FOOTNOTES:

"But should some frigid skeptic, therefore, dareTo doubt the all-prevailing power of prayer;As if 'twere ours, with impious zeal, to tryTo shake the purposes of Deity;Pause, cold philosopher, nor snatch awayThe last, the best, the wretched's surest stay.Look round on life, and trace its checkered plan,The griefs, the joys, the hopes, the fears of man;Tell me, if each deliverance, each success,Each transient golden dream of happiness,Each palm that genius in the race acquires,Each thrilling rapture virtuous pride inspires,Tell me, if each and all were not combinedIn the great purpose of the Eternal Mind?Thus while we humbly own the vast decree,Formed in the bosom of Eternity,And know all secondary causes tendEach to contribute to one mighty end;Yet while these causes firmly fixed remain—Links quite unbroken in the endless chain,So that could one be snapped, the whole must fail,And wide confusion o'er the world prevail;Why may not our petitions, which ariseIn humble adoration to the skies,Be foreordained the causes, whence shall flowOur purest pleasures in this vale of woe?Not that they move the purpose that hath stoodBy time unchanged, immeasurably good,But that the event and prayer alike may beUnited objects of the same decree."[216]

Thus while we humbly own the vast decree,Formed in the bosom of Eternity,And know all secondary causes tendEach to contribute to one mighty end;Yet while these causes firmly fixed remain—Links quite unbroken in the endless chain,So that could one be snapped, the whole must fail,And wide confusion o'er the world prevail;Why may not our petitions, which ariseIn humble adoration to the skies,Be foreordained the causes, whence shall flowOur purest pleasures in this vale of woe?Not that they move the purpose that hath stoodBy time unchanged, immeasurably good,But that the event and prayer alike may beUnited objects of the same decree."[216]

On the whole, we feel ourselves warranted, and even constrained, to conclude that the theory of "government by natural law" is defective in so far as it excludes the superintendence and control of God over all the events of human life, and that neither the existence of second causes nor the operation of physical laws should diminish our confidence in the care of Providence and the efficacy of Prayer.

FOOTNOTES:[181]Cicero, "De Naturâ Deorum," lib.I.c. 44.[182]Howe, "Works,"I.104.Cudworth, "Intellectual System,"I.120, 144.[183]M. Comte, "Cours,"VI.149, 247, 295.Spinoza, "Tractatus Theol.-politicus," pp. 57, 102, 122, 144, 150, 319.[184]Dr. Channing, "Memoirs,"II.439.Robt. Boyle, "Free Inquiry into the Notion of Nature," p. 7.[185]Professor Sedgwick, "Discourse," fifth edition, p.CLIII.Mr. Combe, "Constitution of Man," p. 417.[186]Proverbs 6: 27; Psalm 68: 2; 83: 14; James 3: 12; Matthew 7: 16; Proverbs 8: 29; Job 38: 11, 33; Psalm 119: 90; Jeremiah 31: 35; 33: 25.[187]Dr. M'Cosh, "On the Divine Government," pp. 126, 129, 149.[188]"Westminster Confession," c. v., §II.,III.[189]M. Comte, "Cours,"IV.663, 669;V.259, 277;VI.702, 780.J. S. Mill, "Logic,"I.397, 417, 422;II.109, 471.Lewes, "Biographical History,"I.14;III.55;IV.9, 42.[190]Dr. Reid, "Essays,"III.44.Dr. M'Cosh, "Divine Government," 88, 91, 111, 114.[191]Sir John Herschell, "Address to the British Association," 1845.[192]Dr. Thos. Brown, "Essay on Cause and Effect," p. 86.Dr. Thos. Reid, "Essays,"I.136.Pierre Poiret, "De Deo, Anima, et Malo."[193]Dr. Thomas Brown, "Essay on Cause and Effect," pp. 74, 83, 93, 108, 191.[194]George Combe, Esq.[195]"Reasoner,"XII.21, 23.[196]Holyoake, "Grant and Holyoake's Discussion," p. 40.[197]George Combe, "Constitution of Man," pp. 150, 155, 163, 165, 234, 343, 358.[198]Mr. Combe, "Constitution of Man,"VI.,IX., 25, 39, 41.[199]Mr. Scott, "Harmony of Phrenology with Scripture," pp. 82, 97.[200]Citizen Kennedy, "Nature and Revelation Harmonious," pp. 70, 122, 124, 131.[201]Mr. Combe, "Constitution of Man," pp. 25, 53, 306, 364.[202]F. B. Barton, "The Reasoner,"XI.24, 373.[203]Volney, "La Loi Naturelle," which has been translated, and is usually appended to his "Ruins of Empires."[204]Butler's"Analogy," p. 1. c. 7.[205]Warburton's"Works,"X.p. 8.[206]Dr. Price's"Dissertations," p. 198.[207]Dr. Price, "Dissertations," pp. 208, 219.[208]Daniel 9: 2, 19.[209]Ezekiel 36: 37.[210]Dr. Chalmers, "Works,"II.286.[211]Ibid., 325.[212]Hon. Rob. Boyle, "Theolog. Works,"II.96,III.230.President Edwards, "Works,"X.1.[213]Euler, "Letters to a German Princess,"I.271.[214]Dr. Wollaston, "Religion of Nature," p. 103.[215]Dr. Robt. Gordon, "Sermons," p. 369.[216]It is with melancholy pleasure that the author recalls and reproduces, after an interval of thirty years, the lines of his early college companion,—William Friend Durant,—a young man of high promise, removed, like his distinguished fellow-student,Robert Pollock, by what might seem a premature death, but for the prospect of immortality.

