and remained for five hours in the stomach before any remedies were applied for its removal; a strong dose of sulphate of copper, however, provoked vomiting, and by judicious treatment he eventually recovered.
It has been very truly remarked that although the instances in which opium has proved fatal to human life have been very numerous, yet that the accounts which we have received of the appearances of the bodypost mortem, are by no means so satisfactory as we could desire.M. Orfilaasserts that no alteration can be discovered on dissection, in the digestive canal of persons who have swallowed any narcotic poison; and that if facts contrary to this assertion be met with in various authors, it is because there have been administered irritating substances capable of producing inflammation.[429]The lungs,however, frequently exhibit morbid phenomena; their colour is sometimes violet, and frequently a deeper red than in the natural state. Their texture is also more dense, and less crepitating; and they are marked by livid spots. The blood contained in the ventricles of the heart, and in the veins, is said to be found in a liquid state; butOrfilaadvances a diametrically opposite opinion, and asserts that it is frequently coagulated. The brain and its membranes often exhibit a state of vascular congestion; in the case recorded byMr. Stanley, in the sixth volume of theTransactions of the College of Physicians, the cellular tissue of the pia mater was found to contain water.[430]
There is no mode of identifying opium, whether in a liquid or solid form, so satisfactory as that which is at once afforded by its powerful and highly characteristic odour. In fatal instances, we shall always meet with it in the contents of the alimentary canal, and in such quantities as will leave no doubt as to its nature. The chemist may also proceed to a farther examination, by obtainingmorphiafrom its solution, by a process which we have already described under the chemical history of opium.
Black Henbane.Hyoscyamus Niger.(Pentandria Monogynia.Nat. Ord.LuridæLinn.SolaneæJuss.)
Henbane is an indigenous annual, frequent on waste grounds, and at the sides of roads, particularly on a calcareous soil, flowering in July. The whole of the plant is poisonous when eaten; and in the recent state the odour of the leaves occasions stupor and delirium. The root of this plant when in full vegetation is very powerful; and there are several cases on record, where it has been eaten in mistake for parsnips,[431]which it strongly resembles in its sweet and agreeable flavour. Its operation is very analogous to that of opium; producing sickness, stupor, delirium, and coma, withdilation of the pupils.
The pulse, at first hard, gradually becomes weak and tremulous; petechiæ frequently make their appearance, and death ensues. Late experiments have shewn that a peculiar alkaline body constitutes the active principle of this plant, and it has accordingly received, from its discoverersMM. MeissnerandBrandes, the name ofHyoscyama.
Boerhaaveexperienced a trembling and drunkenness, in consequence of having prepared a plaister, into whose compositionhenbaneentered as an ingredient; and the experiments ofM. Orfilahave shewn that it acts nearly in the same manner, whether applied upon the cellular texture, introduced into the stomach, or injected into the veins. Hence it follows that the active principle of this plant is carried into the circulation, and exerts a remarkable action onthe brain and nervous system, producing an extraordinary state of delirium, which is succeeded by stupefaction. The physician will never probably be called upon to investigate a case of wilful poisoning by this narcotic; and should he be summoned to attend a person who, through mistake or accident, had swallowed it, we can hardly anticipate any peculiar mystery which requires elucidation.
There are several other species of henbane, ashyos. alb. aureus,physaloides, all of which are poisonous, although not in the same degree as thehyoscyamus niger, whose history we have just considered.
Hydro-cyanic acid exists in a great variety of native combinations in the vegetable kingdom, and imparts to them peculiar qualities, which have been long known. It is, however, only within a few years, that this singular body has been obtained in its separate and independent form[432]; indeed it was not until the publication of the celebrated memoir ofGay-Lussacupon this subject, in the year 1815, that its chemical composition was fully understood. In this memoir, it was clearly shewn to consist of a peculiar, gaseous, and highly inflammable compound of carbon and nitrogen, to which the name ofcyanogenehas been assigned, and hydrogen; the latterbody acting as the acidifying principle; whence the termhydro-cyanic acidis very happily contrived to express its composition.
When obtained in its most concentrated form, by the process ofM. Gay Lussac,[433]it has the following characteristic properties, viz. At ordinary temperatures, it is liquid, colourless, and transparent; possessing an extremely powerful odour, very analogous to that of the blossom of the peach, or bitter almond tree; its taste is, at first, bland and sweetish, but afterwards pungent, bitter, and peculiar. Its extreme volatility is such, that when a drop of it is exposed to the air, on the end of a glass rod, it is rapidly crystallized. The same phenomenon takes place, if a drop be suffered to fall on a sheet of paper. Its specific gravity is ·7055; but, when in a concrete form it is only ·9, while that of its vapour is ·947. If inhaled, it produces almost immediate pain in the head, with deafness, unless very largely diluted with air or water.[434]It is decomposed by a high temperature; and by the action even of light it is, in the course of a very short time, resolved into carbonic acid, ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen, a carbonaceous matter remaining behind.[435]When brought near a body in a state of combustion, it instantly inflames and burns with a blue light. In water it is sparingly soluble; alcohol dissolves it copiously.
The “medicinal Prussic acid,” as it has been called, as being the preparation lately introduced into medicine,[436]differs only from that we have just described, in its degree of concentration. It is, in fact, the Prussic acid ofScheele, and may be considered as equivalent to the preparation ofGay-Lussacdiluted with six times its volume, or eight times and a half its weight, of distilled water.
Thehydro-cyanic acidhas been discovered, in a state of perfect formation, in a variety of vegetables, whose peculiar odour at once announces its presence; such are bitter almonds; the kernels of apricots, cherries, particularly theCerasa Juliana, and several plums; the leaves of laurel; and peach blossoms; and the bark of theprunus padus, or bird-cherry tree. The only mineral substance, in which hydro-cyanic has yet been detected is theFer Azuréof Hauy.[437]Animal substances, although they do not contain it ready formed, yet, when treated with an alkali at a high temperature, they yield it in great abundance, in consequence of the combination of its elements.
