Thefirst locomotive put upon my line was completed in 1875. This engine was constructed, not so much as a model of what a small locomotive should be, as to provide the requisite motive power for the experiments I desired to carry out. No great care was, therefore, observed in the details, and in its construction a good deal of material which happened to be at hand was utilized to save time and expense; this much in excuse of the want of proportion in some of the dimensions, which will be found in detail under the head of No. 1 in the table of locomotive dimensions on page 31.
The boiler was of the launch type, a cylindrical shell with a cylindrical fire-box terminating in tubes. This pattern of boiler, though giving less heating surface for its size than one of ordinary locomotive design, has the great merit of having no fire-box projecting below the barrel, thus enabling the over-hang of the frame beyond the wheel-base to be equalised at each end, a matter of the first importance in small tank engines. Its low first cost and the ease with which it can be kept in order are additional advantages. So well was I satisfied with the working, that in the four boilers since designed for my locomotives I have adhered to the original plan, which was copied from some shunting engines made by Mr. Ramsbottom for the London and North Western Railway. I go so far as to think that, without getting rid of a depending fire-box, no really satisfactory tank engine can be constructed for a small gauge railway unless idle wheels are introduced, a proceeding that cannot too strongly be deprecated. The gradients, which are almost invariably the concomitants of these small lines, make it essential that the whole of the available weight should be utilized for adhesion.
The difficulty of carrying on four wheels a boiler of sufficient length for a more powerful engine, and the unsuitableness of an ordinary six-coupled engine to the sharp curves in which narrow-gauge lines generally abound, led me, in 1877, to work out a design by which the wheel-base of an engine of the latter type could be made to accommodate itself to any required degree of curvature. At this time I was in communication with officers engaged in promoting a scheme for an army field railway, where great power conjoined with perfect flexibility was essential. As the result, I constructed the engine of which the dimensions are given under No. 2 inthe table, this being put to work in 1881. While avoiding the complication of the double-bogie system, this engine possesses most, if not all, of its advantages. It is six-coupled in the ordinary way, the axles having outside bearings and cranks. The wheels, of cast steel, are not fixed upon the axles, but each pair is keyed upon a cast iron sleeve, through which the axle passes. The sleeve upon the middle axle is capable of sliding 1 in. in each direction laterally, but cannot revolve upon its axle thus, when the engine reaches a curve, the arc of the rail draws the middle wheels on their sleeve to an amount equal to the versed sine of the arc, without interfering with the rigid position of the axle. The leading and trailing pairs are likewise mounted on sleeves, but here the connection of the sleeve with the axle is by means of a ball joint at the centre, so constructed as to leave the sleeve free to radiate in any direction, but obliging it to revolve with the axle. The middle sleeve is so connected by external hoops and links with the leading and trailing sleeves that, when the former makes a lateral diversion, the two latter are radiated precisely to the required curve, providing it is within the limit of the travel of the middle sleeve, which, in this case, is arranged for a radius of 25 ft. This engine excited considerable interest among visitors to my railway at the time of the Royal Agricultural Show in Derby in 1881, but the opinion was expressed that the arrangement would not stand hard work. A few years later, however, when some officers of the Royal Engineers were trying the engine with a view to adopting the plan on the military railway at Chatham, they subjected it to very severe tests, loading it up steep inclines to its utmost capacity; stopping it with the steam brake almost dead when travelling at various speeds and over the most awkward places; and, finally, giving it a fifty mile run with all the load that could be got together, at an average speed of seven and a half miles an hour, stops being made for water, &c., for twelve minutes in each hour. This was followed, shortly after, by a continuous run with a similar load for an hour and thirty-five minutes, the extreme limit to which the water in the tanks would hold out.
There was no heating of any part during the trials, nor failure of any kind. After eight years’ work, chiefly on gradients of 1 in 10 to 1 in 12, where sand has to be used freely, the engine came into the shops to be overhauled. During this time there had been no mishap or breakage whatever, nor had a wheel ever left the rails, except on one occasion in descending the steep incline, when, owing to the slippery state of the rails, and sand failing, the engine slid away and left the road; less than an hour, however, sufficing to get it running again.
On removing and examining, shortly after this, the working parts of the radiating gear, they were found in perfect order, the tool marks being still visible in the ball joints; and in August, 1895, the engine, which was then sent over to do the ballastwork on the Eaton Railway, where it worked for thirteen months, showed still a clean bill of health. The engine is now rebuilding, and it is proof of the excellence of the radiating gear that this part is being put together again without re-adjustment of any kind. There is thus no doubt of the success of this radiating principle.
This engine is fitted, as already noticed, with a steam brake, which can also be applied by hand but the latter alone is far too slow in action for the abrupt stops necessary on a line like mine.
The space between the frames being occupied by the radiating arrangements, the valve gear is necessarily outside, and, to avoid overhung eccentrics, I designed a modification of one of Mr. Charles Brown’s Swiss valve gears, which are also the parents of what is known in this country as Joy’s gear. I venture to think that my plan, in which nothing projects below the connecting-rod, is better suited to small engines where the motion is almost always near the ground than any yet produced. The gear is extremely simple, and has worked without any trouble, the only setting required being the adjustment to length of the valve spindles, and the setting of one fixed centre on each side of the engine.
The springs consist of rubber pads placed between the axle-box and the horn-block. They are simple to fit, take up no room, never get out of order, and last many years. I have no steel-carrying spring on any of my stock.
The safety-valve spring is entirely within the boiler, so that it cannot be tampered with or injured by accident.
The connecting-rod brasses are peculiar. In order to avoid the twist to the slide bar when the driving axle, owing to inequalities in the road, fails to preserve its horizontal parallelism with the frame, the brasses are shaped circular, so as to turn slightly in their straps, the latter being bored out in the direction of their length instead of slotted. This plan not only relieves both crank-pin and slide-bar of torsion, but also forms a much more rigid union between the strap and the rod end.
The steam jet is worked by the regulator handle, the valve being so arranged that when the handle is moved beyond the point at which steam is shut off, the jet is opened. A spring stop prevents the jet being opened inadvertently. Thus when steam is put on, the jet is by the same action closed, steam is saved, and two motions are performed in one.
An important point in this, as in all the locomotives I have built, is that the over-hang at the two ends is equal, and the weight also on both leading and trailing axles practically the same, when the driver is on the foot plate. A further arrangement of value is that in all my engines the cranks are counter-balanced. It is impossible to effect the counter-balancing on the wheels, nor, even if feasible, will the resultbe so good, as counter-balance weights on the wheel are not at the same distance from the axle centre as the disturbing weights, and therefore not equable in their effect at different speeds.