[181]Cicero, "De Naturâ Deorum," lib.I.c. 44.

[182]Howe, "Works,"I.104.Cudworth, "Intellectual System,"I.120, 144.

[183]M. Comte, "Cours,"VI.149, 247, 295.Spinoza, "Tractatus Theol.-politicus," pp. 57, 102, 122, 144, 150, 319.

[184]Dr. Channing, "Memoirs,"II.439.Robt. Boyle, "Free Inquiry into the Notion of Nature," p. 7.

[185]Professor Sedgwick, "Discourse," fifth edition, p.CLIII.Mr. Combe, "Constitution of Man," p. 417.

[186]Proverbs 6: 27; Psalm 68: 2; 83: 14; James 3: 12; Matthew 7: 16; Proverbs 8: 29; Job 38: 11, 33; Psalm 119: 90; Jeremiah 31: 35; 33: 25.

[187]Dr. M'Cosh, "On the Divine Government," pp. 126, 129, 149.

[188]"Westminster Confession," c. v., §II.,III.

[189]M. Comte, "Cours,"IV.663, 669;V.259, 277;VI.702, 780.J. S. Mill, "Logic,"I.397, 417, 422;II.109, 471.Lewes, "Biographical History,"I.14;III.55;IV.9, 42.

[190]Dr. Reid, "Essays,"III.44.Dr. M'Cosh, "Divine Government," 88, 91, 111, 114.

[191]Sir John Herschell, "Address to the British Association," 1845.

[192]Dr. Thos. Brown, "Essay on Cause and Effect," p. 86.Dr. Thos. Reid, "Essays,"I.136.Pierre Poiret, "De Deo, Anima, et Malo."

[193]Dr. Thomas Brown, "Essay on Cause and Effect," pp. 74, 83, 93, 108, 191.

[194]George Combe, Esq.

[195]"Reasoner,"XII.21, 23.

[196]Holyoake, "Grant and Holyoake's Discussion," p. 40.

[197]George Combe, "Constitution of Man," pp. 150, 155, 163, 165, 234, 343, 358.

[198]Mr. Combe, "Constitution of Man,"VI.,IX., 25, 39, 41.

[199]Mr. Scott, "Harmony of Phrenology with Scripture," pp. 82, 97.

[200]Citizen Kennedy, "Nature and Revelation Harmonious," pp. 70, 122, 124, 131.

[201]Mr. Combe, "Constitution of Man," pp. 25, 53, 306, 364.

[202]F. B. Barton, "The Reasoner,"XI.24, 373.

[203]Volney, "La Loi Naturelle," which has been translated, and is usually appended to his "Ruins of Empires."

[204]Butler's"Analogy," p. 1. c. 7.

[205]Warburton's"Works,"X.p. 8.

[206]Dr. Price's"Dissertations," p. 198.

[207]Dr. Price, "Dissertations," pp. 208, 219.

[208]Daniel 9: 2, 19.

[209]Ezekiel 36: 37.

[210]Dr. Chalmers, "Works,"II.286.

[211]Ibid., 325.

[212]Hon. Rob. Boyle, "Theolog. Works,"II.96,III.230.President Edwards, "Works,"X.1.

[213]Euler, "Letters to a German Princess,"I.271.

[214]Dr. Wollaston, "Religion of Nature," p. 103.

[215]Dr. Robt. Gordon, "Sermons," p. 369.

