Fig. 2445Fig. 2445.
Fig. 2445.
Fig. 2446Fig. 2447Fig. 2446.Fig. 2447.
Fig. 2446.Fig. 2447.
We give one plate a light coat of red marking and rub it upon the other both sideways and lengthways. Suppose that on being separated and examined the bearing marks, shown as ata aandb b,Fig. 2446, on one plate, and atc candd d,Fig. 2447, on the other, and as those ata aandb bare the narrowest, or in other words extend the least distance across the plate, it is proof that this plate is more concave than the other plate is convex, and therefore needs the most correction. This is plain because whatever part of a plate touches another, will, if the two are merely pressed together, only leave a bearing mark equal in area to itself, while this area will obviously be increased in proportion as one plate is moved about upon the other.
Fig. 2448Fig. 2448.
Fig. 2448.
When the object is to merely produce a flat surface, independent of the thickness or parallelism of the plate, it is not always necessary to file or scrape the whole of the area showing bearing marks. Suppose, for example, that the marks appear as inFig. 2448, and as the bearing marks ata ashow that edge of the plate to be straight already, all that is necessary is to ease the surface atbin order to let that side of the plate come up.
When we have fitted two of the three plates together we must accept one of them as a true one and (calling it No. 1) fit Nos. 3 and also 2 to it, and then try Nos. 2 and 3 together. If these require correcting the amount of correction must be made equal on each, and when this is done we must accept one of these two (say No. 3) as the standard, fit No. 1 to it, so that Nos. 1 and 2 both having been fitted to No. 3 may be tried together and both corrected equally; nor will the surfaces of any of them be true until all three will interchange in this manner and show a perfect contact.
It is to be noted, however, that in this process we have not altogether eliminated the error due to the deflection of each plate. Suppose, for example, a plate to be resting on its feet and its middle will sag or deflect to some extent (very minute though it may be in a small plate), and when we place another plate upon it the latter will also sag or deflect if its points of contact are far apart, and in any event the truing is performed by the bearing-marks, which the operator knows show the darkest and the brightest where the contact is greatest; hence by the time the contact marks show equally strong all over, the top plate will have been fitted to suit the deflection of the lower one. Since, however, the nearer the points of contact (between the plates) are together the less the degree of deflection, it is better in trying them to place the test plate on the top of the one being operated on. If the plates are long ones it will not answer to have more than three points of rest for the lower plate, unless the foundation on which the plate rests is made so true that each resting point of the plate will bear with equal pressure on the foundation plate or stone.
To eliminate as far as possible the deflection, the three plates may be got up by the process described, and then finished by trying them when resting on their edges (the trued surfaces standing vertical), interchanging the three plates as before.
In this case the surface will be true when standing vertical as finished, but there will still be some untruth from deflection when the plates are rested on their feet, though it will be less in amount than if the plates were finished on their feet as first described.
In finishing surface plates with a hand scraper, we have a surface that bears in fine spots only, these spots being the tops only of the scraper marks. Now the depth of the scraper marks are unequal, because immediately after the scraper is sharpened it cuts the easiest and the deepest, the scraper cutting less deep as its edge dulls. The operator regulates this to some extent by applying a greater pressure to the scraper as it gets dull, but from differences in the texture of the metal and from other causes it is impracticable to make the scraper cut equally deep at each stroke, as a result the tops of the scraper marks, which are the points of contact of the plates, wear away quickest, and the plate soon loses, to some extent, its truth.
Again, work that is so small as to cover part of the plate surface only, wears the part of the plate to which it is applied, and although the careful workman usually applies small work at and near the outside edges of the plate only, still these are all elements tending to produce increased local wear and to throw the plate out of true.
To obviate this difficulty the surface should be got up to bear all over, thus greatly increasing its bearing area and proportionately decreasing its wear. To produce such a surface the following plan was adopted by the author in 1876.
The filing process was continued with fine Groubet files, and testing the plates, rubbing them together sufficiently to mark them without the use of oil. Very short file strokes must be employed, and great care taken to apply the file to the exact necessary spots and places.
