1. Disturbing causes acting on the projectile during its passage through the bore. Imperfections of form, such as want of straightness in the bore, faulty position of the line of sight and the trunnions.Influence of the windage of the projectile and of the percussions which result from it. Deviation from the original direction; its consequence in the different kinds of fire. Effect of the recoil and the vibrations of the barrel in the fire of small-arms.Influence of the various causes which are capable of modifying the initial velocity.2. Disturbing causes acting upon the projectile during its passage through the air. Influence of the rotatory motion which results from the last percussion within the bore. Effects of the eccentricity of projectiles. Case where the rotation occasions no deviation. Influence of the proximity of the ground. Deviation produced by the wind (air in motion.) Influence of atmospheric changes.
1. Disturbing causes acting on the projectile during its passage through the bore. Imperfections of form, such as want of straightness in the bore, faulty position of the line of sight and the trunnions.
Influence of the windage of the projectile and of the percussions which result from it. Deviation from the original direction; its consequence in the different kinds of fire. Effect of the recoil and the vibrations of the barrel in the fire of small-arms.
Influence of the various causes which are capable of modifying the initial velocity.
2. Disturbing causes acting upon the projectile during its passage through the air. Influence of the rotatory motion which results from the last percussion within the bore. Effects of the eccentricity of projectiles. Case where the rotation occasions no deviation. Influence of the proximity of the ground. Deviation produced by the wind (air in motion.) Influence of atmospheric changes.
THIRD SECTION.—MOTION OF CARRIAGES.
Twenty-third Lecture.—(23.) Importance of the question. Preliminary ideas. Resistance due to the motion of a carriage and determination of the effort necessary for drawing it in the case of uniform motion. Two-wheeled carriage on level ground; the effort of draught in a direction parallel to the ground; first, resistance referable to the friction of the wheels on the axle; secondly, resistance referable to their revolution upon the ground. Influence of the weight ofthe carriage. Advantage of large wheels over small ones, demonstrated in the two cases of a yielding soil and a hard soil scattered over with obstacles. Expression of the power of draught necessary to overcome the two resistances united.
Twenty-fourth Lecture.—(24.) General expressions of the effort of draught necessary for two-wheeled and four-wheeled carriages; case of a locked wheel. Influence of the direction of the traces and of the inclination of the ground upon the draught. Advantage of rolling over dragging for the transport of burdens. Examination of resistances which are developed in the passage from repose to motion. Considerations on the position of the fillet in the box, and determination of the co-efficient of friction for the case of the revolution of the wheel about the axle.
Influence of the length of the nave on the frictions when the axle is thrown out of a horizontal position.
Twenty-fifth Lecture.—(25.) Turning of carriages considered successively in the case of two-wheeled and four-wheeled carriages. Center and angle of the turn in four-wheeled carriages. Calculations of the angle of the turn and of the space required by the carriage to execute a half turn. Examination of the dimensions of the carriage which influence the angle of the turn. Diameter of the fore-wheels and height of the body of the carriage; distance between the wheels and breadth of the body of the carriage; position of the point of reunion of its fore and hind parts. Examination of the circumstances favorable or unfavorable to the action of the horse. Relation between the forces to which he is subjected, and the pressure of his feet on the ground. Sliding of the feet; influence of the weight of the animal; of the co-efficient of friction; and of the direction of the traces. Lifting of the fore-hand; influence of the weight of the horse, and of the increased distance between the points on which he rests; of the position of his center of gravity; and of the direction of the traces.
Twenty-sixth Lecture.—(26.) Considerations on the mode of action of the draught-horse. Effect of his weight, and of the inclination of the traces. Effort of draught of which the horse is capable, both momentarily and continuously; results of experiments. Composition of artillery harness. Harness à limonière (with shafts and cross-bar,) or on the French system; on the German system, with pole and support. Use and discontinuance of swing bars. Arrangement of the traces. General arrangement of harness. Bât-saddle.
CLASSIFIED ACCOUNT OF SMALL ARMS AND OF ARTILLERY MATERIAL.
Twenty Lectures, of which Fourteen are common to the Students of both Arms and Six confined to Artillery Students.
FIRST SECTION.—SMALL ARMS.
Twenty-seventh Lecture.—(1.) Classification of small arms. Arms not fire-arms. Classification of hand-weapons. Considerations on the profile and outline of cutting weapons. Effect of the curve. Division of the mass. Form of the hilt.
Considerations on the profile and outline of thrusting weapons.
Position of the center of gravity; form of the point. Description of arms other than fire-arms now in use. Sabres and swords. General ideas respecting their component parts; blade, hilt, and scabbard. Regimental arms. Infantry sword. Sword-bayonet of the artillery and chasseurs, cavalry sword; peculiar requisites. Sword of cavalry of reserve, of cavalry of the line, and of light cavalry. Horse artillery sword.
Officers’ and non-commissioned officers’ arms. Cavalry lance. Camping axe. Side-arms in use in the navy. Sword, pike, boarding-axe, dirk.
Defensive armor. Cuirassiers and carabineers’ cuirasses. Cuirass and helmet of the sapper.