This engine was built for tractive power, not speed, and eighteen miles an hour is the highest rate registered over the short straight course available. The previous engine, with 15½ in. wheels, reached a speed equal to 23 miles an hour, the time being in both cases taken over a measured distance with a stop watch. About 11 miles an hour is the usual average speed with passenger cars, which, owing to the severe curves, it is not deemed wise to exceed.
The net cost of the engine under consideration was £309, exclusive of drawings and patterns. At the time it was built a joiner and occasionally a labourer were my only assistants; the work consequently proceeded but slowly, occupying altogether two years and a half. Reducing the time to hours, the whole of my own labour was almost precisely equal to that worked in one year by an artisan, and that of my assistants together to about half the amount. This includes the time occupied in moulding, for all the castings were made on the premises, with the exception of the steel wheels.
The boiler, frame-plates, and some of the brass fittings, were purchased, but the whole of the machine work and fitting was executed on the spot. The cost of all material, the hours of labour and engine power, interest on tools, &c., were all carefully booked, and it will probably not be far from a fair trade price for the engine if 10 per cent, for drawings and patterns, and 20 per cent, for profit, are added to the cost given above, thus bringing the amount to about £400.
The working of the radiating gear of engine No. 2 proving so satisfactory, I elaborated the principle so as to apply it to an eight-wheeled locomotive. (No. 3 in the table.) In this case both of the middle pairs of wheels have the traversing motion already described, but, instead of the leading and trailing wheels being radiated from one central pair, the second pair of wheels radiates the leading pair, and the third pair of wheels the trailing pair, thus forming a mechanism practically equal to a double bogie. By this arrangement an eight-coupled engine is obtained capable of passing round curves as severe as may be necessary. In the present instance, the travel is constructed for a minimum radius of 25 ft. The details of the engine are similar to those of No. 2, but numerous improvements have been effected, into all of which it would be tedious to enter. It may, however, be mentioned that the ends of all the crank pins are boxed in by the connecting and coupling rod brasses, to exclude dirt. A steam water-lifter has also been added, by which the tanks can be filled without delay during frost.
The blast-nozzle is made adjustable by raising or lowering an internal cone.Owing to the steep gradient before alluded to, it was impossible to get a fixed size of nozzle that would keep up steam with a light load on the level, without being so contracted as to lift the fire off the bars on the incline.
The boiler fittings have been made as symmetrical as possible, and circular nuts have been substituted for hexagon, as more easy to clean. The water-gauge glasses are put in through the top cock and fastened by a single cap nut, thus doing away with the usual external glands. The steam brake has a 5 in. cylinder, and the rigging is arranged to swing with the traversing wheels.
The locomotive for the Eaton Railway (No. 4 in the table) was built as an example of a four-wheeled engine for use where the traffic was small and the gradient reasonable. With the exception of radial axles, it is fitted up precisely as No. 8. It has not, however, been altogether a success. From the data of its hauling powers, it will readily be seen that there is no deficiency in this respect; indeed, the maximum load handled exceeded all my expectations. In its working, for now nearly two years, nothing has gone amiss, nor has there been any trouble. On the contrary, the engine has on all these points given full satisfaction. But it is with regard to its effect on the road that I have my doubts. The running is steady enough, and 20 miles an hour has been attained without undue oscillation, yet nevertheless the road suffers as it never suffers under the six and eight-wheeled engines. The long and short of my experience is that I should not again recommend a four-wheeler except for very short distances and low speeds. Nothing but the experience I have had with this engine could have impressed so forcibly on me the very distinct advantages of such a radial action as I have adopted in my other locomotives, which enables them to go round a considerably sharper curve than the four-wheeler with an ease and absence of grinding quite remarkable, to say nothing of the saving to the road by the distribution of weight over more points. The relief seems to be by no means so much in the lessening of the weight per axle, which is not very great, as in the increased number of points of support. I am well aware this is not a new discovery, but it has come home to me with a practical force that leads me to insist somewhat strongly upon its importance.
The whole of the foregoing locomotives have been entirely made in my workshops, with the exception of the boilers and steel castings. The former have been chiefly supplied to me of excellent workmanship by Messrs. Abbott and Co., of Newark, and the latter by the Hadfield Steel Foundry Co., of Sheffield.
The last locomotive in the table (No. 5) is now being commenced, and will combine all the advantages of the previous ones in a less costly engine than No. 8 which was built specially with a view to see how powerful and fast travelling an engine could be put on the 15 in. gauge. No. 5, with its smaller wheel, is notvery inferior in hauling power to No. 8, and the expense of the extra axle is saved. This is the engine that, if I had to build another for the Eaton Railway, I should certainly recommend in preference to the four-wheeled No. 4.
The wheels of such little locomotives, since speed is no object, should be kept as small as possible, and the stroke should be of the greatest length. The nearer the stroke can be extended to half the diameter of the wheel, the more successful will the engine prove on steep inclines. Good sand-boxes, front and back, of ample capacity are essential, but it is not advisable to fit any steam sanding apparatus, for, owing to the low position of the motion, a good deal of the sand will rebound into the joints and bearings, as I found by experiment.
Cabs on such small engines are to be avoided as unbearably hot in summer, dangerous in case of emergency, and inconvenient at all times on account of the contracted dimensions. A stout mackintosh is cheaper and far better for the driver.
A steam water-lifter is a convenience in frosty weather when the water supply above ground may be frozen up, but in summer the engine tanks get so hot from their proximity to the boiler that the water, which becomes lukewarm in the process of being raised by the lifter, is then very soon at a temperature which makes the action of the injectors precarious.
I may say that in all my locomotives I use Holden and Brooke’s restarting injector, which, after experiment with many types, I find takes the hottest water and is in all ways most reliable. I place brass wire strainers in both steam and water-supply pipes close to the injector, which is invaribly fixed below the tanks, so that when the injector is overheated the water will run through by gravity and cool it; a most important advantage.
Number, Date of Completion, and Name of Engine.
No. 1. 1875. “Effie.”
No. 2. 1881. “Ella.”
No. 3. 1894. “Muriel.”
No. 4. 1896. “Katie.”
No. 5.
Diameter of cylinders
4 in.
4⅞ in.
6¼ in.
4⅝ in.
5½ in.
Length of stroke
6 in.