Then instead of using the scraper, No. 0 French emery paper was used, wrapped over the end of a flat file. The plates being interchanged and trued with No. 0, No. 00 was used, and the testing and interchanging repeated. These grades of emery paper were then wrapped or folded over the curved end of a piece of wood, the plates interchanged and rubbed together as before, and the emery paper used as described for the scraper. SubsequentlyNos. 000 and 0000 French emery paper were similarly applied until the plates were finished. Much assistance to this method may be rendered by taking a piece of Water of Ayr stone, and truing its surfaces by rubbing them on the plates after the fine filing and before the emery papering. Then while applying the finer grades of emery paper the stone may be rubbed (with oil or water) in various directions over the surface. This has the effect of wearing off the very fine protuberances due to the emery paper cutting the metal most around its pores, and furthermore it causes the marks made in testing to show more plainly.
In skillful hands this process very far surpasses, both in the superiority of its results and in rapidity of execution, the scraping process, leaving a brilliant polished surface, so smooth that it feels as soft as satin, and the contact becomes so complete that no bearing marks can be distinguished.
In this process great care must be taken in cleaning the surfaces before applying them together, as the finest particle of dust will cut scratches, which though imperceptible on scraped surfaces, appear very coarse and deep on these smooth ones.
The amount of metal taken off by the finer grades of emery paper is so small as to be scarcely appreciable, save that it slightly discolors the emery paper.
The finest test for plates finished in this way is to rest the lower one quite level, clean it with alcohol, wipe it clean with old linen rag and finally with the palm of the hand, which if quite dry is more effective than anything else. The eye should carefully sight the plate surface with the light reflecting on that surface, when particles too fine to be felt may be observed and wiped off with the hand. In dry weather it is a difficult matter to clean the plates perfectly, as while one is being cleaned the fine particles of matter floating in the air rest upon the other; but in rainy weather the cleaning is much easier.
The plates being cleaned one must be lowered vertically on the other where it will float, there being a film of air between the two which it is almost impossible to exclude by pressure even though the plates be moved while pressed together.
If under these conditions the surfaces are not true and the top plate be set in motion in various directions, by a light finger touch it will swing round, the parts of the surface most in contact being the centre of motion. Suppose then the top plate to swing from one end it should be turned end for end on the bottom plate, and if the location of the centre of motion is still at the same end of the top plate, that plate is high there, while if the centre of motion in both cases is at the same end of the bottom plate it is the one that contains the error.
If the top plate swings upon its own centre of motion it must be moved farther off the bottom one, first on one side and then on the other, to discover if it or the bottom plate is in error; while if the top plate swings first from one end and then from the other, one or both of the plates are hollow and the top one must again be moved farther off the lower one, and the test by motion continued. The error discoverable in this way is very much finer than can be discovered by the marks of contact, since a plate showing quite even contact when quite dry and clean, and tested as lightly and carefully as may be will show error by this motion test. The error being so small in amount that it may be corrected by rubbing the plate with rag and oil, applied under hand pressure to the plate.
Fig. 2449Fig. 2449.
Fig. 2449.
To cause the plates to bind together so that rubbing one on the other will leave contact marks, the top plate must be placed about an inch over the corner of the bottom one, pressed closely to it and forced laterally over it. A pair of plates of the Whitworth pattern (such as shown inFig. 2449) placed by the author in the Centennial Exhibition, required, when put together dry as above, 3411⁄2lbs toslidethe top one over the other, which was due to the friction caused between the surfaces by the atmospheric pressure acting on the back surface of the plate, the latter having a superficial area of 12 by 8 inches.
Here it may be added that a plate of the same dimensions, and having its surface finished simply by filing with a dead smooth file, which plate was made for exhibition at a lecture on hand work, delivered before the Spring Garden Institute of Philadelphia, required a force of 22 lbs. to slide on the one on which it rested.
If two plates finished by the above method be placed together by sliding one upon the other it will be found that with the hands applied as inFig. 2449, they can be separated or pulled apart with less force than it requires to slide one upon the other, because the plates bend and unlap, as would be the case if two sheets of paper were wetted and placed together and then taken apart by pulling two edges in opposite directions. But if the power to pull the plates apart be applied at the middle of the plate it will require a much greater force to separate them, although how much is problematical, no experiments having been made upon the subject. Furthermore the friction between two such plates will be greater if the surfaces be lubricated than if quite dry.
Thus, with the surfaces cleaned by alcohol, the top plate will move comparatively easily, but if the surfaces be slightly oiled and then wiped apparently quite clean with old dry rags, the friction will be a maximum. If then a piece of rag, say of an area of an inch, have one drop of oil upon it and be then applied to the surfaces of two plates after they have been cleaned with alcohol, the friction will still be about 3 lbs. per inch of area of one plate. With the surfaces well lubricated it will still require more power to slide one plate upon the other than would be the case were both plates quite dry.