Twenty-eighth Lecture.—(2.) Fire-arms. Historical notices. First attempts in fire-arms. Hand cannons. Arquebuses, culverines, &c. Poitrinal, matchlock, firelock, pistol, and blunderbuss.
Means employed successively for loading and ignition of the charge. Twisted match, wheel-lock, flint-lock, percussion-lock, (the two last mentioned here by way of note.) Classified account of fire-arms now in use. Muskets. Considerations on the weight and principal dimensions of muskets. Detailed description of the infantry musket. Action of the flint and the percussion lock.
Twenty-ninth Lecture.—(3.) Comparison of the flint and the percussion musket. Voltigeur’s, dragoon’s, and double-barreled musket. Gendarmerie and cavalry carbine. Cavalry and gendarmerie pistol. Arms in which precision of aim is studied. Means employed to prevent the deviations caused by the windage of the projectiles and their rotatory-movement in the air. Diminution and suppression of the windage; straight grooves in the barrel, spiral grooves, rifled arms. Rotation of the ball about its axis of flight.
Principles of arrangement of rifled arms. Charge of powder and inclination of the grooves; two modes of solution, powerful charge and long spiral, weak charge and short spiral. Length of the barrel: conditions which determine it; number and form of the grooves.
Thirtieth Lecture.—(4.) Loading of rifled arms; ramming the ball home; loading at the breech. Different methods tried. Loading with a flattened ball; effect of the flattening of the ball. Examination of the successive improvements to which this idea has served as a basis. Chambered arms; use of the short bottom and the patch. Armsà tige. Elongation of the ball; shortening of the spiral groove; diminution of the charge: advantages resulting from it. Pointed cylindrical ball; principles of its outline; effect of the notches of the ball; superiority of this projectile over the spherical balls. Summary examination of the different models of rifled arms which have been successively in use. Versailles rifles.
Wall-piece, pattern 1831. Common rifle, pattern 1842. Wall-piece, pattern 1840. Bored-up wall-piece, pattern 1842. Pistols for officers of cavalry and gendarmerie. Riflesà tige, pattern 1846, and artillery carbineà tige. Description of these two arms. Superiority of the rifleà tigeover the arms for precise aim previously adopted. Trial relating to a new improvement in the construction of rifled arms. Disuse of the “tige.” Ball with cup. Comparative notice of the fire-arms of the different European powers.
SECOND SECTION.—PROJECTILES AND CANNON.
Thirty-first Lecture.—(5.) Principles of construction of projectiles.
Considerations on the substances which may be chosen for the manufactureof projectiles. Essential conditions, density, hardness, tenacity, cheapness. Projectiles of stone, lead, cast-iron, iron, copper, gun-metal. Forms of projectiles.
Exterior form; conditions which serve to determine it. The spherical form preferable to any other in the actual state of artillery. Advantage of elongated projectiles. Conditions relating to their use. First attempts. Interior form of hollow projectiles; howitzer shells, bombs, and grenades. Thickness of the metal; fuse-hole; charging-hole of naval hollow projectiles; lugs or handles of shells. Density of projectiles. Recapitulation of the balls; howitzer shells; shells and grenades in use, their nomenclature, dimensions, weight. Cannon-balls. Choice of metal and weights. Different arrangements for the use of shot, case-shot, canister or naval grape-shot. Spherical case; conditions relating to their use. Charge of spherical case. Bar-shot. Rescue shells.
Thirty-second Lecture.—(6.) Cannon. Historical ideas on the subject. Principle of arrangement of ancient arms and machines of war. Motive force employed; its inferiority compared to that furnished by the combustion of powder. Earliest cannon.
Historical view of the different systems of ordnance which have been successively in use in France.
1. Cannon. Calibres in use in the 16th century. Edict of Blois, 1572. Cannon employed in the reign of Louis XIV. Regulation of 1732. System of Vallière. Modifications introduced by Gribeauval in 1765. Cannon of the year XI. Cannon in use at the present day.
2. Ordnance adapted to hollow projectiles. Difficulties inseparable from the throwing of hollow projectiles; first attempts. Mortars. Double fire. Ancient calibres. Mortars in use at the present day. Stone mortar. Howitzers, their first use in the French artillery; howitzers of 1765; of the year XI. Calibres in use at the present day. Considerations on the calibres of different kinds of cannon. Siege, garrison, field, coast, and naval ordnance. Siege, garrison, field, mountain, coast, and naval howitzers. Mortars and stone mortars. Considerations on the metals which may be employed in the manufacture of cannon for siege, garrison, field, coast, and naval purposes. Interior form of ordnance.
1. Part of the bore traversed by the projectile, transverse ; trial of rifled cannon, longitudinal .2. Part of the bore occupied by the charge; influence of its form; the spherical, cylindrical, truncated form. Chambers of mortars; reason for their adoption. Cylindrical and truncated chambers; comparison of their effects. Spherical chamber; pyriform chamber: interior form of the naval mortarà semelle(cast in one piece with the bed.) Chamber of howitzers; experiments with reference to their adoption for field howitzers. Dimension. Howitzers without chamber. Chamber of carronades. Junction of the chambers with the rest of the bore: form of the bottom of the bore or of the chamber.