7 in.
8 in.
7 in.
8 in.
Diameter of wheels
1 ft 3½ in
1 ft 1½ in
1 ft. 6 in.
1 ft. 3 in.
1 ft. 4 in.
Length of wheel-base
2 ft. 6 in.
4 ft. 6 in.
6 ft.
3 ft.
5 ft.
Number of wheels (all coupled)
4
6
8
4
6
Length over framing
7 ft.
8 ft. 8 in.
10 ft. 9 in.
8 ft.
10 ft.
Overhang at each end
2 ft. 3 in.
2 ft. 1 in.
2 ft. 4½ in.
2 ft. 6 in.
2 ft. 6 in.
Width over framing
2 ft. 3 in.
3 ft. 10 in.
3 ft. 10 in.
3 ft. 10 in.
3 ft. 10 in.
Length of boiler
4 ft. 6 in.
6 ft. 6 in.
8 ft. 3 in.
5 ft. 8 in.
7 ft. 8 in.
Diameter of boiler
1 ft. 10 in.
2 ft. 1 in.
2 ft. 1 in.
2 ft. 1 in.
2 ft. 1 in.
Length of firebox (flue)
1 ft. 9 in.
2 ft. 3 in.
3 ft.
2 ft. 3 in.
3 ft.
Diameter of firebox
11 in.
1 ft. 3¼ in.
1 ft. 3¼ in.
1 ft. 3¼ in.
1 ft. 3¼ in.
Number of tubes (brass, 1⅜ in.)
23
57
57
57
57
Heating surface
23 sq. ft.
70 sq. ft.
91 sq. ft.
53 sq. ft.
80 sq. ft.
Grate area
1.25 sq. ft.
2.12 sq. ft.
3 sq. ft.
2.12 sq. ft.
3 sq. ft.
Capacity of tanks
18 gals.
50 gals.
84 gals.
49 gals.
77 gals.
Working steam pressure per sq. in
125 lb.
160 lb.
160 lb.
160 lb.
160 lb.
Weight in working order
1 ton 3 cwt.
3 tons 15 cwt.
5 tons
3 tons 5 cwt.
4 tons 5 cwt. (?)
Co-efficient of adhesion at 145 lb. mean pressure
3.6
4.7
4.5
4.9 lb
4.3 (?)
Tractive power per lb. pressure in cylinders
6.2 lb.
12.3 lb.
17.3 lb.
9.9 lb.
15.1 lb.
If diameter cylinder2= 1, ratio heating surface =
207
425
336
356
381
If diameter cylinder2= 1, ratio grate area =
11.2
12.8
11.0
14.2
14.3
Load (exclusive of engine) on level.
15 tons.
35 tons.
49 tons.
28 tons.
44 tons.
(These are average working loads which can be considerably exceeded on the easier gradients.)
up 1 in 100
9 tons.
21 tons.
30 tons.
17 tons.
27 tons.
up 1 in 50
6.4 tons.
14.6 tons.
21 tons.
11 tons.
18 tons.
up 1 in 25
3.8 tons.
8.3 tons.
12 tons.
6.5 tons.
11 tons.
up 1 in 12
1.8 tons.
3.4 tons.
4.9 tons.
2.5 tons.
4.4 tons.
Thewagons first put upon my line measured only 4 ft. by 2 ft. inside. It soon became apparent, however, that a gauge of 15 in. could carry with safety a much larger vehicle. In fact it may be taken as a reasonable rule that the floor area of narrow gauge wagons should not be less than four times the gauge in length and twice the gauge in width. I have found such a wagon very handy for light work, but on the Eaton Railway I adopted an over measurement of 6 ft. by 3 ft. with 1 ft. 3 in. depth of side. The wheel base is, in all cases, half the length of the wagon. The larger wagon above described carries 16 cwts. of coal, and from 20 to 22 cwts. of sand, road metal, bricks, etc., and weighs about 7½ cwts., or one-fourth of its total gross loaded weight,i.e., it carries three times its own weight. The axles in this case are 2 in. diameter. For heavier loads I have made the wagons with 2¼ in. axles to carry 30 cwts. which is the standard I have finally adopted; and also with 2½ in. axles to carry two tons. Two of these last were built for the Eaton line, on which logs of timber up to 30 in. square and 60 ft. long have to be conveyed from the G. W. Railway to the Estate works. Each end of the log rests on a “timber fork,” which can be fitted on to any wagon, and in this way, not only timber, but any kind of lengthy goods can be carried with the greatest ease. My resident engineer at Eaton gave me an amusing account of the arrival from Messrs. Handyside & Co. of the ironwork for the coal store at Eaton. This included a number of long and awkward shaped pieces, and the foreman sent by this firm to erect the shed was in despair at seeing the toy wagons provided for the transport of pieces that with some difficulty had been loaded in the main line wagons. To his surprise the 15 in. gauge handled them with far greater facility than the 4 ft. 8½ in., owing to length being no drawback.
My standard wagons are constructed of pitch pine with angle-iron rims, and the box sides are framed together independently of the wagon itself, thus a flat wagon is converted into a box wagon by merely placing this frame upon it. These sides, or “tops” as they have come to be called, are about 15 in. deep, and the wagons being constructed to a standard size, are interchangeable. An iron rim on each enables two or three of the tops to be placed one above another upon any wagon, to give an extra depth. To empty the wagon, two men readily lift off the top, and, ifnecessary, turn it over sideways, sufficiently to shoot off the contents; or the load may be upset without removing the top. This mode is almost as rapid as emptying a tip wagon, which, though convenient to unload, is a fraud as to capacity, and cannot be designed to carry more than one-and-a-half times its own weight; and even then there is the objection that the centre of gravity is far higher than in the box wagon.
For carrying timber or other lengthy loads swivelling carriers can be placed on any two wagons; and if a greater length is required, these two wagons can be set a distance apart, with or without other wagons placed between them. By adopting the flat wagon as a standard, it is possible to adapt each one to any class of work, without the necessity of keeping a large variety for various purposes. A narrow gauge is said not to lend itself advantageously to the carrying of bulky material, but by loading a train of wagons without break from end to end, I clear hay off land, to which it happens that carts cannot have access, with great despatch. There is, therefore, no valid objection on this score. The cost of these wagons is from 80s. to 85s. per cwt. In the two years the Eaton line has been at work they have proved convenient in every way and show no signs as yet of wear.