The reason of this is that when quite dry it is impracticable to exclude the air from between the surfaces, whereas with the lubrication the air is more perfectly excluded and the atmospheric pressure forces the plates together.
ERECTING.—The term erecting is applied in large work to the operations involved in fitting the parts to their places on the engine or machine, as well as to placing them upon their foundations and putting them together ready to run.
In vice work or fitting, the various parts are put together ready to be erected, each part being complete in itself, but not adjusted with relation to the others. Thus, while a link motion may be complete in itself, the length of its eccentric rods will usually require correcting when placed upon the engine. Furthermore the position of the eccentric is to be adjusted.
The boiler fittings may be complete in themselves, but will still require to be fitted or erected upon or to their places.
Erecting requires the greatest of skill, care, and judgment, in order that the work may be put together properly aligned and any defects of construction corrected in the finished machine.
In erecting a machine, as in building a house—or, indeed, as in everything that man constructs—the work must be begun at the foundation.
In a machine in which the working parts are carried and contained upon framework, such framework becomes the foundation so far as the erector is concerned.
In a stationary steam engine the cylinder and bed plate form the erector’s foundation while the engine is in the shop, the mason’s foundation being an after consideration.
In a locomotive the boiler is the foundation to which all the other parts are either directly or indirectly affixed.
The erector uses all the measuring tools used by the fitter or vice hand, and in addition many others, as stretched lines, the spirit-level and plumb-level. Either of these tools forms the readiest means of testing whether surfaces that are widely removed and in different positions about a machine are parallel one to the other, it being evident that all surfaces standing vertical will be parallel, or all those standing horizontal will also be parallel, one to the other.
Spirit-levels are often made of wood, which is very objectionable for the erector’s use, because the lower or testing surface is apt to catch and hold particles of metal, and furthermore it is very susceptible to abrasion, and wears rapidly. It is preferable, therefore, that it be of iron or steel. The test of a spirit-level is its sensitiveness, and it is found in a properly constructed one that the bubble will move to a perceptible extent if a piece of gold leaf be inserted under one end. In a spirit-level which came into the hands of the author of this work he found the warmth of the finger when placed on its top sufficient to cause the bubble to move nearly the full length of its tube, the body of the level being a block of iron 11⁄4inches square and 9 inches long. The movement of the bulb was caused by the heat of the finger expanding the top of the spirit-level and causing it to bend. To test the truth of a spirit-level, it should be placed upon a true surface, as a surface plate, and if the bubble comes to rest at the same spot in the length of the spirit tube when the level is tried turned end for end, the level is true. The test should be made several times.
Fig. 2450Fig. 2450.
Fig. 2450.
The plumb-rule, though less used by machinists than formerly, is better for machinists’ use than the ordinary wooden-bodied spirit-level, since it is more delicate if properly constructed. It should be formed as inFig. 2450, the sidesa aandb bbeing straight and parallel one to the other;canddare two plugs of soft yellow brass let in so as to keep the linel lclear of the face of the level, so that there shall be no friction between them. Atnare notches to secure the line, which should be as fine and as closely spun as possible.
Fig. 2451Fig. 2451.
Fig. 2451.
The plumb-level,Fig. 2451, is also preferable to the ordinary spirit-level; its edgesa,bmust be straight and at a right angle one to the other,canddrepresenting brass plugs as before. The edgeaof the rule or of the level should be laid upon a surface plate, and a fine line drawn on the face of these plugs with a scribing block, the coincidence of the linelwith these marked lines testing the truth of the work.
Fitting or Making Joints.—The best form of joint to withstand pressure is the ground joint, and next to this, but more expensive, is the scraped joint. The difference between the two is asfollows:—
For a ground joint the fitting with files or scrapers is only carried far enough to bring the fit sufficiently near that it may be finished by grinding the surfaces by rotating one upon the other with oil and emery interposed between them.
To grind a joint it is obvious that all the bolts or studs must be removed.
In a scraped joint the scraping is carried to such a point of correctness that the fit will be tight without grinding.