1. Part of the bore traversed by the projectile, transverse ; trial of rifled cannon, longitudinal .
2. Part of the bore occupied by the charge; influence of its form; the spherical, cylindrical, truncated form. Chambers of mortars; reason for their adoption. Cylindrical and truncated chambers; comparison of their effects. Spherical chamber; pyriform chamber: interior form of the naval mortarà semelle(cast in one piece with the bed.) Chamber of howitzers; experiments with reference to their adoption for field howitzers. Dimension. Howitzers without chamber. Chamber of carronades. Junction of the chambers with the rest of the bore: form of the bottom of the bore or of the chamber.
Thirty-third Lecture.—(7.) Vent; its object, its dimensions. Bushes inserted before casting, (masses de lumière;) after casting, (grains de lumière.) Considerations on the position of the vent relatively to the charge. Experiments made with the infantry musket, and with 24 and 16 pounder guns.
Arrangement of the vent in guns of 1732; portfire chamber. Vent of mortars. Priming pans. Windage of projectiles; conditions which determine it for the different services. Rules received with respect to ancient guns. Dimensionsin use at the present day. Different characteristics resulting from the windage of projectiles. Length of the bore. Question of the length of the bore considered with reference to the projectile effect of the powder. The length of ordnance is determined by considerations unconnected with this effect.
Length of bore of siege and defensive artillery, of field, coast, and naval guns. Length of bore of mortars, and of the stone mortar. Length of bore of howitzers. Thickness of metal and external outline. Cannon:—Theoretical determination of the external outline necessary for resistance to the effect of the gases of the powder. Co-efficient of resistance, its value in the guns in use. Thickness in the chase necessary for resistance to the percussions of the projectile.
Swell or moulding of the muzzle. Thickness at the position occupied by the trunnions. Thickness of metal of the different systems of cannon which have been successively in use in France. Thickness of metal in howitzers. Form resulting from the diminution of internal diameter, at the position occupied by the chamber. Exceptional form of the siege howitzer. Outline of the interior of mortars.
Thirty-fourth Lecture.—(8.) Line of sight; its object and arrangement. Considerations on the inclination of the line of sight relatively to the axis of the gun. Trunnions; object and arrangement of trunnions and their shoulders. Position of trunnions relatively to the center of gravity of the gun. Preponderance of the breech over the chase; manner of estimating it; preponderance allowed in the different guns in use. General principle serving as the basis for its adoption. Position of trunnions relatively to the axis of guns. Reasons for their depression; circumstances which cause it to vary. Trunnions of mortars; their reinforces. Dolphins of ordnance. Weight of ordnance; necessary relation between the weight of a gun, and the quantity of movement of its projectile. Conditions serving to determine the weight of the different species of cannon, howitzers, and mortars in use. Examination of the weights adopted for the pieces of ordnance of all sorts, which have been successively employed. General recapitulation of the different species of ordnance in use. Nomenclature. Dimensions, weight. Land artillery. Siege, garrison, and field guns. Siege, garrison, field, and mountain howitzers, mortars, and stone mortars. Naval artillery. Cannon, carronades, howitzers, mortars, stone mortar, blunderbuss. Observations on ordnance. Exceptional ordnance. Villantroy’s howitzers. Belgian mortar of 60 c., &c. Description of the artillery petard.
THIRD SECTION.—WAR AND SIGNAL ROCKETS.
Thirty-fifth Lecture.—(9.) Historical ideas on the subject. Cause of the motion of rockets. Their exterior and interior form. Relation which should exist between the law of generation of the gases and the orifice for their escape. Measure of the tension of the gases in rockets. Results of experiments. Motion of the rocket. Variation of the velocity during its passage. Means of regulating the motion; effect of the directing stick. Influence of the wind upon the trajectory of the rocket.
Description of rockets in use.—1st. War rockets; calibres employed; body of the rocket; arrangement of the stick. Projectiles fitted to the head of the rocket; rockets without stick. 2d. Signal rockets; their calibres and composition.
FOURTH SECTION.—CARRIAGES.
Thirty-sixth Lecture.—(10.) Historical ideas on the subject. Arrangements originally in use for the service of ordnance. Successive improvements. Carriages on wheels. Introduction of limbers. General conditions which gun-carriages should satisfy.
General principles of their construction:—1st. With reference to the act of firing. 2dly. With a view to transport.
Mortar carriages. Particular requisites. Description of the carriages in use. Siege carriages; particular conditions. General arrangement of ancient siege carriages. Detailed description of the present siege carriage and its limber; its weight and different characteristics. Field carriage; particular requisites; general arrangement of the carriages employed before 1765. Field carriages of the system of Gribeauval; its defects. General arrangement and detailed description of the present field carriage and of its limber. Weight and different characteristics. Mountain carriages; particular requisites; description of the carriage and of the arrangement of its shafts (limonière.)