In addition to a number of wagons, some of which are fitted with brakes, there are on my line seven bogie passenger cars and a bogie van; also a variety of miscellaneous stock, such as workmen’s car, screw and roller rail-benders, dynamometer car, and various small trolleys. The dynamometer car is constructed to indicate the tractive effort of the engine, the speed, and the distance travelled. The roller rail bender is worked by three men, two of whom work the winch which draws the rail through the rollers, while the third adjusts the pressure to produce the required curvature. The screw bender has two thrust blocks, opposite which works a horizontal screw, which straightens or bends rails with great accuracy, but in long or sharp curves the roller bender is more rapid and efficient, as elsewhere noted.
The passenger stock, which, like everything else, was built on the premises, requires a somewhat more detailed notice. There are four open cars, holding sixteen persons each, two abreast. These are 19 ft. 6 in. long and 8 ft. 6 in. wide, and are carried on two bogies of 1 ft. 6 in. wheel base, the total wheel base being 16 ft. 6 in. A foot brake is fitted to one bogie on each car. The weight of these cars is 20 cwt.; they therefore only weigh 1¼ cwt. per passenger seat, and reckoning sixteen persons to the ton, the proportion of live to dead weight is as 1 to 1. On the main lines it is more than 1 to 5. The cost of these cars, stained, varnished, and lined with linoleum, was £37 each.
In order to demonstrate the capabilities of even so small a gauge, a closed car of the same dimensions as those already described was constructed, which hasdoors and windows of the usual kind. Lest it should be supposed that the space is unduly cramped, I may mention that a visitor 6 ft. 3½ in. in height, when seated, found ample clearance for his tall hat. The cost of this car was £67, and the weight is 24 cwt. Here the proportion of live to dead weight is as 5 to 6.
As a further test of the capacity of a 15 in. gauge, I have built a dining car and a sleeping car of the same dimensions as the cars already described. The former seats eight persons and carries a suitable cooking stove in a compartment to itself. The latter contains four berths 6 ft. 6 in. long and 1 ft. 10 in. wide, with a lavatory and other fittings. This, though hardly an essential accompaniment to a line under one mile in length, can be utilised as an overflow bedroom for my boys when the house is full of guests. I am unable to state the exact cost of these two vehicles, but exclusive of fittings, it is little, if at all in excess of that of the closed car already quoted. The weights are somewhat greater, owing to the bogie truck frames being of cast iron instead of elm.
A closed luggage van, 15 ft. in length, but otherwise of the same pattern as the cars, concludes the list, and is used to convey luncheons, teas, etc., for large parties, to the station where refreshments are served. The extreme height of the closed cars is 6 ft.
All the wagons and cars are carried on chilled iron wheels, 13½ in. diameter, cast in my foundry. The axles, as has been stated, vary from 2 in. to 2½ in. in diameter, and on to these the wheel on one side is forced by a hydraulic pressure of about 15 tons, while the opposite wheel runs loose to reduce the curve friction. The journals run in cast-iron boxes, which are lubricated by sponges placed in oil receptacles below. The horn-blocks and axle-boxes, with a rubber block between them to form the spring, and a cover to the oil reservoir, are secured together by a single bolt, after the insertion of which no part can come loose. The castings are put together as they come from the foundry, without machining or fitting of any kind, the axle bedding well into the cast-iron box after a few days’ wear. For the Eaton railway, however, I bored out the boxes, but have not found any advantage to result. These bearings require oiling only at intervals of several weeks, and although some of them have been in use more than eighteen years, there has been no case of heating or other failure. The cost of each complete bearing, including horn-block box, cover, spring, and bolt, is only 5s., 1s. of which goes for the rubber.
The buffers and couplings are central. A single east-iron buffer, which in the case of the cars is mounted on a spring draw-bar, has a coupler of the same metal hinged to it by a bolt. The latter is self-coupling or not as desired; but, when turned back so as not to couple, the driver can, by bringing the buffers smartlytogether, cause it to fall and couple up. These couplers allow the wagons and cars to be shunted out of the train, when the engine is either pushing or drawing, by a quick manipulation of the points, the hook sliding laterally from its hold as the vehicles diverge on different lines. I designed some cast-steel coupler-buffers of this type lately for the Royal Engineers’ 30 in. gauge experimental field railway, near Chatham, which, though for reasons unconnected with their construction not adopted, are reported as the only ones of several types experimented with ‘which fulfilled the necessary requirements. In the bogie stock the coupler-buffers are fitted to the bogie, and not to the car frame, on account of the severe curves. In the construction of the wagons and cars almost every part is made to gauge, and put together without fitting.
The aim throughout has been to make the details of all the rolling-stock as simple, cheap, and efficient as possible, which has been principally achieved by adopting designs and modes of construction largely at variance with commonly accepted notions. The totally different conditions under which minimum-gauge lines work, as compared with ordinary railways, renders this possible without any sacrifice of safety or durability.
In Section IV. mention was made of tip-wagons supplied as an experiment to the Eaton line. These consist of steel tubs, U shaped in section, hung at each end on two trunnions riding in cast-iron pedestals, the latter being bolted to an under-frame of channel steel fitted with cast iron ends rivetted in, and so formed as to carry a drawbar with rubber cushions, to the end of which the coupler-buffer is attached. These wagons cost £20 as against £12 for the standard box wagon. They weigh 11½ cwts., and carry about this weight of coal, or a little more. Loaded with coal, they average a trifle under 24 cwt., exactly the same as the box wagon, which weighs 7½ cwt., and carries 16 to 17 cwt. of coal. Thus the paying loads of the two are as 3 to 4 for the same hauled weight. For short distances, where the emptying bears a greater proportional relation to the running time, or where the load must be got rid of in a particularly short space of time, tip-wagons may answer. For such purposes as my experience has had to deal with, they are a drawback, which, as I have previously pointed out, is increased by their inadaptability to the carriage of bulky goods. One of my strong contentions is that, on a small line, to avoid expense in rolling stock, every vehicle should be available for every purpose.
Abriefaccount of my little works will be of some interest to engineers. I have already, in Section I., given an outline of my progress as a mechanic.
I will now describe the machinery by which the locomotives, carriage and wagon stock, and permanent way fittings have been constructed.