Joints in new work are easily ground, because the bolts or studs being new have not become rusted in their places and may therefore be readily removed; furthermore the joint may be ground before the studs are inserted. But in the case of old joints the studs may have become so rusted to their places as to render them liable to break off in the effort to extract them, and in such case it is better in most cases to make a scraped joint, which may be done with the studs left standing in their places.
To make a ground joint, as say a cylinder cover joint, proceed asfollows:—
Put a thin coat of red marking upon the joint face of the cover, and after it is coated lightly and smoothly all over, the hand should be passed over the whole surface marked, because any grit left on the surface will cut the faces of the joint when they are rubbed together to fit them, and there is no wiping material that will so effectually clean dust from the surface as the hand will; and furthermore, the sense of touch will instantly detect any grit present. The cover may now be put into its place on the cylinder and rotated back and forth a turn or so to insure that it is properly seated; then we may strike it a light blow in differentplaces with a piece of wood or the end of the handle of the chipping hammer; and if the cover does not fit pretty closely to its seat, a sharp metallic sound will be distinctly heard when the blow is struck over the parts of the face that are much out of true. Hence, by striking the blows all around the flange, we can easily find not only the high and low spots, but can determine, after a little practice, by the degree of the sound, how much the faces are out of true. We next rub the cover back and forth on its seat, so that the marking on the cover will mark the high spots on the cylinder face. If, however, we make the forward reciprocating movement of the cover a longer one than the backward, we shall give to it a gradually rotary as well as a reciprocating movement, and this will tell us if the face of the cover is true or not, for if the marking is removed from the face of the cover in two diametrically opposite places only, it shows that the cover itself is not true; and if the cylinder face also marks on two diametrically opposite places only, it is proof that both the faces are a good deal out of true: but there is no knowing which one is the most out, and so we must file off each an equal amount. If either face marks in more than two places it is evidence that it is pretty nearly true, and it follows that that face does not need much filing. Here it becomes necessary to state why the movement of the cover must, when being tried to its place, be back and forth, as well as rotated by the movement already explained. If we revolve a radial surface of metal upon a similar surface they are extremely liable to cut or abrade each other, and the presence of the least grit will inevitably cause them to cut; and if cutting once begins, the metal gathers upon the cutting part, increasing its size so that the groove cut will get deeper until a complete revolution has been made, and this rule applies to all revolving surfaces, but more particularly to radial or conical ones.
By making the movement a partly reciprocating one we destroy this tendency, and either imbed the grit into the iron or else work it out. To proceed, however. If during our testing the blows induced a secondary and metallic sound as above described, we take a rough file and ease the high spots on both the cover and the cylinder face, filing a good deal off the face that shows diametrically opposite bearing spots only, and but very little off the face that shows three or more bearing spots. In this latter case, indeed, it is better to use a second-cut than a rough file. We next wipe both faces quite clean, apply the marking to the cover as before, and try it to its seat again; rubbing it in the same manner to its seat and testing it for the metallic sound as in the first case. So soon as this sound ceases we may take a second-cut file and fit the faces until they bear in at least four different places, when a smooth file should be used and the fitting and trying continued, until a very light coat of the red marking will show both the cover and the cylinder face to mark in spots not more than an inch apart; and we may then take a flat scraper, ease away the high spots, pressing the scraper firmly to its work and making it cut fine scrapings, using the scraper in strokes of about1⁄2inch for a large face and1⁄4inch for a small one. When the two faces show about an even contact all over, the grinding may be performed asfollows:—
The two faces must be wiped quite clean, and then with an oil-can we can run a line of oil around both the cylinder and cover faces, and then with the fingers sprinkle on them some dry grain emery, of a grade of about 50 for a cylinder whose diameter is, say, 14 inches or over, and of a grade of about 60 to 65 for smaller diameters; if, however, only coarser grades of emery are at hand it may be ground finer by abrasion on an iron block, using a hammer face to grind it with. The emery and oil being applied, we place the cover in its place upon the cylinder, and give to it the reciprocative rotatory movement already described, continuing the movement until the cover moves so smoothly and noiselessly that it is evident that the emery has done its duty. We then take the cover off and examine the faces.