Thirty-seventh Lecture.—(11.) Garrison and coast carriages; particular requisites; object of the platform for the two systems; its principal dimensions; position of the pintle or working bolt (cheville ouvrière.) General arrangement of ancient garrison and coast gun-carriages. Description of the present garrison carriage; change of the carriage into a movable one on four wheels; weight and different characteristics. Replacement of the platform by a directing transom bed under certain circumstances of the service. Casemate carriage. Iron carriages; inconveniences of this kind of construction for siege purposes and on the field of battle; its advantages for the armament of coasts. Description of the coast carriage actually in use; weight and different characteristics. Naval carriages; particular requisites. General arrangement of naval carriages in use. Carriage on four small wheels for cannon. Bracket carriage (à échantignolle,) and carriage with double pivot platform for howitzers. Carronade carriage. Mortar bed, cast in one piece with the mortar, (à plaque.) Exceptional methods of construction. Depressing gun carriages for a very plunging fire. Villantroy’s howitzer beds, those of the Belgian mortar of 60 c., &c.
FIFTH SECTION.—CARRIAGES AND OTHER PARTS OF AN ARTILLERY TRAIN. ARTILLERY OF FOREIGN POWERS.
Thirty-eighth Lecture.—(12.) Battery carriages. Ammunition wagon. Historical ideas on the subject. Requisites for carriages used for the transport of munitions of war. General arrangement and description of the present ammunition wagon. Principles of arrangement of the ammunition chest. Loading of the chest with munitions of various kinds. Mountain ammunition chest. Loading of the chest with howitzer ammunition and infantry cartridges.
Battery wagon; object of this carriage; patterns successively adopted. Description of the wagon, pattern 1833. Field forge; object of this carriage. Description of the forge in use. Arrangement and play of the bellows. Mountain forge. Description and loading of it.
Thirty-ninth Lecture.—(13.) Park carriages and machines.
Park wagon. General arrangement and description of the park wagon and its limber. Carriages destined to the transport of heavy burdens. Ancient gun wagon. Truck. Block carriage. General arrangement and descriptionof the carriage. Siege cart; its object and description. Devil carriages. Arrangement of the ancient devil carriages with perch and with screw. Devil carriage with roller. Description of the carriage and of its mechanism. Gin. General arrangement of the different patterns successively employed. Description of the gin at present in use. Handscrew; its use, general arrangement, and description.
Fortieth Lecture.—(14.) Pontoon equipages. Conditions which military pontoon equipages should satisfy. Considerations on the nature of the supports to be employed. Reserve pontoon equipage. Boat of the reserve equipage; its general form and dimensions. Description of the boat and skiff; use of the boat for navigation; its weight and different properties.
Tackle and machines employed for bridge-making. Balks, moorings, chesses, blocks, and balk collar. Framework, with movable head; different kinds of piles. Means of anchorage. Common anchor; its properties. Anchor basket and chest. Buoy. Cordage. Ideas on its arrangement and on the measure of its resistance. Capstan. Windlass. Tackling. Handscrew. Pile driver. Hand rammer. Grapnel and hooks.
General arrangement of the boat carriage. Description. Its weight and properties. Light equipage.
Forty-first Lecture.—(15.) General ideas on the artillery of the different European powers, and comparison with the French material.
Ordnance; description, species, and calibres. Gun-carriages, carriages, and other parts of the train. General arrangement; facility of movement; modes of harnessing, &c.
SIXTH SECTION.—DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION OF GUN CARRIAGES AND ARTILLERY CARRIAGES, AND MEANS OF PRESERVATION OF MATERIAL.
Forty-second Lecture.—(16.) Knowledge of woods. Preliminary ideas. Structures and general properties of woods. Diseases and defects of woods. Description and properties of the principal substances employed in the construction of the material; uses to which the different kinds of wood are specially destined. Selection of standing timber; felling; transport; reception of woods; cubature. Cutting up in large and small sizes. Observations on the shrinking of wood. Preservation of woods. Drying in the air. Round, squared, and blocked-out timber. Preservation in store; preservation in water. Steeping. Influence of the contact of woods with other woods, and with metals.
Forty-third Lecture.—(17.) General considerations on the substances employed in the manufacture of gun and artillery carriages. Different properties of metals. Choice of kinds of wood; effects of their being dried. Classified account of axles and wheels. Axles; substance employed, their forms and dimensions. Wheels; essential requisites. Importance of the elasticity of wheels. Effects of the dishing of a wheel, form of the spokes, coupling of the spokes with the nave and the felloes. Tires. Form and number of the felloes determined by the effects of the drying. Form of the nave. Wheel-boxes.
Forty-fourth Lecture.—(18.) Means employed for the connection of the pieces which enter into the composition of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Nails, clinch nails, rivets, bolts, screws, &c. Examination of the joinings employed in the construction of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train.
General principles. Joinings of gun-carriages. Joint plates (“rondelles d’assemblage.”) Mortar beds, siege, field, and garrison carriages.
Forty-fifth Lecture.—(19.) Joining of other carriages and furniture. Hind parts, ammunition wagon, battery wagon, forge, park wagon, block carriage, cart, devil carriage, and drays. Boat and wherry. Fore parts, particular requisites. Fore parts of the field and siege carriage, of the park wagon, devil carriage, and drays. Barrels and cases.
Forty-sixth Lecture.—(20.) Means employed for the preservation of the material. Cost price of the principal parts of the material. Ordnance, projectiles, powder, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Small-arms. Preservation of ordnance in gun-metal and cast-iron. Preservation of projectiles. Formation and counting of piles. Rust-cleaning machine. Preservation of gun-carriages, carriages, and other furniture of the train. Different methods of stacking in use. Preservation of powder and made-up ammunition; stacking in powder magazines. Means proposed for avoiding the danger of explosion. Preservation of small-arms. Armories. Preservation of iron and cut wood.