[216]It is with melancholy pleasure that the author recalls and reproduces, after an interval of thirty years, the lines of his early college companion,—William Friend Durant,—a young man of high promise, removed, like his distinguished fellow-student,Robert Pollock, by what might seem a premature death, but for the prospect of immortality.

When we survey the actual course of God's Providence, by which the eternal purposes of the Divine Mind are carried into effect, we discern immediately a marked difference betweentwo great classes of events. The one comprehends a multitude of events which are so regular, stable, and constant, that we feel ourselves warranted in reckoning on their invariable recurrence, in the same circumstances in which they have been observed; they seem to be governed by an unchangeable, or at least an established law. The other comprehends a different set of events, which are so irregular and variable that they occur quite unexpectedly, and cannot be reduced to any rule of rational computation; they appear,—perhaps from our ignorance,—to be purely accidental or fortuitous.

In exact accordance with this difference between the two great classes of Providential events, there is a similar difference in ourinternal views or sentimentsin regard to them. We are conscious of two totally dissimilar feelings in contemplating them respectively. We have a feeling of certainty, confidence, or assurance in regard to the one; and a feeling of uncertainty, anxiety, and helplessness in regard to the other; while for an intermediate class of events, there is also an intermediate state of mind, equally removed from entire certainty and absolute doubt, arising from the various degrees ofprobabilitythat mayseem to belong to them. These are at once natural and legitimate sentiments in the circumstances in which we are placed; for unquestionably there is much in these circumstances that is fitted to produce and cherish them all; and when they are combined,—especially when they are duly proportioned, in the case of any individual, they induce a habit or frame of mind most favorable to the recognition of God's Providence, and most conducive to our welfare, by impressing us with a sense both of ourdependenceon His supreme will, and of ourduty to be diligentin the use of all appointed means. But wheneitherof the two classes of events is exclusively considered, or the sentiments appropriate to them inordinately cherished, there will be a tendency, in the absence of an enlightened belief in Providence, towards one or other of two opposite extremes:—the extreme, on the one hand, of resolving all events into results of physical agencies and mechanical laws, acting with the blind force of "destiny," and leaving no room for the interposition of an intelligent Moral Ruler; and the extreme, on the other hand, of ascribing all events to accidental or fortuitous influences, equally exempt from His control. Theformeris the theory of "Fate," thelatteris the theory of "Chance;" and both are equally opposed to the doctrine which affirms the eternal purpose and the actual providence of an omniscient and all-controlling Mind.

It matters little, with reference to our present purpose, whether or not every department of Nature be supposed to be equally subject to "natural laws;" for even were it so, still if these laws were either in part unknown and undiscoverable by us, or so related to each other that the results of their manifold possible combinations could not be calculated or reckoned on by human wisdom or foresight, ample room would be left for the exercise ofdiligencewithin the limits of our ascertained knowledge, and yet for a sense ofdependenceon a power which we feel ourselves unable either to comprehend or control. Onthe ground of analogy, we think it highly probable that every department of Natureissubject to regular and stable laws; and on the same ground we may anticipate that, in the progressive advance of human knowledge, many new fields will yet be conquered, and added to the domain of Science. But suppose every law were discovered,—suppose, even, that every individual event should be shown to depend on some natural cause, there would still remain at leasttwoconsiderations which should remind us of ourdependence. The first is our ignorance of the whole combination of causes which may at any time be brought into action, and of the results which may flow from them in circumstances such as we can neither foresee nor provide against. The second is our ignorance, equally unavoidable and profound, of the intelligent and voluntary agencies which may be at work, modifying, disposing, and directing that combination of causes, so as to accomplish the purposes of the Omniscient Mind. Our want of knowledge in either case is a reason for uncertainty; and our uncertainty in regard to events in which we may be deeply concerned is fitted to teach us our dependence on a higher Power. Let it not be thought, however, that our argument for God's Providence is drawn merely from man'signorance, or that its strength must diminish in proportion as his knowledge of Nature is extended; on the contrary, it rests on the assumption thatman knows enough to be aware that he cannot know all, and that as long as he is not omniscient, he must be dependent on Him who alone "knows the end from the beginning," and "who ruleth among the armies of heaven" as well as "among the inhabitants of this earth."