If there are prominently bright spots upon either face, denoting that the emery has not operated upon them, it will pay to take the scraper again and ease away the dullest and most frosted-looking spots, which denote that they have suffered most during the grinding operation. The difference between the spots that have been the most and those the least affected by the grinding will be very plainly visible if the faces are wiped clean. We must continue the grinding operation with this grade of emery until the marks show the grinding to have been performed pretty evenly all over the faces, and we then apply a coating of oil and emery, as in the previous operations, the latter being in this case of a grade of about 70, moving the cover as before until it revolves so smoothly and noiselessly as to indicate that the emery is no longer doing any duty. Having continued this process, applying fresh emery and oil until the face appears true, we may perform the finishing and testing process, which is of the utmost importance, since it will detect the faintest possible defect in the job. Wiping the faces quite clean, we put the cover in place upon the cylinder again, and move it as before back and forth, and yet slowly advancing; but it must be borne in mind that if the cover makes the least jarring noise during the operation we must at once remove it and wipe it clean again, or the faces will abrade and become destroyed. There is no danger of this, however, if the cover be at once removed when the jarring sound is heard. If it be not heard, we continue the operation until the cover has made four or five revolutions, and then remove it, and we shall find that the emery and oil, which had impregnated the surfaces, have worked out. We again wipe the faces clean and put them together and rub one upon the other as before, bearing in mind that if the faces cling much one to the other, we must wipe them clean again. Usually the finishing process requires performing about three times, and then the faces will have become as bright and clear as a mirror, magnifying the slightest defect in the joint. Joints made in this way will stand any pressure without leaking (unless the pressure be so great as to spring the metal of the cover). It is well, however, when making the joint, to put a little oil or pure tallow on it, and it is from this that it is called in England a grease joint, while in the United States it is termed the ground joint. It is common, however, in England to finish the whole joint by scraping; but this is a much more tedious job, and not so good a one, after all. Here it becomes necessary to remark, that in order to be able to handle the cover readily, it is best to bolt to it a wooden lever overhanging both sides of the cover, and to serve as a handle in moving it. And during the grinding we may place a weight on the cover, which will greatly expedite the process. It would appear that this is a long job, but such is not the case; indeed, a 16-inch cylinder face and cover1⁄32inch out of true one with the other can be got up in half an hour.
It is to be observed, however, that the cylinder cover that contains the stuffing box for the piston rod often carries one end of the guide bars, and in any event carries the gland whose bore requires to stand in line with the cylinder bore. It must be remembered that if more is filed off the top than off the bottom of the face, orvice versâ, the gland bore may be thrown out of parallel with the cylinder bore, and the guide bar seatings will be thrown out of parallel in the same direction.
To facilitate the making of ground and scraped joints it is preferable that the surface of the joint, both on the cylinder and the cover, project from the rest of the flange, from the bolt holes to the bore in the one case, and from the bolt holes to the body in the cover in the other, so that the bearing surface of the joint shall extend from the inside edge of the bolt holes to the cylinder bore only. This provides ample surface to make a joint, while reducing the surface to be operated upon.
To make a Scraped Joint.—Let us now suppose that the studs are in their places, and it is decided, for fear of breaking them in taking them out, to make a scraped joint, and the process is asfollows:—
The testing and marking of the high spots or places must be made by giving to one of the surfaces a light coat of red marking and then bolting up the cover moderately tight, screwing up the nuts at first until they just grip the work all around, and not letting one part of the cover face bear at any time with greater pressure against the cylinder face than there is on the diametrically opposite side of the cover, for the side under most pressure will receive the marking most readily. Especially is this the case when the two faces first meet, because even a low part of the face will show most contact under such circumstances, and then easing such marks away will make thecover a worse fit than it was before. When the cover is bolted home, the marking on the cylinder face may be made to transfer itself on to the high spots of the cylinder cover face more plainly if a piece of wood be placed on the cover and struck lightly with a hammer, moving the wood around and between the studs. If the wood be struck heavily it will cause an almost endless and assuredly a faulty job, because the force of the blow will spring that part of the cover to its seat on the cylinder face, whether it fits in that particular spot to its seat or not, and hence the filing or scraping may be done in places where it is not required, because the marking misleads. If the bolt holes are very close together, as in English practice, lightly striking the cover will prove an assistance; but where they are several inches apart, as in American practice, it is better to omit it, for the bedding marks will show plainly and properly if the marking be evenly distributed by the hand over the cylinder face, and the cover is bolted at each trial tightly to its seat, providing of course that the red marking is free from grit.
In a job of this kind it is difficult to know, when a leak occurs, whether the defect is in the cylinder face or the cover, and it is very desirable to perform the operation with a view to correct the defect rather than bed one face to the incorrectness of the other.