FIRE OF ORDNANCE AND PORTABLE FIRE-ARMS. EFFECTS OF PROJECTILES.
Forty-seventh Lecture.—(1.) Fire of ordnance. Kinds of fire in use with ordnance. Choice of charges of powder. Charges of powder formerly in use; their progressive reduction. Charges of field, siege, garrison, coast, and ships’ cannon; of howitzers and mortars.
Arrangement of the charge. Shot cartridge for field guns. Loading of the other kinds of guns, of howitzers, mortars, and the stone mortar. Loading for fire with red-hot shot. Armaments for the service of ordnance. Methods of igniting the charges of powder; tubes formerly in use, friction tubes. Percussion system; Swedish tube. Ignition of the charge of hollow projectiles, fuses of hollow projectiles, fuse with several pipes for the fire of spherical case, hand grenade fuse. Rapidity of fire. Laying of ordnance. Principal methods of laying guns; laying them by the help of the line of sight. Determination of the elevation. Instruments in use to obtain elevations. Negative elevations, means of using them. Laying guns for fire parallel to the ground; for breaching fire at a short distance.
Forty-eighth Lecture.—(2.) Determinations of elevations by experiment; construction of practice tables. Laying guns when the axis of the trunnions is not horizontal. Laying guns with the help of the plumb-line and quadrant; plunging fire, rectification of the aim.
Fire of mortars, means for directing it in use; use of pickets, of the line, of the quadrant. Laying pieces in the case of a defective platform. Means of laying them for night-firing. Laying naval ordnance; use of the front sight. Initial velocities of projectiles with the different charges in use. Angles of sight, and point-blank ranges of ordnance. Ranges at different sights. Maximum ranges.
Forty-ninth Lecture.—(3.) Probabilities in the fire of ordnance; known laws, facts ascertained by experiment. Distribution of projectiles over an object aimed at of indefinite extent. Mean point of impact. Fire of canister; effects of the dispersion.
Fire of spherical case. Effects of the bursting of the projectile; dispersion of the balls and of the explosions. Fire of the stone mortar; use of mortars for the same purpose.
Fire of small arms: charges of powder adopted. Ball cartridge. Initial velocities of balls with the different arms. Angles of sight and point-blank ranges. Rules for fire according to distances, for muskets, carbines, and pistols. Fire of rifled arms; use of the tangent scale. Probability of the fire of small-arms; comparison of arms with smooth-bored and rifled barrels. Different means employed for the estimation of distances.
Fiftieth Lecture.—(4.) Effects of projectiles on the different substances fired at. Effects of concussion and penetration. Effects on earth. Theory of the penetration of a projectile into a resisting medium. Formula to express the penetration, based on the results of calculation and experiment. Effects of penetration into wood. Effects on metals, cast-iron, iron, lead. Effects on masonry and on rock. Application to a breaching fire delivered in a regular direction relatively to the revetment. Effects of the shock of projectiles upon living bodies. Effects of hollow projectiles bursting in different media; earth, wood. Method of bursting employed against troops.
Effects of spherical case. Incendiary effects. Effects of war rockets. Explosive rockets. Incendiary rockets. Effects of concussion.
TRACE AND CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERIES.
Six Lectures, common to the Students of both Arms.
Fifty-first Lecture.—(1.) Definitions. Meaning attached to the word “battery.” Different denominations given to batteries: first, according to the circumstances of the war in which they are employed; secondly, according to their mode of construction; thirdly, according to the kind of ordnance with which they are armed; fourthly, according to the kind of fire for which they are intended; fifthly, according to the direction of their fire.
Principles of construction. General considerations on the elements which constitute the different kinds of batteries which have reference to them. Epaulment; its length, height, and thickness in different cases. Section of the epaulment. Ground-plan of the epaulment of the different kinds of batteries; returns at its extremities. Case where the battery is in advance of a parallel. Epaulment with redans; its trace.
Embrasuresopened in the epaulment; their construction in different cases; slope of the bottom; interior opening; exterior opening; form of the cheeks.
Genouillère; fixing of its height for the different kinds of fire. Limit of the obliquity of the embrasures.
Fifty-second Lecture.—(2.)Terre-Plein; its position relatively to the ground; its length for the different kinds of batteries. Disposition of the part unoccupied by the platforms. Terre-plein of garrison, field, coast, and barbette batteries.
Ditch; cases in which it is employed. Its position with reference to the epaulment. Depth, breadth, , and plan of the ditch.
Communicationsbetween the battery and the works, in its neighborhood; parallels or trenches; plan and construction. Communication between the battery and its ditch.
Powder magazines:their object. Discussion respecting their site and capacity with a view to the different kinds of batteries, viz., siege, garrison, and field batteries.
Traversesofcrownworkand garrison batteries. Width between them and dimensions.