The experiments which have been instituted with a view to ascertain the exact effects of this substance upon animal life, very clearly prove that the acid ofGay-Lussacis one of the most active poisons in nature; and that the various vegetable bodies, into whose composition it enters, exert an energy, correspondingwith the quantity of this constituent, and the degree of concentration, in which it exists. The experiments ofM. Orfilawere made with Prussic acid, prepared according to the process ofScheele, and consequently containing a great proportion of water, as we have already explained; and yet the effects which followed its administration were extremely energetic. From theAnnales de Chimie, for October 1814, we learn that a professor of chemistry, having inadvertently left on his table a phial filled with a solution of Prussic acid in alcohol, a female servant, who had been seduced by its agreeable smell, drank a small glass-full of it, and fell dead at the end of a few minutes, as if struck by apoplexy.
The following case is quoted byDr. Granville, fromHufeland.D. L.a robust and healthy man, aged 36 years, while about to be seized as a thief by the police officers, snatched a small sealed phial from his pocket, broke off the neck of it, and swallowed the greatest part of its contents. A strong smell of bitter almonds soon spread around, which almost stupefied all present. The culprit staggered a few steps; then, without a groan, fell on his knees, and sunk lifeless down to the ground. Medical assistance being called in, not the slightest trace of pulse or breathing could be found. A few minutes afterwards, a single and violent expiration occurred, which was again repeated in about two minutes. The extremities were perfectly cold, the breast and abdomen still warm, the eyes half open and shining, clear, lively, full, almost projecting, and as brilliant as those of the most ardent youth under violent emotion. The face was neither distorted nor convulsed, but bore the image of quiet sleep. The corpse exaled a strong smell of bitter almonds, and the remaining liquid,being analysed, was found to be a concentrated solution of Prussic acid in alcohol. Cases also stand recorded where, from imprudent exposure to the vapours of the Prussic acid, persons have exhibited all the appearances of being poisoned. Some writers assert thatScheelehimself, who died suddenly, while engaged in some inquiries into the nature and formation of this acid, was affected by its deleterious qualities.Orfilarelates thatScharinger, Professor at Vienna, prepared some pure concentrated Prussic acid, and having diffused a certain quantity of it upon his naked arm, he died a short time afterwards. The professor, however, did not die in consequence of this accident; it appears, upon inquiry, that he was seized with apoplexy while sitting in a coffee house in the evening.
The distilled water of thecherry laurel[438]has been proved, by numerous awful examples, to be a most energetic poison; and from the fatal effects to which the officinal preparation of it gave rise, it was early expunged from the Pharmacopœia of the London College. In thePhilosophical Transactionsfor the year 1731, we shall find the history of its effects upon a woman of the name ofBoyce, who, with a view to disprove an allegation, that oneMary Whaleyhad died in consequence of drinking a small quantity of laurel water, swallowed three spoonsful, and, afterwards, two more of the same liquid; after which she died in a very short time, without making the least complaint, and without any convulsion.
Foderéinforms us that during the period he was pursuing his studies at Turin in 1784, the chambermaidand man servant of a noble family of that town, for the purpose of regaling themselves, stole from their master a bottle of distilled laurel water; fearful of being surprised, they hastily swallowed several mouthsful of it; but they soon paid the price of their dishonesty, having almost instantly expired in convulsions. Works on Toxicology also abound with the relation of experiments, made by numerous physiologists on different animals, with this deleterious liquid. Amongst the experimentalists we may enumerate the names ofMadden,Mortimer,Browne,Langrish,Nicholls,Stenzelius,Heberden,Watson,Vater,Rattrai, theAbbé Rozier,Duhamel,Fontana, andOrfila. In this country we have had several fatal cases of poisoning by laurel water. In the year 1782,Dr. Price, of Guildford, having professed to have converted mercury into gold, offered to repeat his experiments before a competent tribunal, but the unfortunate philosopher put a period to his existence before the day appointed for his exhibition, by a draught of laurel water; a mode of death which had been, no doubt, suggested by the celebrated trial ofDonellan, for the murder ofSir Theodosius Boughton, that had taken place in the preceding year, and left a strong impression upon the public mind; and whose details, it has been justly observed, are not more important from the elucidation of the effects of this poison, than from the strange display of professional testimony to which it gave origin, (seeAppendix, page 243.) There are those who still profess to believe that the prisoner was unjustly convicted upon that occasion;Dr. Malestates, without the least reserve, that it was neither proved that the deceased was poisoned, nor that any poison hadexisted.[439]We feel no difficulty in declaring that we hold a directly opposite opinion; and we consider that many of the weaker points of professional evidence delivered on the trial, have received powerful support and elucidation from the experiments and observations of later physicians.
Nor are the leaves of this plant wholly free from danger; it is true that they have, for many years, been in general use among cooks, to communicate an almond or kernel-like flavour to custards, puddings, creams,blanc-mange, and other delicacies of the table; but the custom has not always been harmless; a fact with which it behoves the forensic physician to be acquainted. In some parts of the continent milk is boiled with one or two leaves of the cherry-laurel in it, andIngenhouzstates that he saw people much affected by it. In theLiterary Chronicle(no. xxii, p. 348, 1819) we find the following illustrative case: “Several children at a boarding-school, in the vicinity of Richmond, having partaken of some custard flavoured with the leaves of the cherry-laurel, four of them were taken severely ill in consequence. Two of them, a girl of six, and a boy of five years of age, fell into a profound sleep, out of which they could not be roused for ten hours, the other two complained of severe pains in the epigastric region. By proper medical treatment, they all recovered, after an illness of three days.”