The machine-shop contains an 11 in. lathe for wheel turning, cylinder boring, and the heavier work; an 8 in. lathe for surfacing, sliding, and general work; a 7 in. lathe for screw-cutting and fine work; a 4 in. Pittler universal lathe, with a variety of automatic and other fittings, chiefly used for the smaller brass work, such as cocks, glands, lubricators, &c.; a 3 in. sliding and screw-cutting lathe, for very light work; a planing machine to take work 4 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft 6 in.; an 8 in. stroke double-table shaping machine, fitted for hollow and circular shaping, specially used for machining coupling rods, &c.; a 4½ in. shaping machine with circular motion, for light work; a milling machine; a 9 in. stroke slotting-machine with compound table, for heavy work; a 2½ in. spindle drilling and boring machine; a 1¾ in. drilling machine, for general work; a screwing and tapping machine, to 1½ in. for bolts and to 2 in. for pipes; a cold-sawing machine, to cut iron up to 2¼ in. square; a slot drilling machine; a twist-drill grinding machine; two grindstones, three bench vices, and complete sets of screwing tackle and fitters’ tools.
The smith’s shop contains two fires, of which one is blown by a fan, and is suited for the heavier work; anvils for ordinary purposes and also for the treatment of angle iron, &c.; a 2½ cwt. gas hammer; a punching and shearing machine; a bench vice, and complete set of smiths’ tools.
The erecting shop contains an overhead travelling crane; an engine pit; a 30-ton hydraulic press for putting axles into wheels, crank pins into cranks, testing samples, &c.; a hand screwing and tapping machine to ¾ in. for bolts and to 1 in. for pipes; standards for fitting up frame-plates; a rivet heating forge; two bench vices, and tools for tube extracting and other special processes connected with the construction and repair of locomotives.
The iron-foundry contains a 16 in. cupola worked through a double tuyère by a “Root’s” blower; an overhead travelling crane; a core stove; charge-weighing scales; a large supply of boxes for general purposes, and special ones for cylinders,chilled-wheels, sleepers, gutters, &c., with all ladles and other appliances suitable for producing castings up to half-a-ton weight. Especial pains have been taken to turn out chilled wheels (13½ in. diameter), for the rolling stock, of perfect smoothness and of even depth of chill.
The brass foundry contains a furnace, a metal moulding bench, and the usual fittings.
The carriage shop has two lines of 15 in. gauge formed of cast plates bolted together and bedded in concrete, and contains a wood-morticing and boring machine; fitters and joiners’ vices, with every convenience for erecting, finishing, and painting two of the long 20 ft. bogie cars simultaneously, or eight of the standard wagons, according to requirements; all bulky joiners’ and carpenters’ work is also done in this shop.
The pattern and joiners’ shop contains a 5 in. Holtzappfel lathe; and a small circular saw; 2 instantaneous-grip vices; saw tooth-setting machine; and a variety of other special appliances, in addition to a full set of joiners’ tools.
The saw-shed contains a 30 in. circular saw bench; a band saw; a small general joiner; an 11 in. planing machine, and a small emery grinder.
The engine house contains an 8 horse-power Otto gas-engine, of which the water circulation is effected by a small centrifugal pump.
The drawing office is fitted up with the usual appliances, and is in telephonic communication with my house and two of the stations on the railway.
The general stores comprise timber; foundry sand of various qualities; five kinds of pig iron; copper, spelter, tin, &c.; bar, rod, and angle iron; wrought-iron tubing up to 2 in.; bolts, rivets, nuts, and pins; steam fittings of all kinds; every sort of requisite needed in the construction of small railways and rolling stock, and also for meeting house and farm requirements.
The pattern store contains patterns for all the locomotive, carriage, wagon, signal, permanent way, and general experimental work; and for drain grates, gutters, &c. which are supplied from Duffield for my other estates.
The shops are lit by gas, and the 15 in. gauge line runs throughout. The construction, both in wood and iron, is done as far as possible to template, and every endeavour is made to turn out the very best work, which is perhaps the more easily attained in that there are no profits to be considered. At the same time it should be explained that the shops and machinery are, throughout, though good and sufficient for their purpose, in no way models of excellence. Their object is only to turn out the chiefly experimental work required, and the gradual additions that have been made during the twenty-five years of their existence have been done as cheaply as was consistent with efficiency.
Outside the shops are a weigh-bridge for weighing rolling-stock and loads, and a six-ton crane to tranship heavy goods from drays to the 15 in. railway.
Adjoining the workshops is the locomotive shed, with rails raised 30 in. above the floor, so as to get more easily at the lower parts of these small engines. It is arranged for two locomotives, and is fitted with an air jet for raising steam, and with a water supply.
The carriage and wagon stock is, for the most part, housed in three sheds at various stations on the main part of the railway, 80 ft. above the workshops.
Thepresent section contains the result of experiments and experience on points which, for the most part, are of interest only to those who study the scientific side of railway work. I here take the opportunity of placing on record various considerations, more or less connected with the subject of narrow-gauge railways, of too technical a nature to be mixed up with the descriptive pages. This explanation will account for the somewhat disjointed nature of the statements which follow.
The fact that narrow gauge locomotives are usually required to surmount much steeper gradients than are generally to be found on standard railways, makes adhesion a question of the first importance. It is very generally supposed that the co-efficient of adhesion between a wheel and a rail is a constant fraction of the insistent weight, varying slightly with the molecular structure of the metals in contact. There is, however, reason to believe that it decreases considerably with an increase of weight. In locomotives of the standard gauge, with from 12 to 18 tons per driven axle, it is generally held that a co-efficient of adhesion of one-sixth is all that can be counted on with certainty. From a number of experiments on the Festiniog Railway, with the results of which the late Mr. Spooner, who himself supported the theory, was good enough to supply me, I found that the load there per driven axle was five tons, the co-efficient averaging about one-fifth. Again, with my small engines that have a load on each axle of from 1.2 to 1.6 tons, the calculated co-efficient is two-ninths, in support of which I give the following experiment, conducted in thepresence of two gentlemen belonging to a firm of locomotive builders, when it was under consideration to build for military purposes some engines on the plan of the No. 2 described in Section V.