It is in the invariable combination and marvellous mutual adjustment of these two elements,—the regular and the variable, the constant and the casual, the certain and the uncertain,—that we best discern the wisdom of that vast scheme of Providence, which is designed at once to secure ourdiligence in theuse of means, and to impress us with a sense of ourdependence on a higher Power. And the same remark may be equally applicable,mutatis mutandis, to the revealed constitution of things, since Scripture itself exhibits certain definite truths surrounded with a margin of mystery like "lights shining in a dark place;" and while it prescribes and encourages diligence in the use of means, teaches us at the same time our dependence on the Divine blessing which alone can render our efforts effectual. Both elements, therefore, must be taken into account and kept steadily in view, if we would form a comprehensive conception of the method of the Divine government, or a correct estimate of the wisdom with which it is adapted to the case of created and dependent, but intelligent, active, and responsible beings. But when the one is either dissevered from the other, or viewed apart and exclusively by itself, when the mind dwells on either, to the neglect of what is equally a part of the same comprehensive scheme, then we are in danger of adopting a partial and one-sided view of Providence, and of lapsing into one or other of the opposite extremes,—the theory of "Chance" or the theory of "Fate."

A few remarks on each of these theories may be neither unseasonable nor useless, if they serve to illustrate the different kinds of Atheism which have sprung from them, and to place in a clear and strong light the radical difference which subsists between both, and the doctrine of Providence, as it is taught and exemplified in Scripture.

1. The theory of "Chance," which was once the stronghold of Atheism, is now all but abandoned by speculative thinkers, and exists only, if at all, in the vague beliefs of uneducated and unreflecting men. This result has been brought about, not so much by the Metaphysical or even the Theological considerations which were urged against the theory, as by the steady advance of Science, and the slow but progressive growth of a belief in "law" and "order" as existing in every departmentof Nature. It has been undeniably the effect of scientific inquiry to banish the idea of Chance, at least from as much of the domain as has been successfully explored, and to afford a strong presumption that the same result would follow were our researches extended beyond the limits within which they are yet confined. To this extent there is truth in the reasonings of M. Comte as applied toChance, while they have no validity or value as applied toProvidence; and we deem it a noble tribute to Science when it can be said of her with truth, that she has been an effective auxiliary to Religion in overthrowing the once vaunted empire of that blind power.

At one time some ascribed all the works both of Creation and Providence to Chance, and spoke of a fortuitous concourse ofatomsin the one case, and of a fortuitous concurrence ofeventsin the other. The Atomic theory, which, as a mere physiological hypothesis, is far from being necessarily Atheistic, and which has been adopted and defended by such writers as Gassendus and Dr. Goode,[217]was applied by Epicurus and Lucretius to account for the fortuitous origin of existing beings, and also for the fortuitous course of human affairs. No one now, in the present advanced state of science, would seriously propose to account either for the creation of the world, or for the events of the world's history, by ascribing them to the operation of Chance; the current is flowing in another direction; it has set in, like a returning tide, towards the universal recognition of "general laws" and "natural causes," such as, from their invariable regularity and uniformity, are utterly exclusive of everything like chance or accident in any department of Nature. Instead of ascribing the creation of the world to a fortuitous concourse of atoms, modern speculation would refer it to "a law of development" such as is able of itself toinsure the production of astral systems in the firmament, and also of vegetable and animal races on the earth, without any direct or immediate interposition of a higher power; and instead of ascribing the events of history and the "progress" of humanity to a fortuitous or accidental origin, modern speculation would refer them to "a law of social or historical development," such as makes every succeeding state the natural, and, indeed, necessary product of a prior one, and places the whole order of sequences—whether physical, moral, political, or religious—under the government of "natural law," as contradistinguished from that of a "supernatural will." There is thus a manifest tendency to resile from the old theory of Chance, and to take refuge in the new asylum of Law, Order, or Destiny. There is, apparently, a wide difference between the two contrasted systems; and yet the difference may be, after all, more seeming than real: for both the old doctrine of "chance" and the new theory of "development" are compelled to assume certain conditions or qualities as belonging to the primordial elements of matter, without which it is felt that neither Chance nor Fate can afford a satisfactory account of the works either of Creation or Providence. The one party spoke more of "Chance," the other speaks more of "Law;" but both were compelled to feel that neither Chance nor Law couldof themselvesaccount for the established order of Nature, without presupposing certain conditions, adjustments, and dispositions of matter, such as could only be satisfactorily explained by ascribing them to a wise, foreseeing, and designing Mind.