The essential oil ofbitter almondsis equally poisonous; and the water distilled from them is highlydangerous if incautiously taken.DuvignauandParentinstituted some experiments upon themselves to ascertain this fact; they commenced by taking sixdrops of the water distilled three times, in an appropriate vehicle, without producing any other than a transient impression. On takingeighteendrops, however, vertigo was experienced, and a disposition to sleep, accompanied with a tingling of the ears and dimness of sight. When the dose was increased totwenty-twodrops, alarming symptoms followed, such as convulsions, and vomiting; which, although the experimenters succeeded in allaying by antispasmodics, cured them completely of any ulterior wish to ascertain how far this substance might be deleterious. A drachm of the distilled water of bitter almonds has killed a moderate sized dog. Theessential oilis proportionally more active;Mr. Brodie[440]found that one drop, when applied to the tongue of a cat, killed it in five minutes; no sooner did the poison come in contact with the organ than the animal was seized with convulsions. When two drops of the same oil were injected with half an ounce of water into the rectum of a cat, it was not seized for two minutes, but it died, as in the former experiment, after the expiration of five minutes. While engaged in this inquiry,Mr. Brodiedipped the blunt end of a probe into the essential oil, and applied it to his tongue, with the intention of tasting it, and not having the least suspicion that so small a quantity could produce any of its specific effects on the nervous system; but scarcely had he applied it, when he experienced a very remarkable and unpleasant sensation,which he referred chiefly to the epigastric region, but the exact nature of which he could not describe, because he knew nothing similar to it. At the same time there was a sense of weakness in his limbs, as if he had not the command of his muscles; and he thought that he should have fallen. The fascinating liqueur noyau,créme de noyau, is indebted for its flavour to the essential oil of the bitter almond, or peach; and is undoubtedly deleterious if taken in excess. In theJournal des Debats, for 1814, we find that the lateDuke Charles de Lorrainehad nearly lost his life from swallowing some drops ofeau de noyautoo strongly impregnated with the essential oil of peach kernels.
The bitter almond itself, in consequence of the manner in which its deleterious principle is modified by the natural state of combination in which it exists with sweet oil and albumen, does not produce an effect corresponding with the proportion of essential oil which it yields. The experiments ofOrfila, however, prove that the almond, in doses of a drachm, is destructive to cats; and there can be no doubt but that it would be equally deleterious to the human species; but the quantity required for the production of such an effect must ever prevent the bitter almond from becoming either the accidental or criminal instrument of death.
The numerous experiments, which have been made with this poison, have clearly established that its action is upon the nervous system, whose energies it would seem to extinguish without any ostensible injury to respiration and circulation; for in all thoseanimals which were killed by it, in the experiments ofOrfila,Brodie, and others, the heart was found acting regularly, and circulating dark coloured blood, and in some cases this phenomenon was visible for many minutes after the animal was in other respects apparently dead.Orfilaconsiders that he has fully demonstrated that these effects depend on the absorption of the poison, and its transmission to the brain through the medium of the circulation. We have accordingly placed Prussic acid in the second division of our classification. The essential oil of bitter almonds would, according to the experiments ofMr. Brodie, appear to act through the medium of the nerves, and it has accordingly been referred to our first division. This is undoubtedly an anomaly, which it is not easy to reconcile; the experiments, however, which ledMr. Brodieto the conclusion appear to us to warrant such a deduction; the instantaneousness with which the poisonous effects were produced, and the fact of its acting more speedily when applied to the tongue, than when injected into the intestines, although the latter presents a better absorbing surface, seem to oppose the idea of the oil requiring to be absorbed, before it can display its energies.M. Vogel, of Munich, has lately discovered some facts respecting the composition of this oil, which may perhaps hereafter lead to the true explanation of this apparent anomaly; this distinguished chemist succeeded in separating the Prussic acid from the volatile oil with which it is combined, by agitating the whole in a concentrated solution of potass, and distilling to dryness; the oil volatilized together with the water, while the residuum in the retort was found to containcyanide of potassium. The oil, thus separated from the Prussic acid, iswithout odour, and heavier than water; its taste is extremely acrid and burning; in order to discover whether it was still poisonous,M. Vogelput a drop of it on the tongue of a sparrow, when it died in a few seconds, after a very violent convulsion; he also poisoned a dog, two months old, with four drops of it; whence he concludes that the volatile oil, divested of its hydro-cyanic acid is still a poison, although less energetic than that which has not undergone such a change. Do there exist then two independent principles of activity in thebitter almond? If such a fact were established it would not be solitary, for we shall hereafter shew that the energies oftobaccoare dependant upon an analogous arrangement; and that our ignorance of the fact, at first, occasioned apparent anomalies, as embarrassing as those which at present involve the physiological history of the oil of almonds.
Orfila, in his celebrated Toxicology, informs us that vinegar, or the vegetable acids; coffee; a solution of chlorine in water; camphor; emollient drinks; and bleeding, have been successively, but notsuccessfully recommended.[441]With respect to the first of these pretendedantidotes, it deserves notice, that instead of palliating the symptoms, it actually quickens, and gives more energy to the action of the poison. Coffee, as far as it may stimulate, might be employed with advantage; but its powers are not sufficient to meet the exigency of the case. Bleeding seems decidedlya fatal measure. The authors of the paper on Prussic acid, inserted in theAmerican Recorder, consider at length the claims of every substance which has been proposed as an antidote to it; and they conclude by saying that, we are entirely ignorant of a counter-agent of this poison. There is every reason, saysDr. Granville, to believe that the Prussic acid taken in large quantities, and in its concentrated state, is partially, if not wholly absorbed ere itreaches the stomach;—else how happens it that scarcely a minute after its exhibition, I have, in common with others, been unable to detect its presence within that organ. If so, then all chemical attempts must be nugatory, no decomposition, or fresh combinations can be produced to render it harmless; nor will an emetic, although so much recommended, be of much more service in freeing the system of its presence. But although chemical remedies are thus shewn to be of no avail, we may derive from the class of vital agents some powerful antidotes; all medicines taken from the class of diffusible stimuli will be useful in supporting the powers of the system against the sedative influence of the poison. Hot brandy and water, with ammonia, camphor, and other similar stimulants, are the resources to which we should fly upon such occasions.
The recorded dissections of persons, who have been poisoned by Prussic acid, are too few and vague to furnish any satisfactory generalization. In the case related byM. Foderé, of two servants who died after a draught of laurel-water, the dead bodies were carried to the University at Turin, and examined,when the stomach was found slightly inflamed, but the other parts were in a sound state. We feel much hesitation in giving credit to this report, the death was too immediate to allow the access of inflammation; we are rather disposed to consider the appearances of the stomach to have arisen from that species of sanguineous congestion, which we have before alluded to, as sometimes occurring in cases of sudden death. In other cases the coats of the stomach are said to have been black and relaxed; the vessels of the brain injected; the lungs have also been described as presenting unnatural congestions, and purple spots; and the smell of Prussic acid seemed as if it pervaded the whole system, and was embodied, as it were, with the very substance of the muscles. In other cases, again, not the slightest trace of any morbid appearance could be discovered. Some authors have stated that in cases of death by this poison the cornea of the eye does not collapse, but retains its fulness, and even its lustre, for a considerable period.