I guaranteed that the locomotive referred to should take a load equal to its own weight up a gradient of 1 in 10 a quarter of a mile long, which then was, in parts, as steep as 1 in 9, with a short curve of half-a-chain radius at the severest part. This was satisfactorily accomplished. The day being dry, I was requested to ascertain what was the maximum load that could be hauled. On reaching four tons, when the start had to be made on a less gradient, the engine barely struggled up, and this was evidently all it could do. When full up with coal and water it weighed at that time 3 tons 6 cwt. During the experiment, however, there were but 3 tons 2 cwt. on the three axles, all of which were coupled. The boiler pressure was 145 lbs. exactly, and, the gross weight of engine and train being 7 tons 2 cwt., the gravity resistance on the gradient of 1 in 10 was equal to 14.2 cwt. The weight of 3 tons 2 cwt. available for adhesion, reduced by a tenth part, which the gradient converts into gravity resistance, was equal to 56 cwt. Thus, without reckoning the curve friction of the whole train and the journal friction of the wagons, both uncertain quantities, the proportion of developed tractive power to load was as 1 to 3.9. This result confirms the probability of the truth of the above assertion. Assuming its correctness, which appears beyond doubt, what is the explanation of increased proportionate adhesion with a decreased weight on the driven axles? The reduced diameter of wheel in the smaller engines might seem to offer a solution of the problem. Experience, however, goes to prove that, if there is any difference, a larger wheel has, with equal insistent weights, a better grip of the rail than a small one. I am of opinion that the weight is directly responsible for the difference. A wheel rests upon a rail on one point, or possibly on a transverse line of which the length is equal to the width of the rail. With a small insistent weight the molecules of the wheel and rail interlock without injury, and adhesion, on the principle of an infinitesimal rack and pinion, is the result. As the weight is increased on the fine bearing area, the molecules become disturbed, and fail to offer so firm a fulcrum. Ultimately they become displaced, and move as rollers between the two surfaces, materially reducing the adhesion. If this theory be the correct one, as is not improbable, the graduated reduction in the adhesion would be accounted for.
That the rolling wheel and rail do actually interlock was demonstrated by Sir Douglas Galton in his experiments on the retarding power of brakes, when he pointed out that, on a wheel becoming skidded, the rack and pinion motion was converted into a series of jumps of the wheel across the microscopic teeth of the rack, witha consequent reduction in adhesion proportionate to the sliding speed. In confirmation of this statement I detailed, during the meeting of the British Association at Sheffield, an experiment I made by reversing a locomotive so as to skid the wheels, and ultimately to cause them to revolve in a contrary direction, while descending an incline. With skidded wheels the descent was at a certain speed with backward revolution of the wheels the speed increased rapidly, the effect of the reversal being to cause the wheel to slip over the rail at a speed greater than that at which the engine was moving, thus showing that Sir Douglas Galton’s theory of the adhesion diminishing in proportion to the extent of departure from the interlocking or rolling motion of the wheel on the rail remained consistent even beyond sliding contact, and disposing of the old theory that the loss of adhesion with a skidded wheel was due to the creation of a polished point of contact on the wheel.
Another somewhat curious point in connection with adhesion is the slip of the driving wheels, which is naturally in the direction of causing a greater number of revolutions of the wheels than would be due to the length of rail travelled over. Occasionally, however, I have, in experimenting, noticed that fewer revolutions are made than would suffice to travel the distance as measured on a centre line between the rails. That is, the wheels slipped forward instead of back. This freak is probably due to the outer wheel on a curve slipping forward when, owing to considerable superelevation and a low speed, the inner wheel is the more heavily weighted, the distance then travelled being the reduced length of the inner rail.
I now proceed to explain the basis of calculation of the net loads hauled on various gradients, as appended to particulars of each locomotive described in Section V. The resistance on the level consists of journal friction, tire friction, and locomotive internal friction. Tire friction is practically nil, except on curves and in strong side winds. Journal friction I find, in the case of my small rolling stock, to be covered by an allowance of 10 lbs. per ton. Owing to the numerous curves another 10 lbs. per ton must be added to cover tire friction. A tractive power of 20 lbs. per ton proves quite sufficient to keep the train in motion on the level. It is not, however, enough to start the train on a curve, nor to overcome the inertia due to journal friction when, as on an incline, there is no slack between the wagons, and the whole train must be started at once. After considerable experience I find it necessary to add a further 20 lbs. per ton to the required tractive power. A total of 40 lbs. per ton is thus allowed as a good working equivalent of the frictional resistance of the train.
The friction of the locomotive is a much more complicated question. Thereseems very little information available on this point. It has been said, in the case of full sized engines, to absorb thirty per cent. of the tractive power, but this is a vague estimate, out of all reason excessive, unless it be intended to include gravity resistance on a steep incline. It is desirable to consider the nature of the various causes of resistance to motion separately. Viewed as a carriage only, the journal and tire friction of the locomotive may be taken at the same amount per ton of its weight as in the case of the trains, namely, 40 lbs. The additional resistance due to friction of the moving parts of the mechanism cannot be calculated as a constant. If the engine is developing but a small portion of its power, the amount will be small; when loaded to its full capacity there will be a large increase of internal resistance, varying, however, in proportion to the accuracy with which it is put together, and the stiffness of the framing.
Such experiments as I have made show clearly that, when exerting approximately its full power, the total frictional resistance of the engine does not exceed 100 lbs. per ton, and when running light is much less, but in what proportion less I have as yet failed to ascertain satisfactorily. Of this 100 lbs. per ton, from 20 to 40 lbs. is due to journal and tire friction, leaving from 60 lbs. to 80 lbs. per ton as the deduction for internal friction.
I thus conclude that an allowance of 40 lbs. per ton for train resistance, and 100 lbs. per ton for engine resistance, is a basis for calculating the tractive power required on the level that is sufficient under all possible narrow-gauge conditions. In the case of gradients there must, of course, be added the gravity resistance of the engine and train, which is, on a gradient of 1 in 100, one-100th of the gross weight; on a gradient of 1 in 50, one-50th, and so on.
In calculating the tractive power of the engine, the effective pressure in the cylinders may be reckoned at fully nine-tenths of the boiler pressure, on account of the low piston speed.
The above particulars are not to be taken as representative of what can be got out of a narrow-gauge engine in a few isolated experiments only, but of what is well within the compass of daily work.
Upto this point I have merely detailed the particulars of the construction of my experimental railway and of the line at Eaton, giving at the same time the reasons that have led me to adopt certain methods and designs. I now propose, in conclusion, to offer a few remarks upon the application, in this country and abroad, of small railways of 2 ft. gauge and under to do work at present done by means of horses and carts.