In the present state of philosophical speculation, which evinces so strong a tendency to reduce everything to the dominion of "Law," it may seem unnecessary to refer to the doctrine of "Chance" at all; but believing as we do that there are, and ever must be, certain events in the course of life, and certain facts in the complex experience of man, which will irresistibly suggest the idea of it, even where the doctrine istheoretically disowned, we think it right to lay down a distinct and definite position on this subject, such as may serve, if duly established, at once to neutralize whatever is false and noxious in the doctrine of Chance, and at the same time to preserve whatever is true and wholesome in it, as having a tendency to illustrate the actual scheme of Divine Providence. And the position which we are disposed to state and prepared to establish is this: That, with reference to God, as an omniscient Being, there is, and there can be, no such thing as "Chance;" while, with reference alike to men and angels, many events may be fortuitous or accidental, not as being independent of causes, but as depending on causes unknown, or on combinations of causes whose joint operation may result in effects absolutely undiscoverable by our limited intelligence.

This position consists oftwoparts. It affirms that with reference to God and His omniscient knowledge, there can be nothing that is fortuitous, accidental, or unexpected. It affirms, with reference to man and all created intelligences, that there may, or even must, be much uncertainty in regard to the products of natural causes, especially when they act in combination, and come into play in circumstances which we cannot foresee or control. Many events may thus be casual, accidental, or unexpected to men, which are not so to the supreme governing Intelligence. The first part of the position is proved by the general evidence which warrants us in ascribing omniscience, and especially an unerring prescience, to the Divine Mind; and it cannot be denied, without virtually ascribingignoranceto God. The second part of the position is established by some of the most familiar facts of experience. We know and feel that however certain all events are to the omniscient knowledge of the Most High, many of them are entirely beyond the reach of our limited foresight; and this because they are either dependent on individual causes which are unknown to us, or on a combination of various causes, toocomplex to admit of any rational computation in regard to their results.

The "calculation of chances" has been reduced to something like scientific accuracy;[218]and it has been applied, with beneficial effect, to the insurance of life and property on land and at sea. Even the casual events of human history may be said, in a certain sense, to be governed by fixed laws. Theaggregate resultin such cases may be tolerably certain, while theindividual casesare very much the reverse; and hence human wisdom, proceeding on a well-ascertained body ofstatistics, may construct a scheme for securing some against the evils to which they would otherwise have been liable, by means of the sacrifices of others, who would not have been in fact, although they might have been, for ought they know, liable to the same. But what is this, if it be not a practical acknowledgement of the uncertainty in which all are placed in regard to some of the most important interests of the present life? or how can it be said that chance or accident is altogether, and in every sense, exploded, when large bodies of men are found to combine, and that, too, at a considerable personal sacrifice, for the express purpose of protecting themselves, so far as they can, from the hazards to which they are individually exposed?

In the sense above explained, we cannot consent to discard "Chance" altogether, either at the bidding of those who resolve everything into "natural laws," or even in deference to the authority of others who ascribe all events to Divine Providence. It may be true that all events, however apparently casual or fortuitous, are governed by "natural laws;" it may be equally true that all events are determined, directed, or controlled by Divine Providence: but as long as some events depend on causes which are certainly known, and other events on causes which are not known, or on a combination of causeswhose results cannot be foreseen, so long will there be room for the distinction between theregularand theaccidentalphenomena of human experience. This distinction, indeed, is explicitly recognized in Scripture itself; for while it speaks of all events as being infallibly known to God, it speaks of some events that areaccidentalwith reference to man.[219]The unknown, unforeseen, and unexpected incidents of life, which constitute all that is apparently casual or accidental, may be, and we believe they are, really subject both to natural laws and to God's providential will; but they are removed far beyond our comprehension or control; and being so, they are admirably fitted, as a part of the complex scheme of His natural and moral government, to serve one of the most important practical ends for which it is designed, by impressing us with a sense of constant dependence on a higher Power, and of dutiful subjection to a superior Will.

But while, in this sense and to this extent, the doctrine of "Chance" is retained, it must be utterly rejected as a means of accounting either for the creation or government of the world. For, on the supposition of a Supreme Being, there can be nochancewith reference to Him; and without such a supposition, we cannot account for the regularity which prevails in the course of Nature, and which indicates a presiding Intelligence and a controlling Will. . 2. But this very regularity of Nature, when viewed apart from the cross accidents of life, is apt to engender the opposite idea of "Fate" or "Destiny," as if all events were determined by laws alike necessary and invariable, inherent in the constitution of Nature, and independent of the concurrence or the control of the Divine will. We are not sure, indeed, that the idea of Fate or Destiny is suggested solely, or even mainly, bythe regular sequences of the natural world; we rather think that it is more frequently derived from those unexpected and crushing calamities which occur in spite of every precaution of human foresight and prudence, and that thus it may be identified, in a great measure, with the doctrine of Chance, or, at least, the one may run into and blend with the other. But if any attempt were made to establish it by proof, recourse would be had to the established order and regular sequences of Nature, as affording its most plausible verification, although they afford no real sanction to it, in so far as it differs from the Christian doctrine of Providence.