The strong odour yielded by the body on dissection, will furnish a satisfactory proof of the presence of this poison. Instances may occur, when the practitioner will be called before a tribunal to answer, from his professional knowledge, whether a particular case of death can have happened from the action of the hydro-cyanic acid, or any of the compounds in which it may enter as an ingredient; it therefore becomes an object of great importance to inquire whether any farther tests might be made subservient to our purpose.Dr. Granville, who has directed agreat share of his attention to the history of this poison, has given some directions upon this point, which appear to us to be useful and judicious; we shall, therefore, present them to our readers. “After collecting the blood contained in the ventricles of the heart, a portion of the contents of the stomach, and of the superior intestines, together with a certain quantity of any fluid which may chance to be present within the cavity of the head, chest, or abdomen; and having agitated the mixture for some time in distilled water, and filtered the liquid, taking care to keep the whole at a low temperature, proceed to the following experiments.
A. To a small quantity of the liquid add a few drops of a solution of caustic potass in alcohol.
B. To this, a few drops of a solution of sulphate of iron must be added, when a cloudy and reddish precipitate, of the colour of burntTerra-Siennawill fall down.
C. Some sulphuric acid is now to be introduced into the tube, when the colour of the precipitate will instantly change to that of a bluish-green, which by a permanent contact with the atmosphere, becomes gradually of a beautiful blue, assuming at the same time a pulverulent aspect.
OR
OR
OR
A. Treat the filtered liquid with carbonate of potass.
B. Add a solution of sulphate of iron with a small quantity of alum: a precipitate, as in the former method, will fall down, which if treated by free sulphuric acid, will also becomeblue and pulverulent. During this latter part of the experiment, there is a disengagement of carbonic acid.
Evidence may be pushed still farther, and the existence of the Prussic acid proved in a most positive manner by decomposing the precipitate, above described, and which is a true Prussian blue, so as to separate the acid. For this purpose, heat the precipitate with an equal quantity of tartaric acid, in a glass retort, at the temperature of 150°, when the hydro-cyanic vapours will soon exhale from the mixture, and may be received in water.”[442]
We have already stated our objections to this division, and our apology for adopting it.See page205.
This plant is an indigenous perennial, found in many parts of Great Britain, particularly in shady places where the soil is calcareous, in large ditches, and on the edge of hilly woods; flowering in June, and ripening its berries in September. Every part of the plant is poisonous; and numerous instances have occurred where children, and the ignorant, or those suffering from hunger, allured by the beautiful and tempting appearance of the berries, have fallen victims to their deadly power. The root of this plantpartakes also of the same qualities as the leaves and berries, but is perhaps less virulent.
“Or have we eaten of theinsane root,That takes the reasoner prisoner.”—Macbeth.
“Or have we eaten of theinsane root,That takes the reasoner prisoner.”—Macbeth.
“Or have we eaten of theinsane root,That takes the reasoner prisoner.”—Macbeth.
“Or have we eaten of theinsane root,
That takes the reasoner prisoner.”—Macbeth.
The inspissated juice (Extractum Belladonnæ Pharm. Lond.) is also extremely poisonous, when properly prepared; but, as usually met with in commerce, it is of very variable strength; when prepared according to the improved process ofMr. Barry, its activity is so considerable that a dose of two grains is followed by unpleasant effects. (See an account of its effects in the Pharmacologia,vol.2,p.199.)M. Brandeshas lately ascertained that the active principle of this plant is a peculiar alkaline body, to which he has assigned the name ofatropia.
Shortly after the ingestion of the berries, leaves, or root, of this plant, the patient complains of extreme dryness of the lips, tongue, palate, and throat; the deglutition becomes difficult, and the pupil of the eye immoveably dilated; nausea, rarely followed by vomiting; symptoms of intoxication succeed, accompanied with fits of laughter, dreadful ravings, violent gestures of the body, and continual motion of the hands and fingers; sometimes the patient sinks into a state of fatuity, but rarely of stupor; redness and tumefaction of the face, a low and feeble pulse, paralysis of the intestines, livid spots on different parts of the body, profuse sweats, convulsions, and death. In the cases where recovery has taken place, there has been an insensible restoration to health and reason, without any recollection of the preceding state.
Physiological action of Belladonna.
The results of the experiments ofOrfilaauthorise us to arrange the nightshade under the second division of our classification; for it is evidently absorbed, carried into the circulation, and is thus enabled to act upon the nervous system, and particularly on the brain. At the same time it exerts a local action upon the stomach, although less violent than that occasioned by the acrid poisons. It, moreover, appears on some occasions to act directly through the medium of the nerves, like those substances which constitute our first class; or else how shall we explain the fact of the pupil of the eye becoming permanently dilated, by the contact of the belladonna with the tunica conjunctiva? It would, therefore, appear that this plant unites within itself all the three great modes of action, upon which we have attempted to found our physiological arrangement of poisons, as expressed by the tabular classification at page207.
The bodies of those who have perished by belladonna, are extremely prone to decomposition; they soon putrefy, swell remarkably, and are covered with livid spots; blood flows from the mouth, nose, and eyes, and the stench is insufferable. The stomach and intestines will sometimes display extensive marks of inflammation, extending in some cases to the mesentery and liver; and several cases are recorded in which the stomach appeared ulcerated. The lungs are usually found livid, gorged with venous blood, and studded with black spots; the heart has been also observed to be livid.
Modes of detecting the presence of Belladonna.
Where the berries of this plant have been swallowed, we shall generally detect them in the matter vomited; or, in the event of death, in the stomach, on dissection, for they would appear to be very indigestible; in a case of poisoning by this plant, recorded in the history of the French Academy for the year 1706,[443]the stomach was found to contain some berries of the belladonna crushed, and some seeds. Where the quantity of the plant is sufficient, we may proceed to identify it, by obtainingatrophia[444]from it. For this purpose, the leaves, or the crushed berries, or any other part of the suspected plant, must be boiled in distilled water; the decoction must then be pressed out, and filtered; after the albumen has been thrown down by a little sulphuric acid, potass must be added as long as any precipitate is produced; when the precipitate is to be washed in pure water, re-dissolved in muriatic acid, and re-precipitated by ammonia. This last result will beatropia. It is white, and collects in acicular crystals, insipid, little soluble in cold water, or even in alcohol, but very soluble in this latter fluid at a boiling temperature, from which, however, it is deposited on cooling.