The cases in which such lines can be profitably applied may be classed under two heads; the one, where, in a country possessing ports or a system of railways, large establishments, private, public, or industrial, might be connected therewith by a narrow gauge line so as to reduce the cost of transport below that which has to be paid for haulage by animal power on roads; the other, when no roads worthy of the name are available, and the choice is a light railway or nothing. The chief condition of success in both cases is a sufficient traffic between two or more definite points. Military railways, however, must be regarded from a somewhat different standpoint, as the object here is to supply a movable centre as expeditiously as possible with the vast commissariat requirements of an army rather than to study economy. It is not my intention to enter into the pros and cons of small railways for war purposes. Suffice it to say that some countries are ahead of us in the matter, which is one that has, in England, been allowed to drop rather into the background.
Returning to the consideration of cases where a fairly large traffic has to be delivered to a port or railway system, the first question that arises is that of transhipment. Material of any kind can be as effectively delivered on ship-board by narrow gauge railway wagons as by horses and carts, if not better. In reckoning up the cost of transhipment from small wagons on to a railway system—no great matter with proper appliances—it must not be lost sight of that, even if a branch of standard gauge were constructed to many establishments, the large wagons cannot, as a rule, be got up to the point where the material lies, and a preliminary transference in barrows or carts is necessary. With the little wagons it is usually possible to get right up to the place and to load direct, in which case there is clearly no additional expense incurred. It is, further, often forgottenthat there is on the standard railways endless transhipment for the sake of economical transport, in no way connected with a break of gauge.
Again, a small line can be carried round curves, up gradients, and through confined premises, where a wider line would be inadmissible. In many places the unsightliness of the standard gauge would be objected to, nor can such a line be made very light if it has to carry, as it must, the 7 or 8 tons per axle of a full sized coal wagon (see Appendix A).
The narrow gauge has also the advantage in first cost, and by bringing the small wagons on to a level with the floors of the large ones, or, in the case of minerals, by erecting a simple shoot, the transhipment difficulty may be reduced to a minimum.
It is not well to have gradients steeper than 1 in 40 where avoidable, as difficulty will be experienced in slippery weather; but it is quite possible with suitable engines to work inclines of moderate length, as steep as 1 in 12. The diminution of the power of the locomotive on gradients is also a matter for consideration, the importance of which will be clear when it is stated that if an engine will haul, as it should, in addition to itself, ten times its own weight on the level, it will haul, speaking roughly, only four times its weight up 1 in 50, twice its weight up 1 in 25, and once its weight up 1 in 12. More work can be done if adhesion does not fail, but the above is an approximate working average.
The speed on small lines is not generally a matter of much moment, owing to their usually moderate length. A locomotive that is sufficiently powerful to start a given load, will without difficulty get it along at from 8 to 10 miles an hour. It has occurred to me that a very fair approximation to the reasonable running speed of which any gauge is capable is to be found in estimating that the speed of passenger trains is equal to as many miles per hour as the gauge is inches wide, and, for goods trains, to half that amount.
The permanent way should be made a thoroughly sound job, as it will then cost but little for repairs. Particulars of what is recommended will be found in Sections III. and IV. I am no advocate of portable railways, which may be well enough for hand trains, or even for horse traction, but a locomotive requires a solid and clean road if it is to work to advantage.
It is often possible to carry a narrow gauge railway by the roadside or, as at Eaton, over pasture lands without the necessity of fencing the line in. Fences can be crossed as described in Sections III. and IV., so long as arable land is avoided. Where the route is not wholly the property of the projector of the railway, the requisite way-leave may frequently be leased by paying an annual acknowledgment of from 3d. to 6d. per yard run.
It now remains to show what traffic is required in order that a line of this description may repay the outlay upon it. This may best be effected by drawing a comparison between the cost of locomotive traction on rails and horse traction on roads. The cost of loading and unloading will not be included, as these are the same in both cases. (See also Section IV.)
Taking the minimum distance apart of two points, between which haulage may be supposed to be required, as one mile, the smallest and cheapest gauge as 15 in., and allowing 2,000 yds. to the mile so as to include the necessary sidings, the cost of the line will be as follows:—
2,000 yds. of 16 lbs. steel rails, cast-iron sleepers, ballast, and laying
£650
Fence bridges, field crossings, fencing, and other structural works; but exclusive of river bridges, tunnels, or other costly requirements
£200
Earthwork, if an approximately surface line ... say
£250
One 4½ in. cylinder four-wheeled locomotive
£400
12 wagons to hold 1 cube yd., at £12 each
£144
Extras ... say
£156
Cost of 1 mile of line, equipped complete
£1,800
If laid with pitch pine sleepers a reduction of about £100 per mile would be effected, the cost of renewal being correspondingly increased.
The engine would be capable of hauling a gross load, exclusive of its own weight, of 12 tons up a gradient of 1 in 50, which may be taken as a fair ruling gradient for a surface line. This would be equal to an average paying load of about 8 tons; so that, supposing the engine to make one trip per hour, about 60 tons would be moved per day; although, with a double set of wagons and men, 100 tons would easily be handled.
If the engine worked two days a week, or say 100 days per annum, it would have hauled 6,000 tons one mile in the year. A less load hauled on the return journeys need not be taken into account, as this would make no difference in the comparison, such work being practically done without extra cost in both cases.
The cost of the line per annum would be as follows:—
Interest on £1,800 at 4 per cent.
£72
Driver and boy, who would keep the rolling stock and line in order
£100
Fuel, oil, stores, and sundries, at 5s. per day
£25
Renewal of permanent way and rolling stock at 15 years life on £1,200
£80
Cost of moving 6,000 tons one mile
£277
This is equal to about 11d. per ton. Now the same haulage by horses and carts in Great Britain would usually cost about 1s. 3d. per ton, and in this case there is the advantage of being able to haul, if necessary, in other directions if required, which would somewhat reduce the financial advantage of the railway, but still leave it a distinct superiority.
It is probable that a traffic of 5,000 tons annually over a mile of line is the smallest amount that would repay the construction of a narrow gauge railway, for the estimate has been based upon the narrowest line which can profitably be employed. If the line were longer, the balance in its favour would be greater. This would also be the case if the traffic were greater, and with the maximum amount which the line, using only one, but a larger engine, could accommodate, say 40,000 tons, the concern would be very profitable, for the extra charge for renewals would not be heavy, and the cost per ton carried would be reduced to about 5d. or 6d.
No allowance has been made for way leaves or purchase of land. Should there be outlay under these heads, the cost of transport would be increased accordingly.