Dr. Cudworth discusses this subject at great length, and makes mention ofthreedistinct forms of Fatalism. The first, which is variously designated as the Democritic, the Physiological, or the Atheistic Fate, is that which teaches the material or physical necessity of all things, and ascribes all natural phenomena to the mechanical laws of matter and motion. The second, which is described as a species of Divine or Theistic Fate, is that which admits the existence and agency of God, but teaches that He bothdecreesanddoes,purposesandperformsall things, whether good or evil, as if He were the only real agent in the universe, or as if He had no moral character, and were, as Cudworth graphically expresses it, "mere arbitrary will omnipotent:" this he describes as a "Divine Fate immoral and violent." The third, which is also designated as a species of Divine or Theistic Fate, is that which recognizes both the existence of God, and the agency of other beings in Nature, together with the radical distinction between moral good and evil, but teaches that men are so far under necessity as to be incapable of moral and responsible action, and unfit subjects of praise or blame, of reward or punishment: this he describes as "Divine Fate moral and natural." Thesethreeare all justly held to be erroneous or defective views of theDivine government, and, as such, they are strenuously and successfully opposed.[220]

But there is room for afourthdoctrine, which may be designated as the Christian doctrine of Providence, and which combines in itself all the great fundamental truths for which Dr. Cudworth contends, while it leaves open, or, at least, does not necessarily determine, some of the collateral questions on which he might have differed from many of its defenders. This doctrine affirms, first, the existence and attributes of God, as a holy and righteous Moral Governor; secondly, the real existence and actual operation of "second causes," distinct from, but not independent of, "the First Cause;" thirdly, the operation of these causes according to their several natures, so that, under God's Providence, events fall out "either necessarily, freely, or contingently," according to the kind of intermediate agency by which they are brought to pass; and, fourthly, that in the case of intelligent and moral agents, ample room is left for responsible action, and for the consequent sentence of praise or blame, reward or punishment, notwithstanding the eternal decree of God, and the constant control which He exercises over all His creatures and all their actions. These four positions may be all harmoniously combined in one self-consistent and comprehensive statement; and, in point of fact, they are all included in the Christian doctrine of Providence, as that has been usually explained and defended by the various sections of the Catholic Church. Not one of them is omitted or denied.[221]They seem fairly to meet, or rather fully to exhaust, the demands of Dr. Cudworth himself, when he says: "These three things are, as we conceive, the fundamentals or essentials of true religion, first, that all thingsin the world do not float without a head or governor, but that there is a God, an omnipotent understanding Being, presiding over all; secondly, that this God being essentially good and just, there is something in its own nature immutably and eternally just and unjust, and not by arbitrary will, law, and command only; and lastly, that there is somethingεφ᾽ ἡμῖν, or that we areso far forthprincipals or masters of our own actions as to beaccountableto justice for them, or to make us guilty or blameworthy for what we do amiss, and to deserve punishment accordingly." All these fundamentals of true religion are explicitly recognized in the Christian doctrine of Providence, which stands out, therefore, in striking contrast with the Atheistic, and even Theistic, theories of Fate which he condemns; and they are as zealously maintained (whether with the sameconsistencyis a different question) by Edwards, Chalmers, and Woods, on the one side, as they ever were by Cudworth, Clarke, and Tappan, on the other.

It may be said, however, that the doctrine of Providence, especially when taught in connection with that of Predestination, does unavoidably imply some kind ofnecessity, incompatible with free moral agency, and that, to all practical intents, it amounts substantially to Fate or Destiny. But we are prepared to show that there is neither the same kind ofnecessityin the one scheme which is implied in the other, nor the same reason for denying moral and responsible agency in the case of intelligent beings. In doing so, we must carefully discriminate, in the first instance, between the various senses in which the termnecessityis used. Dr. Waterland has given a comprehensive division of "necessity" intofourkinds, denominated respectively, the Logical, the Moral, the Physical, and the Metaphysical.

"Logical necessity" exists wherever the contrary of what is affirmed would imply a contradiction; and in this sense we call ita necessary truththat two and two make four, that awhole is greater than any of its parts, and that a circle neither is nor can be a square. It amounts to nothing more than the affirmation, that the same idea or thingis what it is; and it relates solely to the connection between one idea and another, or between one proposition and another, or between subject and predicate. This is "logical necessity;" we cannot, with our present laws of thought, conceive the thing to be otherwise without implying a contradiction.