The thorn apple is an annual plant, a native of America, which gradually diffused itself, from thesouth to the north, and is now naturalized to this country, and is to be found very commonly about London growing on dunghills, and by road sides. It flowers in July and August. Every part of this plant is a strong narcotic poison, producing vertigo, and most of thosesymptoms which we have described as the effects of belladonna, although the former plant appears to excite the brain more violently.Dr. Bartonmentions the case of two British soldiers, who ate it by mistake, for thechenopodium album; one became furious, and ran about like a madman; and the other died, with the symptoms of genuine tetanus. In the fifth volume of theEdinburgh Medical and Philosophical Commentaries, two cases are related byDr. Fowler; and others are to be found in the writings ofHaller,Krause,Sproegel,Gmelin, andOrfila, illustrative of the effects of this plant upon the human species. There is reason to believe that this plant has been long known, and that it has been very generally used by uncivilized nations, on account of the narcotic effects which it occasions.
Tobacco is an annual plant, a native of America, from whence it was imported into Europe. We learn fromHumboldtthat it has been cultivated from time immemorial by the native people of the Oroonoko; and was smoked all over America at the time of the Spanish conquest.Hermandez de Toledosent it into Spain and Portugal in 1559, whenJean Nicot[445]was Ambassador at the court of Lisbon, from Francis II, and he transmitted, or carried either the seed, or the plant toCatherine de Medicis, as one of the wonders of the new world, and which, it was supposed, possessed virtues of a very extraordinary nature. This seems to be the first authentic record of the introduction of this plant into Europe. In 1589 the CardinalSanta Croce, returning from his nunciature in Spain and Portugal to Italy, carried thither with him tobacco; and we may form some notion of the enthusiasm with which its introduction was hailed, from a perusal of the poetry which the subject inspired. It is said that the smoking tobacco was first introduced bySir Walter Raleighon his return from America; and the avidity with which the custom was immediately adopted is shewn by the philippic written against it by King James, entitled the “Counterblaste to Tobacco.”
As an object of Medical Jurisprudence, its claims to our attention are numerous and important; not only as having occasionally been the means of destroying human life, but as furnishing, in its most romantic history, a striking illustration of the triumph of popular opinion over a series of legislative enactments[446]which had no other origin than that of ignorance and prejudice.
Tobacco was at one period of our history raised to a considerable extent in Yorkshire; but the cultivation of it for the purposes of trade have been long prohibited; and this country, as well as the greater part of Europe, is chiefly supplied from Virginia, where the plant is cultivated in the greatest abundance. The recent leaves do not possess any considerable odour, nor have they much flavour; when dried, however, their odour becomes strong, narcotic, and somewhat fœtid; their taste bitter, and extremely acrid. We have stated, upon another occasion,[447]that tobacco would appear to contain two independent elements of activity, an essential oil, and a proximate principle, of an acrid nature, to whichVauquelinhas bestowed the name ofNicotin. The essential oil is an extremely virulent poison.Mr. Barrow, speaking of the use which the Hottentots make of it for destroying snakes, says, “A Hottentot applied some of it from the short end of his wooden tobacco-pipe to the mouth of a snake, while darting out his tongue. The effect was as instantaneous as an electric shock; with a convulsive motion that was momentary, the snake half untwisted itself, and never stirred more; and the muscles were so contracted, that the whole animal felt hard and rigid, as if dried in the sun.” The author has ventured a conjecture in hisPharmacologia,[448]with respect to this virulentoil, which he takes this opportunity of repeating, that “the juice of cursed hebenon,” by which, according toShakspeare, the King of Denmark was poisoned, was no other than the essential oil of tobacco.
----“Sleeping within mine orchard,My custom always of the afternoon,Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,With juice ofcursed hebenonin a vial,And in the porches of mine ears, did pourThe leperousdistilment.”
----“Sleeping within mine orchard,My custom always of the afternoon,Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,With juice ofcursed hebenonin a vial,And in the porches of mine ears, did pourThe leperousdistilment.”
----“Sleeping within mine orchard,My custom always of the afternoon,Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,With juice ofcursed hebenonin a vial,And in the porches of mine ears, did pourThe leperousdistilment.”
----“Sleeping within mine orchard,
My custom always of the afternoon,
Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole,
With juice ofcursed hebenonin a vial,
And in the porches of mine ears, did pour
The leperousdistilment.”
In the first place, the learned commentatorDr. Grayobserves, that the word here used (hebenon) was more probably designated by ametathesis, either of the poet or transcriber, forhenebon, i. e. henbane. Now it appears fromGerardethattabacowas commonly called “henbane of Peru” (Hyoscyamus Peruvianus); and when we consider how high the prejudice of the court ran against this herb, as so strikingly evinced by the ‘Counterblaste’ of King James, it seems very likely thatShakspeare, who was fond of playing the courtier, should have selected it, as an agent of extraordinary malignity, upon such an occasion. No preparation of thehyoscyamuswith which we are acquainted, would produce death by an application to the ear; whereas the essential oil of tobacco might, without doubt, occasion a fatal result. The termdistilmenthas also called forth a remark fromSteevens, which is calculated to add a little farther weight[449]to our conjecture; “surely” says he, “this expression signifies, that the preparation was the result of adistillation.”
Symptoms of poisoning by Tobacco.