Fifty-third Lecture.—(3.) Details of construction. Different materials employed in the construction of batteries. First, materials for revetments, fascines, gabions, hurdles, sods, bags of earth, withy-bands, stakes, &c. Secondly, materials for platforms; hurtoir, sleepers, planks, beams, pickets. Construction of revetments of different kinds employed in batteries. First, revetment of the interior slope of a battery upon the natural ground. Secondly, revetment in use when the terre-plein is more or less sunken. Ordinary siege battery, battery in a parallel, battery in a crownwork. Third, revetment of the checks of embrasures in the different cases met with in practice; direct batteries with point-blank range; ricochet, breaching, garrison, and field batteries.
Fifty-fourth Lecture.—(4.) Construction of platforms. Ordinary siege platforms, movable platforms (à la Prussienne,) garrison and coast platforms, ordinary mortar platforms, platforms for coast mortars of great range. Peculiar case where the fire has to be elevated or greatly depressed. Construction of the communications from the battery to the parallel and to its fosse. Construction of powder magazines in batteries. Magazines of siege batteries, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. Case of breaching batteries; garrison battery and field battery. Magazines. Degree of resistance offered by blinded magazines. Modifications adopted for the strengthening of magazines whose construction is already fixed.
Fifty-fifth Lecture.—(5.) Number of workmen to be employed on the construction of the different parts of batteries: revetments, platforms, communications, powder magazines. Earthworks.
Duration of the total labor necessary for the construction of each kind of battery. Duration of the duty for the different parts of thepersonnelemployed upon the construction; officers, gunners, assistants. Definitive number of workmen necessary for the construction of the different kinds of batteries. Tools of different kinds.
Simultaneous execution. Preliminary operations. Reconnaissance. Prolongations. Sketch of the plan of a battery. Formation of the working party. Transport of materials. Plan of the battery. First, battery having its terre-plein on the level of the ground. Disposition of the working party. Work of the first night, of the following day, of the second night. Second, a battery sunk outside a parallel. Third, battery in a parallel or trench of some kind already established. Day labor, night labor.
(4.) Particular case of crownwork batteries.
Fifty-sixth Lecture.—(6.) Exceptional constructions. Blinded batteries for cannon or howitzers; for mortars. Batteries of earth-bags. Batteries on stony ground, on the rock, or marshy soil. Floating batteries. Construction on sites deficient in space. Case where the fire of the place is too dangerous. Coast batteries. General arrangement.
Instruction preparatory to working at the plans of batteries. (Course.)
UNIFORM ORGANIZATION AND SERVICE OF THE ARTILLERY.
Ten Lectures common to Students of both Arms.
FIRST SECTION.—UNIFORM ORGANIZATION OF THE ARTILLERY.
Fifty-seventh Lecture.—(1.) Historical résumé. Progress of modern artillery, from its origin down to our time. Artillery of Charles VII. and of Louis XI. Progress under Francis I. Effects of the wars of religion. Edict of Blois, 1572. Improvements by Sully. Creation by Gustavus Adolphus. State of the artillery under Louis XIV. Employment of artillery on the field of battle at the commencement of the 18th century. Regulation of 1732. Introduction of howitzers into the French artillery. Regimental pieces. Progress of the artillery in Prussia and in Austria in the Seven Years’ War. Reorganization of the French artillery in 1765. Résumé of the improvements owing to Gribeauval. System of the year XI. Present system.
Historical ideas on the personnel of the artillery. State of the personnel at the commencement of the use of fire-arms. Masters and grand-masters of the artillery, &c. Personnel employed originally on the service, and the guard of ordnance. Creation by Louis XIV. Account of the successive modifications in the personnel from this epoch down to 1765. Organization of 1765. Horse artillery. Pontoneers. Artillery train. Artillery of the Imperial Guard. Organization of 1829. Present state of the personnel. Regiments of artillery. Composition of the personnel of the different kinds of batteries. Companies of pontoneers, workmen, armorers, veteran gunners. Driver-corps (“train de pare.”) Naval artillery.
Fifty-eighth Lecture.—(2.) Committee and central depôt of artillery. Organization of artillerycommands.Establishments for the instruction of the personnel; artillery schools. Creation in 1679. Present schools; personnel attached to them. Central school of military pyrotechnics. Establishments for the preservation of the material. Importance of the material of artillery. Its state in France at different epochs. Artillery directions. Division of the territory of France. Personnel of the directions.
Establishments for the manufacture of the material. Ideas on the subject of their management. Arsenals; their object, management, number, personnel. Forges; their object, management, districts, personnel, inspection. Foundries for land artillery; their number, management, personnel, inspection. Naval foundries. Manufactures of arms; their special management, number, personnel, inspection. Branch of the service connected with gunpowder and saltpetre. Powder manufactories and refineries; management, personnel. Direction of the service. Establishments existing in France. Percussion cap manufactory.
SECOND SECTION.—SERVICE OF THE ARTILLERY IN THE FIELD. ORGANIZATION OF THE FIELD ARTILLERY TRAIN, ETC.
Selection of ordnance, conditions which determine it; cannon, howitzers, relation between them. Proportion of the number of pieces of ordnance to that of the combatants. Mean proportion received in France; circumstanceswhich may lead to a modification of it. Organization of ordnance in batteries. Account of the arrangements formerly adopted. Present system. Distribution of the batteries in the army. Principles received. Application of these principles to the artillery train of an army of a given strength. Infantry divisional batteries; cavalry divisional batteries; reserve batteries. Case of the formation of army corps. Composition and supply of batteries. Principles and details of the supply of batteries with ammunition for the guns and for the troops. Second supply distributed amongst the parks.