"Moral necessity," again, denotes a connection, not between one idea and another, or between the subject and predicate of a proposition, but betweenmeansandends. It is not necessary absolutely that any man should continue to live; but it is necessarymorallythat, if he would continue to live, he should eat and sleep, food and rest being, according to the established constitution of Nature, anecessary conditionor indispensable means for the support of life. There is in like manner a "moral necessity" that we should be virtuous and obedient, if we would be truly happy, virtue and obedience being, according to the established constitution of Nature, an indispensable means of true and permanent happiness. This is "moral necessity" which has reference solely to the connection betweenmeansandends, but that connection, being ordained, is immutable and invariable.

"Physical necessity," again, exists wherever there is either a causal connection between antecedents and consequents in the material world, or even a coactive and compulsory constraint in the moral world. It is physically necessary that fire should burn substances that are combustible, that water and other fluids should flow down a declivity, and rise again but only to a certain level; and there is the like kind of necessity, wherever a moral agent is forced to act under irresistible compulsion,—as when the assassin seizes hold of another's arm, and thrusting a deadly weapon into his hand, directs it, by his own overmastering will, to the brain or heart of his victim.In this latter case, the unwilling instrument of his revenge or malice is not held to be the guilty party, but the more powerful agent by whom that instrument was employed. This is "physical necessity," which relates solely to the connection between cause and effect in the material world, and, in the moral, to the compulsory action of one agent on another.

"Metaphysical necessity," again, can be predicated of God only, and denotes the peculiar property or prerogative of His being, as existing necessarily, immutably, and eternally, or, to use a scholastic phrase, the necessary connection in His case betweenessenceandexistence.

Omitting thelast, which does not fall properly within the limits of our present inquiry, we may say with regard tothe three first, that each of them may exist, and that each of them does really operate, in the present constitution of Nature. We are subject, unquestionably, to certain "laws of thought," which we can neither repeal nor resist, and which impose upon us a logical necessity to conceive, to reason, and to infer, not according to our own whim or caprice, but according to established rules. We are equally subject to certain "conditions of existence,"—arising partly from our own constitution, partly from the constitution of external objects and the relations subsisting between the two,—which lay us under a moral necessity of using suitable means for the accomplishment of our purposes and plans. And we are still further subject to "physical necessity," in so far as our material frame is liable to be affected by external influences, and even our muscular powers may be overmastered and subordinated by a more vigorous or resolute will than our own. Thesethreekinds of "necessity" exist; they are all constituent parts of that vast scheme of government under which we are placed; and the question arises, Whether, when the existence of these necessary laws is admitted, we can still maintain the doctrine which affirms the providential government of God and the moralagency of man; or whether we must not resolve the whole series of events, both in the natural and moral worlds, into the blind and inexorable dominion of Destiny or Fate?

We answer, first, that there is nothing in any one of these three kinds of necessity, nor in all of them combined, which, when rightly understood, should either exclude the idea of Divine Providence, or impair our sense of moral and responsible agency. We may not besofree, nor so totally exempt from the operation of established laws, as some of the advocates of human liberty have supposed: but we may be free enough, notwithstanding, to be regarded and treated as moral and accountable beings. We may be subject to certain "laws of thought," and yet may be responsible for our opinions and beliefs, in so far as these depend on our voluntary acts, on our attention or inattention to the truth and its evidence, on our use or neglect of the appropriate means, on our love or our hatred to the light. And so we may be subject to certain other laws, in various departments of our complex experience, without being either restrained or impelled by such external coaction as alone can exempt creatures, constituted as we know and feel ourselves to be, from the righteous retributions of God.

We answer, secondly, that the doctrine of Providence, even when it is combined with that of Predestination, represents all events as "falling out according to the nature of second causes, necessarily, contingently, or freely;" nay, as falling out so "that no violence is offered to the will of the creature, nor is the liberty or contingency of second causes taken away, but rather established." It follows that if there be either on earth or in heaven any free cause, or any moral and responsible agent, his nature is not changed, nor is the character of his agency altered, by that providential government which God exercises over all His creatures and all their actions; he still continues to develop, within certain limits imposed by unalterable laws, his own proper individuality, or his personal character, in its relation to the law and government of God.