In concluding these comparisons, in which it may be thought that the railway is shown in a less attractive light than might have been expected from an enthusiast, I may explain that I am no advocate of ill considered schemes, planned without proper knowledge, cheaply constructed, and carelessly worked. My figures represent thoroughly sound and serviceable plant, kept in good repair. If it is not worth while to go to such expense, then it is not worth while to construct a railway at all. I have been fortunate enough to work my line for twenty years without the slightest injury to a single person of the many thousands that have been carried as invited guests for pleasure, as visitors interested in my experiments, or as workmen on the premises. None of the rolling stock has sustained more than the most trivial damage; and derailments, beyond an occasional mishap in shunting, are unknown. The working of the Eaton line has been equally satisfactory. This immunity from accident I attribute entirely to proper care having been taken to construct every part, not only of the best materials and workmanship, but also with a careful eye to the fitness of each detail for the purpose it has to serve.
That there are many openings for lines of 2 ft. gauge and under, is beyond dispute. But while, already, this mode of transport is largely made use of abroad and in our colonies, a deeply rooted prejudice has hitherto prevented it from gaining a footing in England and Scotland.
Admirable articles pointing out the advantages of light railways have appeared from time to time in the daily press with little or no effect. It is one of thestrangest anomalies in the progress of civilisation in this country that Great Britain almost wholly refused till lately to countenance such lines. The reasons for this obstinacy are not readily discoverable. Probably the innate conservatism of every Englishman—for there exists here no such thing as liberalism out of the region of politics—has been the principal factor in determining this course of inaction.
Even now that the Light Railway Act has passed, there is little or no movement in the direction of making small lines such as I refer to, and not much in respect of larger ones. Whether, in the future, private individuals will, in their own interest and in that of their neighbours and dependents, lay out money in this way, it is impossible to foresee. But undoubtedly there are many openings for such installations, particularly on large estates, where the possession of the land gives the owner a free hand.
Thefollowing letter, which appeared inThe Timestwo years ago, is here reprinted as bearing on various points connected with narrow-gauge railways. Special attention is directed to what is advanced under the third head.
LIGHT RAILWAYS.TO THE EDITOR OF“THE TIMES.”
Sir,—The movement in favour of secondary railways has evoked from your numerous correspondents widely divergent views. This want of accord is more apparent than real, and it would facilitate the proceedings of the approaching conference[46]if conflicting opinions could be partially reconciled beforehand.
The causes to which these differences are due may be summarized under three heads:—
1. The absence of a defined terminology of the distinctive kinds of railways.
2. The failure to appreciate that a scheme which is good for one locality is not of necessity the best for all.
3. The apparently meagre acquaintance on the part of those who state their views with the practical working of any but the standard railways of the country.
Under the first head, some confusion has arisen in consequence of the application of the term “light railway” now to lines of the standard gauge only, and again to narrow-gauge lines also. Similarly with other expressions. It may be pointed out that the term “light railway” is properly applicable and should be confined to a line of standard gauge, of which the entire construction is lighter, cheaper, and simpler than is obligatory where weighty engines, heavy traffic, and high speeds are dealt with. Any line of less than the standard, gauge is correctly described as a “narrow-gauge railway,” and such lines, when not of a permanent character, come under the title, simply, of “portable railways,” for these are invaribly of less than the normal width. The term “tramway” should be restricted to its modern meaning of a line laid in the metalled or paved surface of a road or street. Finally, the not unfamiliar appellation of “secondary railways” might be fitly adopted as generally descriptive of all lines not amenable to the standard railway regulations of the Board of Trade. It would be well that the conference should pronounce on these points.
In regard to the second head, needless controversy is engendered by attempting to assume that, because a light railway is right here, therefore a narrow-gauge railway is wrong there, or vice versa. In estimating the transport requirements of any particular locality, if connection is to be made with the railway system, the applicability of a light railway, as above defined, should first be considered. By its adoption the use of existing rolling-stock is secured, transhipment is avoided, and the line can be subsequently and without difficulty transformed, if necessary, into a railway of standard construction—advantages for which much may be sacrificed. But as it would be almost invariably essential to build a light railway of sufficient strength to carry the 15 tons gross weight of a standard coal wagon, the permanent way would be of a somewhat costly character, and, in the case of severe gradients, considerable difficulty would arise in providing suitable locomotive power.
Where the impediments in the way of a light railway branch are insuperable, or where the proposed line has no connexion with the railway system, the advantages of a narrow-gauge railway may properly be weighed—such as the smaller width occupied, the sharper curves admissible, the lighter, cheaper, and more easily-handled permanent way and rolling-stock, the absence of much of the unsightliness of a line of standard gauge, the ease with which, in the ease of gauges under 2 ft., the rails can be laid among and into existing buildings, and, lastly, the convenience of beingable to load and unload small wagons at the exact point required without the intervention of carts or barrows.
In regard to the third head, it may be noticed as a curious fact, that the strong and commendable predilections of English engineers for the standard gauge, whenever obtainable, appear to lead them, where circumstances compel the adoption of a narrower one, to advocate as little reduction as possible. Now, the general result of foreign experience goes strongly to show that narrow gauges exceeding 30 in. approximate so closely to a full-size line as to forfeit, to a considerable extent, the advantages of either system. This attitude is probably due to ignorance of what can be done on the narrowest gauges, for, in spite of the fact that many hundreds of miles of lines of less than 2 ft. gauge are at work abroad, our professional advisers persist in regarding such railways as mere toys. Yet a line of 15 in. gauge has been at work in this country for twenty years, on which thousands of passengers have been carried without a single accident, as many as 120 in one train, over gradients as steep as 1 in 20, the goods traffic being worked in all weathers up a long gradient of 1 in 11 without difficulty.[48]
It would be well that our railway engineers should inform themselves more fully on the subject, as otherwise their valuable assistance, which would insure that narrow-gauge railways were constructed in a solid and reliable manner, will be thrust on one side by the requirements of the times, and the work will be wholly in the hands of the many manufacturers of narrow-gauge plant, whose designs, being chiefly of what is known as the portable class, are, for the most part, ill adapted for permanent locomotive traffic. If so, it is likely that, in the push that may very possibly be presently made for secondary railways, the results will not be so satisfactory as would be the case if the work were carried out under the direction of professional advisers.
Under the same head, attention may be directed to the fact that it is entirely unnecessary to urge the adoption of a standard narrow gauge. The circumstances of each case will decide the most suitable gauge, and it is only where there is a possibility, as in the North Wales district, of a wide ramification of connected narrow-gauge lines that the adoption of a particular standard is of any importance.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
ARTHUR PERCIVAL HEYWOOD.