Fifty-ninth Lecture.—(3.) Field parks. Their composition, in carriages of all kinds. Application of the principles to the artillery train of an army of a given strength. Approximate relation of the number of the carriages and of the horses of the train to that of the pieces of ordnance. Means of renewing the supply of the parks.
Personnel of the field train. Personnel of the batteries; working companies. Companies forming part of the train. Personnel attached to the parks. Staff. Particular conditions, having reference to war in a mountainous country. Selection of pieces of ordnance. Proportion between their number and that of the combatants. Composition of some artillery trains employed in our African expeditions. Composition and supply of the mountain battery. Lading of the mules. Composition of pontoon trains. Reserve train, boats, wherries, tackle, carriages, and horses. Personnel of the train. Light train: material, personnel.
Sixtieth Lecture.—(4.) Marches of the artillery. Reception of a battery or of a park. Precautions to be taken before the departure. March at a distance from the enemy. Order of march. Distribution of the personnel; halts. Case of an accident to a carriage; ascents; descents; deep-bedded roads; passage through inhabited places; passage of bridges; of fords. Passage over ice. Night march. Transport of mountain artillery. March of pontoon trains. Transport of the trains by water; navigation by convoys; by isolated boats. Transport of ordnance, powder and projectiles in the boats. Transport of artillery trains by sea.
March in the vicinity of the enemy. Isolated convoys; rule with reference to their command; order of march; general measures of security; precautions to be taken during halts; manner of receiving an attack. Case where resistance becomes impossible; arrangements for the night.
Artillery in the march with other troops. Order of march. Relation of the different corps to each other. Exceptional difficulties which may occur on marches; privations of all kinds; bad weather; bad state of the roads; instances. March among high mountains; passes strongly occupied by the enemy; examples.
Encampments and bivouacs. Choice of ground convenient for a camp; disposition of the artillery camp. Establishment of artillery bivouacs. Disposition of the park; precautions relating to the superintendence. Different measures to be taken on arriving on the place of encampment or of bivouac. Attention to be paid to the horses: special precautions for the mules of the mountain artillery. Precautionary measures variable according to circumstances.
Sixty-first Lecture.—(5.) Artillery on the field of battle. Measures to be taken on arriving in the neighborhood of the enemy.
Choice of positions adapted for artillery.
1. Different considerations relative to the ground to be occupied; form of the ground; cultivated lands; nature of the ground; communications, &c.2. Position of the artillery relatively to the enemy.3. Position of the artillery relatively to the troops to be supported.
1. Different considerations relative to the ground to be occupied; form of the ground; cultivated lands; nature of the ground; communications, &c.
2. Position of the artillery relatively to the enemy.
3. Position of the artillery relatively to the troops to be supported.
Execution of the fire. Choice of the different kinds of fire according to the nature of the object aimed at and the distance. Fire of cannon, with ball, with shot. Fire of field and mountain howitzers. Fire parallel to the ground.
Use of war rockets. General principles relating to the effects to be produced by artillery, and to the warmth of the fire. Proper use of stores; their replacement. Use of the prolong. Arrangements to be made after the engagement. Spiking and unspiking of ordnance.
Use of artillery in the principal circumstances of a campaign. General case of an offensive engagement. Part played by the artillery in supporting infantry and cavalry marching to the attack. Importance of the artillery for following up a first advantage which has been obtained. Examples. Use of the artillery in masses to strike a decisive blow. Examples. Defensive engagement.
Disposition and use of the artillery for the defense of fortified positions. Attack of entrenchments. Reconnaissance. Disposition and use of artillery; attack of lunettes by the gorge. Examples. Attack and defense of villages; disposition of the artillery under these two circumstances. Attack of squares. Importance of artillery towards preparing for it. Examples. Defense of squares; disposition of artillery. Examples. Case of a charge of cavalry upon artillery. Use of artillery in the advanced guard, in the rearguard, in a retreat.
Use of artillery in the passage of streams. Examples. Use of artillery to defend or force the passage of valleys or defiles. Examples.
THIRD SECTION.—SERVICE OF ARTILLERY IN THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF PLACES, AND IN THE DEFENSE OF COASTS.
Sixty-second Lecture.—(6.) Object to be attained with the use of artillery in the attack of places. Selection of ordnance, cannon, howitzers, mortars. Composition of the siege train. Method to be followed in order to determine it. Examples of trains employed in different sieges. Carriages of the train. Supply of the siege train with projectiles, powder, &c.
Personnel of the siege train; troops and staff. Transport of the siege train. Horses to be employed. Limit in either direction. Employment of watercourses. Examples. Establishment of the train before the place. Encampment of the artillery force. Organization of the parks. Workshops, powder magazines, trench-depots. Rules relating to the direction of artillery works.
Commanding officers of attack.