We answer, thirdly, that the moral and responsible agency of man cannot be justly held to be incompatible with the Providence and Supremacy of God, unless it can be shown that, in the exercise of the latter, God acts in the way of physical coaction or irresistible constraint, and further, that man is not only controlled and governed in his actions, but compelled to act in opposition to his own will. But no enlightened advocate either of Providence or Predestination will affirm that there is any "physical necessity," imposed by the Divine will, which constrains men to commit sin, or that God is "the author of sin." "Let no man say when he is tempted, I am tempted of God: for God cannot be tempted of evil, neither tempteth He any man. But every man is tempted, when he is drawn away of his own lusts and enticed."[222]

We answer, fourthly, that when a "moral necessity" ormoral inabilityis spoken of by divines as making sin certain and inevitable in the case of man, we must carefully distinguish between theconstitutionand thestateof human nature,—its constitution as it was originally created, and its state as it at present exists. There might be nothing in the original constitution of human nature which could interfere in any way with the freedom of man as an intelligent, moral, and responsible being; and yet, in consequence of the introduction of sin, his state may now be so far changed as to have become a state of moral bondage. But the constitution of his nature, in virtue of which he was at the first, and must ever continue to be, a moral and accountable being, remains unreversed; from being holy, he has become depraved, but he has not ceased to be a subject of moral government, and the evils that are incident to his present position must be ascribed, not to God'screative will,but, in the first instance, to man's voluntary disobedience, and, in the second, to a Divinejudicial sentencefollowing thereupon.

And finally, we answer that the theory which ascribes all events, both in the natural and moral worlds, to the blind and inexorable dominion of Destiny or Fate, leaves altogether unexplained many of the most certain and familiar facts of human experience. There are two large classes of facts which no theory of Fate can possibly explain. The first comprises all those manifest indications of provident forethought, intelligent design, and moral purpose, which appear in the course of Nature, and which cannot beaccounted forby a blind, unintelligent, undesigning cause. The second comprises all those facts of consciousness which bear witness to the moral nature and responsible agency of man, as the subject of a government which rewards and punishes his actions, in some measure, even here, and which irresistibly suggests the idea of a future reckoning and retribution. These two classes of facts must either be ignored, or left as insoluble, by any theory which advocates blind Fate or Destiny, in opposition to the overruling Providence and moral government of God.

These answers are sufficient, if not to remove all mystery from the methods of the Divine administration (for who would undertake to fathom the counsels of Him "whose judgments are unsearchable and His ways past finding out?"), yet to show at least that a Divine Providence is more credible in itself, and better supported by evidence, than any theory of Destiny or Fate; that the facts to which the latter appeals may be explained consistently with the former, while the facts on which the former is founded must either be left altogether out of view, or at least left unexplained, if the doctrine of Fate be substituted for that of Providence.

We have thus far compared the two theories of Chance and Fate, by which some have attempted to explain the system ofthe universe, and have contrasted both with the Christian doctrine of Providence. On a review of the whole discussion, we think it must be evident that the latter combines whatever is true and valuable in each of these opposite theories, while it eliminates and rejects whatever is unsound or noxious in either. It may seem strange that we should speak as if anything, either true or valuable, could be involved in the theories of Chance and Destiny; and, unquestionably, considered as theories designed to explain the system of the world, and to supersede the doctrine of Providence, they are, in all their distinctive peculiarities, utterly false and worthless. But it seldom, if ever, happens that any theory obtains a wide-spread and permanent influence, which does not stand connected with somepartial truth, or which cannot appeal to someapparent natural evidence. We have already seen that there are two distinct classes of events in Nature, and two corresponding classes of sentiments and feelings in the human mind; that the latter point, respectively, to the constant and the variable, the certain and the doubtful, the causal and the casual; and that were either of the two to acquire an absolute ascendancy over us, it would naturally lead to one or other of two opposite extremes—the theory of Chance, or the theory of Fate. Now, the doctrine of Providence takes account ofboththese classes of phenomena and feelings, so as to combine whatever is true and useful in each of the two rival theories, while it strikes out and rejects whatever is false in either, by placing all things under the government and control of a living, intelligent, personal God.

It is scarcely necessary to add that the views and sentiments which the Christian doctrine of Providence inspires are widely different from those which must be generated by a belief either in Chance or in Fate, as the supreme arbiter of our destiny. The doctrine which teaches us to look up and to say, with childlike confidence, "OurFatherwhich art in heaven," isworth more than all the philosophy in the world! Could we only realize it as a truth, and have habitual recourse to it in all our anxieties and straits, we should feel that, if it be a deeply serious and solemn fact that "the Lord reigneth," it is also, to all his trusting and obedient children, alike cheering and consolatory; and he who can relish the sweetness of our Lord's words when he spake of "the birds of the air" and the "flowers of the field," will see at once that Stoicism is immeasurably inferior, both as a philosophy and a faith, to Christian Theism.[223]

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