The leaves of tobacco, whether whole, or reduced to powder, as they are daily met with in commerce, or in the form of infusion in water or wine, or in the state of smoke, are endued with poisonous properties of extreme energy. Their administration is shortly followed by vertigo; severe nausea; vomiting; a general tremor of the body, which is rarely the result of any other poison; cold sweats; syncope; and death. The author remembers witnessing a lamentable exemplification of the action of tobacco upon a person labouring under a strangulated hernia. The patient had been under the care of a medical practitioner in the vicinity of London, who after repeated and fruitless efforts to return the intestine, injected an infusion of tobacco into the rectum, and sent him in a carriage to the Westminster hospital, for the purpose of undergoing the operation; but the unfortunate man expired very shortly after his arrival, in consequence of the effects of the tobacco clyster. The external application of tobacco, in the form of cataplasm, or infusion, will occasion all the effects above related. A woman applied to the heads of three children afflicted withtinea capitis, a liniment consisting of powdered tobacco and butter, soon after which they experienced vertigo, violent vomiting, and fainting.[450]
It was formerly a practice to inject the smoke of tobacco into the anus, by means of a bellows of a peculiar construction, in cases of suspended animation, with a view tostimulatethe rectum, and thereby to revive the vital powers; we have already commentedupon this most dangerous and mistaken notion, (see page88.)
In the process ofsmokingtobacco, the oil is separated, and being rendered empyreumatic by heat, it is thus applied to the fauces in its most active form; whence vertigo, nausea, and all its characteristic symptoms speedily arise upon that occasion; although the system becomes easily habituated to the action of this narcotic, and we continually see a large portion of the community using it daily, in various ways, and in great quantities, as a luxury, without experiencing any other bad effect than that which arises from their inability to relinquish the habit.
The well known errhine,snuff, is prepared from the dried leaves of tobacco, and possesses all the powers of the plant. The celebratedSanteuilexperienced vomiting and horrible pains, amidst which he expired, in consequence of having drank a glass of wine, into which some Spanish snuff had been introduced.[451]
The deleterious effects of this plant appear to depend on an especial action upon the nervous system; but farther experiments are required to establish through what medium its powers are conveyed to the sensorium.Orfilaconcludes that the active part of the plant is absorbed, and carried into the circulation.Mr. Brodie’sexperiments, however, would lead to the conclusion that it operates through the medium of the nerves; and, what is extremely singular, they shew that theessential oiloperates very differentlyfrom theinfusionof tobacco; for that while the former appears to act exclusively on the brain, leaving the power of the circulation unimpaired, the latter acts on the heart at once, suspending its action even before the animal ceases to respire, and kills by producing syncope. This apparent anomaly at first ledMr. Brodie, as he has since informed the author, to suspect the accuracy of his experiments; but their careful repetition rendered this impossible. We suggested to him, whether a probable explanation might not be found in the late chemical results respecting the composition of tobacco, which seemed to shew that this plant possesses two active elements.[452]
Hemlock is a biennial, umbelliferous, indigenous plant, growing very commonly about the sides of fields, under hedges, and in moist shady places. It is at once distinguished from other umbelliferous plants, with which it may be confounded, by itslargeandspottedstem, the dark andshining colour of its lower leaves, and theirdisagreeable smell; which, when fresh and bruised is said to bear a strong resemblance to that of the urine of a cat. Many[455]cases ofpersons who have been poisoned by this plant are to be found in the writings of different toxicologists. The extract, if properly prepared, is a very energetic substance, and gives rise, in large doses, to all the symptoms which we have so often described as the result of narcotic poisons. In those fatal cases, where the bodies have been examined,post mortem, inflammation of the stomach, and sanguineous congestion in the brain, have been the most prominent phenomena. It would appear that the active element of this plant is absorbed and carried into the circulation, through which medium it exerts its action on the nervous system, and more particularly on the brain. At the same time it seems to excite a local irritation, capable of producing an inflammation more or less violent. The best antidote is vinegar, after the stomach has been evacuated, and the cerebral excitement reduced by bleeding and purging.
TheCicuta Virosa, orwater hemlock, with which theconium maculatumhas been often confounded, is still more virulent; it is however to be distinguished from the latter, by having its hollow roots always immersed in water, while those of theconiumnever are.M. Orfilahas related several cases of poisoning by thewater hemlock.
The tree[456]which produces these seeds grows in Ceylon, upon the coast of Coromandel, and in Malabar. The nux vomica is round and flat, about an inch broad, and nearly a quarter of an inch thick,with a prominence in the middle on both sides, of a grey colour, covered with a kind of woolly matter, but internally hard and tough. The kernel discovers to the taste a considerable bitterness, but makes little or no impression on the organs of smell. There is a popular belief that this substance is poisonous to all animals, except man. Instances, however, are not wanting to illustrate its deleterious effects upon the human species. It proves fatal to dogs in a very short period; it has also poisoned hares, foxes, wolves, cats, rabbits, and even some birds.Loureirorelates that a horse died in four hours after taking a drachm of the seed in an half roasted state. Its effects, however, on different animals, and even on those of the same species, are somewhat uncertain, and not always in the proportion to the quantity given. With some animals it produces its effects almost instantaneously: with others, not until after the lapse of several hours, when laborious respiration, followed by torpor, tremblings, coma, and convulsions usually precede the fatal spasms, orTetanus, which so especially distinguishes the operation of this poison.Hoffmanreports the case of a young girl of ten years of age, who, labouring under an obstinate quartan fever, took, at two doses, fifteen grains of nux vomica, and died very shortly afterwards.MM. PelletierandCaventouhave discovered in these seeds, a peculiar proximate principle, to which their virulence is owing; it was originally namedVauqueline, in honour of the celebrated French philosopher, but in deference to the opinion of the French Academy of Sciences, the discoverers have substituted the nameStrychnia,[457]because “a name dearly loved, ought not to be applied to a noxious principle!”
Strychniais highly alkaline, and crystallizes in very small four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids; its taste is insupportably bitter, leaving a slight metallic flavour, and is so powerful as even to be perceptible when a grain is dissolved in eighty pounds of water;[458]it has no smell. So extreme is its activity upon the animal system, that in doses of half a grain it occasions serious effects, and in larger ones, convulsions and death. It is, perhaps, the most powerful, and, next tohydro-cyanic acid, the most rapid of poisons.M. Majendiehas killed a dog with one-eighth of a grain; and the editor of theEdinburgh Medical and Surgical Journalhas seen one die in two minutes after the injection of one-sixth of a grain into the cavity of the pleura.