Sixty-third Lecture.—(7.) Considerations on the different kinds of batteries to be employed in the attack of fortified places. Position of the batteries relatively to the point to be breached. Direct battery within point-blank range; enfilading battery, for a plunging fire, for direct fire within point-blank range, for plunging fire. Mortar batteries. Composition of the different kinds of batteries. Position of the directing lines of an enfilading battery, relative positions of the cannon, the howitzers, or the mortars. Position of the batteries relativelyto the parallels and the rest of the trenches. Examination of the circumstances which affect the power of a plunging fire, command of the work over the battery; distance between the height of the traverses. Slope of the crests of the work.
General principles relating to the order of the works of the artillery, commencing from the opening of the trenches.
Times for the construction of the first batteries. Batteries of the first and second parallels. Use of field artillery to defend the flank of the attacks. Replacement of the fire covered by the advance of the works; batteries of the third parallel. Use of vertical fire. Mortars of 15c. Throwing of grenades. Breaching and counter batteries. Considerations relating to their position. Batteries in the covered way.
Case of a breach into an interior work. Composition of the breaching and counter batteries. Calibres to be used. Number of pieces of ordnance.
Ideas upon the operation of arming batteries. Precautions to be taken. Passage out of the parallels or trenches. March in the trenches; examples of some operations of this kind. Supply of the different kinds of batteries. Rule relating to their daily service. Firing of siege batteries. Opening of the fire. Direct fire within point-blank range. Plunging fire. Fire of mortars. Warmth of the fire by day and by night; mean consumption of material. Fire of breaching batteries. Effects to be produced. Height of the horizontal cutting, number of the vertical ones. Execution of the fire; fall of the revetment. Fire upon the counter forts. Fire to render the breach practicable; balls, shells, war-rockets, facts ascertained by experiment.
Consumption of powder and projectiles, length of the operation. Breaching fire in a very oblique direction. Fire upon masked masonry. Breach into an unreveted work. Fire of counter-batteries. Bombardment. Case where it can be employed; manner of executing it.
Occupation of the place; arrangements which must be made by the artillery. Case of raising the siege. Case of its transformation into a blockade.
Sixty-fourth Lecture.—(8.) Service of artillery in the defense of places. Object to be attained with artillery. Selection of ordnance, guns, howitzers, mortars. Use of war-rockets and arms of precise aim. Field artillery. Basis of the supply of fortified places. Projectiles, powder, small-arms, various carriages.Personnelof the artillery. Troops. Staff.
Measures to be taken before the siege. Reconnaissances. Arrangement of the material. Organization of thepersonnel, of the duty by local divisions, of the workshops of all sorts. Precautionary armament. Basis of its organization. Supply of ordnance. Defensive armament. General principles relating to the armament of different kinds of works. Bastions, cavaliers, demilunes, approaches, &c. Organization of the armament. Traverses, embrasures, gun-carriages to be employed. Powder magazines. Supplies. Service of pieces.
Employment of the artillery against the first works of the besiegers, against the construction and armament of batteries; against the besieging artillery. Partial disarmament in case of inferiority. Part played by artillery in sorties. Modification of the defensive armament in proportion to the progress of the attack. Last defensive armament. Principles relating to its disposition. Armament of the flanking part of the fortification. Increased use of vertical fire. Use of war-rockets against works in close proximity. Crowning batteries,cavaliers of the trenches. Heads of saps, &c. Blinded batteries. Conditions of the establishment. Defense of breaches.
Service of artillery in the defense of coasts. General considerations on the degree of extension admissible in the armament of coasts. Principal points to be defended. Selection of ordnance intended for the armament of coast. Objects to be effected. Effects of balls (utility of large calibres;) of howitzer shells and of shells. Fire with red-hot balls. Material appropriated to the defense of coasts.
Position of coast batteries, conditions which determine it. Composition of coast batteries; their supply. Ideas upon the organization of the batteries and their small redoubts (réduits.) Use of the fleet and of field artillery.Personnelallotted to the service of artillery on the coasts.
FOURTH SECTION.—APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES PREVIOUSLY SET FORTH TO THE ATTACK AND DEFENSE OF THE FORTRESS OF METZ, (SHAM SIEGE.)
Sixty-fifth Lecture.—(9.) Composition of the siege train necessary for the attack of Metz. Carriages of the train.
Supply of the train with projectiles, powder, &c. Personnel of the train, troops and staff. Transport of the siege train. Establishment of the train before the place; encampment of the artillery force. Organization of the parks. Work-shops, powder magazines and depôts.
Sixty-sixth Lecture.—(10.) Object, disposition, and armament of all the batteries from the first opening of the trenches to the capture of the place. Use of field artillery to flank the batteries, &c.
Service of artillery in the defense of the place. Supply of ordnance, projectiles, powder, small-arms, and different carriages.
Personnel of the artillery. Troops, staff. Organization of the personnel and of the duties by local divisions. Precautionary armament; supply of ordnance. Defensive armament. Armament of the different works. Service of the pieces. Last defensive armament.
Lectures Preparatory to the Labors of the Course.
The sixth lecture of the fourth part of the course (the fifty-sixth) is partly devoted to the communication of the instructions necessary for the execution of the work of tracing plans of batteries.
Studies in connection with the Artillery Course.
The practical studies which are connected with the artillery course, are,—