Nux vomica is supposed byOrfilato exert a specific action on the spinal marrow, thereby producing tetanus, immobility of the thorax, and consequently asphyxia, of which the animal dies. That this effect is produced by the absorption of the poison, and its passage into the circulation, is clearly established by the interesting and important experiments ofM. Majendie.[459]
This is the fruit of a shrub (Menispermum Cocculus) which grows naturally in the sand, in the midst of the rocks, on the coast of Malabar, in the island of Ceylon, and in other parts of the East Indies.The berries are imported into this country in a dry and shrivelled state. In India they are employed for killing fish, which they intoxicate and poison, when thrown into fish ponds.M. Goupil, a physician of Nemours, communicated to the Society of Medicine some interesting facts on the subject of this poison;[460]and he has shewn that it is not only destructive to fishes, but also to different carnivorous quadrupeds, and, very probably, to man. He also states that the poisonous principle of this substance is not sensibly changed by the gastric juices, and the vital action of the organs of digestion; but, on the contrary, that it passes into the absorbent system with all its properties unimpaired; and that the flesh of those fishes which have eaten it, irritates the stomach and bowels of the animals to which it is given, nearly in the same manner as theCocculus Indicusitself. All the fishes who eat it do not die in an equal space of time.Roach,pollard,breme,perch,tench, andbarbel, are affected in an order corresponding with that in which they are here arranged; theroachis killed the easiest of all; thebarbelis the last to die, and is moreover said to be, of all fish, the one whose flesh the most frequently occasions accidents in those animals who eat it; probably, saysM. Goupil, because these fish, taking a longer time to die, the poison is longer subjected to the action of the digestive juices, and a considerable quantity of it is consequently absorbed.[461]
Late experiments[462]have shewn that the active principle of thecocculus Indicusis an alkaline body,crystallizable, bitter, and extremely poisonous; to this principle,M. Boullayhas given the name ofpicrotoxine, and the experiments ofM. Orfilahave confirmed the idea of its constituting the only active element of the seeds.
The common mushroom, or champignon, (Agaricus Campestris) has been long esteemed an article of epicurean delicacy; and is eaten in its fresh state either stewed or boiled; and as a preserve, in the form of pickle or powder. Its juice, moreover, furnishes the sauce so well known by the name ofketchup,[463]orcatsup.Mr. Millerinforms us that the true eatable mushroom may be easily distinguished from the poisonous and unpleasant species by the following characters. “When young, it appears of a roundish form, smooth, like a button; which together with its stalk, is white, especially the fleshy part of the button; the gills within, when broken, are livid. As it grows larger, it expands its head by degrees into a flat form; the gills underneath are at first of a pale flesh-colour, but become blackish on standing.” There are besides a vast number of species which may be eaten with perfect impunity; the AgaricusProcerus, or tall mushroom, is sometimes exposed for sale in Covent Garden market, and is quite harmless; although, when preserved in pickle, it is very apt to run into the vinous fermentation. With equal safety the AgaricusPratensis, or Scotch bonnet, as it has been called, may be eaten; it occurs in those patches which arewell known by the popular name offairy rings. The Agaricusdeliciosusis considered byWitheringto have been the mushroom which formed the vehicle of poison toClaudius Cæsar, as related at page134of this volume, and which has been celebrated by the satiric pen ofJuvenal, and the epigrammatic muse ofMartial; a species of mushroom, observesWitheringwhich is still highly esteemed in modern Italy, as it was in ancient Rome.SchæferandClusius, however, consider the plant in question to have been the AgaricusXerampelinus, a species which although esculent, has a strong, and by no means an agreeable flavour. The common champignon has never, as far as we can learn, produced any mischief, although a popular opinion prevails that soil, shade, and other local circumstances, may render it virulent. If any unpleasant symptoms were to follow its ingestion, we should be inclined to regard them as the result of the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the individual, rather than as the consequence of anabsolutepoison; indeed a question has been raised how far such an explanation may not apply to all the cases of poisoning from this tribe of plants; for it has been observed that in many parts of Europe several of those species of mushroom are eaten with impunity, that are regarded by us as most virulent poisons; of this number we may reckon the AgaricusPiperatus, orPepper Agaric, which is eaten in great quantity by the Russians, who fill large vessels with them in the autumn, seasoning or pickling them with salt, and then eating them in the ensuing lent.[464]There is, however, too much direct evidence in favour of the existence of an acrid poison in certainAgarics, to allow the supposition of theirbeingrelative[465]in their operation, as exemplified in the history of theAgaricus Muscarius, orBugagaric, which is so called from its power in destroying these insects; and for which purpose the inhabitants of the north of Europe infuse it in milk, and set it in their windows. It constitutes theMouchomoreof the Russians, Kamtschadales, and Koriars, who use it for the sake of intoxication; upon some occasions they eat it dry, but generally it is steeped in a liquor made with theEpilobium Angustifolium; upon drinking which, they are seized with convulsions in all their limbs, followed by raving delirium: an effect which renders it a desirable potation[466]to those who intend to accomplish any desperate act, or premeditated assassination. It is also stated that those who drink the urine of persons intoxicated by this agaric, experience the effects of the mushroom.Withering,[467]who has been very assiduous in the display of this species, acknowledges ten varieties, all of which are natives of Britain. TheAgaricus Semi-globalusof this botanist, and which is identical with the A.Glutinosusof Curtis, is extremely poisonous, and has proved fatal in several instances in this country. There are a great many other species equally destructive, but notwithstanding the labour that has been bestowed upon this branch of natural knowledge, much remains to be explained. The ancients appear to have taken considerable pains in discriminating between esculent and poisonous fungi; among the moderns,Clusiushas furnished a mass of information.Witheringhas described withgreat botanical minuteness and accuracy the different species and varieties of this extensive genus of the cryptogamia; but he has failed in pointing out the poisonous, from the esculent and harmless species.Orfila, in his late lessons on Poisons,[468]has bestowed considerable labour with a view to establish a practical distinction, and has enriched his work with highly illustrative engravings. Upon the present occasion, it is scarcely necessary to observe, that it would be foreign to the plan of this work to enter into such botanical details as the full elucidation of this subject would require; the research would, in itself, occupy a quarto volume; we must therefore rest satisfied with general observations. The following indications should excite a suspicion of mushrooms. A marshy and shady locality; an ugly or lurid physiognomy; a glairy or moist surface; a change of colour when cut, and a soft, porous, and moist texture; a virulent smell; a bright colour, or a combination of distinct colours. We ought also to reject as dangerous all those which have bulbous and soft stems, or which have fragments of skin glued to their surface.
Exhilaration of spirits, laughter, vertigo, sickness, griping pains, vomiting, and purging, suffusion of the eyes, stupor, cold sweats, syncope, convulsions, death. Numerous records of sickness and death might be adduced in illustration of this subject. The celebrated musician,Schobert, and, with the exception of one child, his whole family, together with a friend and a physician who dined with him,were all fatally poisoned by a dish of mushrooms, which he had himself gathered in the fields of Saint Gervais, a village in the environs of Paris. It is not known to what species the plants belonged. In theGazette de Santé, for August 1812, we have the following narrative. “M. Dufour, a physician of Montargis, gathered in the neighbouring forest some mushrooms, which were stripped of their skin, and their stem, cut into pieces, and cooked in their juice with butter and fine herbs, under a camp oven. They were served up at table. The servant girl, aged twenty years, who had eaten the greatest quantity, very shortly complained of confusion of the head, giddiness, and a slight heaving of the stomach; her face was red and inflamed, the eyes starting and lively, the pulse full and undulating. The eldest daughter ofM. Dufourexperienced the same symptoms without any nausea. A little child, eighteen months old, that had only eaten some bread dipped in the gravy, slept quietly for sixteen hours, contrary to his usual custom, and exhibited no other remarkable phenomenon. The other child, aged eleven years, complained of confusion of the head and intoxication; the parents did not experience any ill effects. Upon investigation it was discovered that two mushrooms of theAgaricus Muscarius, having been confounded with the proper one, had entered into the composition of the dish.”
Amongst the cases which have occurred in this country, we may particularize that related byMr. E. Brande, in the third volume of theLondon Medical and Physical Journal, p. 41, “J. S. gathered early in the morning of the third of October, in the Green Park, what he supposed to be small mushrooms; these he stewed with the common additions in atinnediron[469]saucepan. The whole did not exceed a tea-saucer full, which he, and four of his children ate the first thing, about eight o’clock in the morning, as they frequently had done without any bad consequence; they afterwards took their usual breakfast of tea, &c., which was finished about nine, whenEdward, one of the children (eight years old) who had eaten a large proportion of the fungi, was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother restrain him. To this succeeded vertigo, or stupor; the pupils of his eyes were, at times, dilated to nearly the circumference of the cornea, and scarcely contracted at the approach of a strong light; his breathing was quick, his pulse very variable, at times imperceptible, at others too frequent and small to be counted, latterly very languid; his feet were cold, livid, and contracted; he sometimes pressed his hands on different parts of his abdomen, as if in pain, but when roused and interrogated respecting it, heanswered yes, or no, evidently without any relation to what was asked. About the same time the father, aged forty, was attacked with vertigo, and complained that every thing appeared black, then wholly disappeared; to this succeeded loss of voluntary motion and stupor; in about ten minutes he gradually recovered, but complained of universal numbness and coldness, with great dejection, and a firm persuasion that he was dying; in a few minutes he relapsed, but recovered as before, and had several similar fits during three or four hours, each succeeding one being less violent, and with longer intermission than thatpreceding.Harriet, twelve years old, who had eaten but a very small quantity, was also attacked at the time with slight vertigo.Charlotte, a delicate little girl, ten years of age, who had eaten a considerable quantity, was suddenly attacked in the presence ofDr. Burgesand myself, with vertigo and loss of voluntary motion.Martha, aged eighteen, who had eaten a small proportion, was attacked with similar symptoms.” By judicious treatment they all recovered. Upon investigationMr. Sowerbydetermined the mushroom to have been a variety of the A.glutinosusof Curtis (Flora Londinensis) the same withDr. Withering’sA.semi-globatus; and yet no notice of its deleterious properties is taken by either of these botanists.
A less fortunate case of poisoning byFungiis related in the twentieth volume of the same journal byMr. Parrott, surgeon of Mitcham, of which the following is a sketch. The subject of the history was a family of six persons, viz.William Attwood, ætat. 45;Eliza, his wife, 38; and their daughters,Mary, æt. 14;Hannah, 11;Sarah, 7;Eliza, 5. They all ate stewed champignons, at one o’clock, on Monday the 10th of October, which stew was made in an iron vessel, and consisted of the articles already mentioned with the addition of butter and flour, pepper, salt, and water only; and each of the parties (Hannahexcepted) was supposed to have eaten more than half a pint. Within ten minutes after they had eaten their meal, they felt their spirits exhilarated, and the eldest daughter said to her mother “how funny you look.” All the parties continued cheerful till about six o’clock, when having taken their tea, they were attacked with stupor, which was soon succeeded, by severe pains in the bowels, accompanied with violent vomiting, and copious purging, which continuedtill the following afternoon, when the parents became alarmed and sent for the surgeon. The treatment which was pursued appears to have been, in every respect, judicious, andMaryhad so far recovered on the following day (Wednesday) that she walked into the village about a quarter of a mile from home; in the evening, however, the symptoms returned; on Thursday evening she became convulsed, and died on Friday morning at two o’clock.Elizadid not complain much of her sufferings, but became convulsed at the same time as her sister, and died half an hour after her.Sarahnever complained of pain in the head, but was continually suffering under extreme pain in the bowels, which was aggravated by pressure, but no tension existed; she died on Saturday morning, in the same convulsed state as her sisters. A dog which had partaken of the stew died on the Wednesday night, apparently in great agony. The father recovered, the mother, who was two months advanced in pregnancy, miscarried, but ultimately became convalescent.Mr. Wheeler, of St. Bartholomew’s hospital, a gentleman who has been long known to the profession as an eminent botanist, no sooner heard of the event than he repaired to the spot where the mushrooms had been gathered, when he immediately recognised theAgaricus semi-globatus, which had nearly proved fatal in the instance related byMr. E. Brande, and which, upon being shewn to the father, he instantly pronounced to be similar to those, of which the family had so unfortunately eaten.