If then the stud holes are equidistant apart and concentric (so as to permit it), the cover may be tried on in one or two positions, and, if the bearing marks occur on the cover at each trial in the same places it is the cover that is out; or if this occurs on the cylinder face, it is that face which is out. Since the studs are in their places the cylinder face may be best operated on by a scraper, while for the first part of the operation on the cylinder cover a file may be used. The corner at the junction of the cylindrical part of the cover (where it fits into the cylinder bore) should be scraped well clear, or it will be apt to bind on the edge of the cylinder bore and prevent the cover from screwing fairly home to the cylinder face. The joint should be made to bed well inside of the bolt holes, and coated with oil or grease when finally put together.
Joints for Rough or Untrue Surfaces.—The most permanent form of joint for a rough or untrue surface is, for steam pressure, a gauze, and for water pressure, a pasteboard, or a duck or canvas joint.
A gauze joint is composed of copper wire gauze, having square meshes of about1⁄32inch square; this gauze is cut out to fit over the joint surfaces, a single, double, or treble thickness being used according to the unevenness of the surfaces. A coating of red-lead putty is first spread over the joint with a piece of smooth surfaced metal; the wire gauze is then put on, and over it another coating of red lead; the cover is then put on, and the nuts screwed lightly home so as to bring the cover to bear against the red lead. Then any nut may be given a quarter or a half-turn, and the diametrically opposite one also given a half-turn, this process being continued until all the nuts have been screwed home a half-turn, when the process may be continued until the nuts are screwed firmly home. This is necessary, because if the nuts on one side are screwed home in advance of those on the other, the red lead on that side may be squeezed out too much and the joint will leak. In joints of this class the surfaces being rough it is not unusual to cut out the gauze wire as follows: Lay the sheet of gauze over the joint and cut it to the size by lightly hammering it over the sharp edges of the joint, which will cause the sharp edges to cut the copper wire. To cut out the holes place the ball piece of a hand hammer on the wire and over a hole and strike the hammer face several light blows, and the corners of the hole will cut the wire through.
The gauze joint will answer equally well for hot water as for steam joints, provided that it be given time to dry and become hard. If the joint can have a week in which to dry the red-lead putty may have about one-sixth of its bulk of white lead mixed with it, being made to a consistency of soft dough so that it will spread easily; and the amount being sufficient to fairly cover the gauze and no more, the soundness of the joint may be known by the lead squeezing out all around the joint edge as the bolts are screwed home. If the joint is to be used in a day or so after being made, the white lead should be omitted. In either case the lead should be mixed stiffly at first; the best lead should be used and it should be well hammered on an iron block, after which it may be thinned with boiled oil, or with a little varnish, which will cause it to harden more quickly.
For water joints requiring to stand high pressure, and to be used as soon as made, a paper, pasteboard, or a duck or canvas joint are best. The joint is made by using, in place of the gauze wire, one or two thicknesses of the pasteboard, duck, or canvas, cut out to the size of the flange, and with the necessary holes to receive the standing bolts and leave the bore of the pipe clear. If the flange of the joint is of copper, brass, or wrought iron, or, if of cast iron, is of sufficient strength to permit it, one disk may be made the full size of the flange, and a second may be made to have an external diameter sufficiently large to fit snugly inside of the bolt holes, which will form sufficient thicknesses if the flange is a fair fit to its seat; if it is not, however, three, or even four, thicknesses may be used, in which case at least one of them should fit inside the diameter of the flange across the bolt holes, as described. The disks being prepared, we spread on the first one a thin coating of red-lead putty, and then lay another canvas disk on, again adding the putty until the whole is completed. We then spread a thin layer of the putty around the hole of the seat and that of the flange, place the disk in position and screw the joint up, tightening down the nuts until they bring the flange to an equal seating all around and not sooner on one side than on another, for in that case the red-lead putty will be squeezed unevenly, and too much on the side screwed up to excess. The nuts should be screwed up very tight; the joint wiped, the protruding canvas cut off, and the joint is complete.
For very rude and rough joints, whether used under pressure or not, we may make, for either water or steam, a joint as follows: Taking four or five strands of hemp, we saturate them with a coating of white lead ground in oil, applying just sufficient to make the fibres of the hemp cling well together. We then plait the strands and coat the whole rope thus formed with red-lead putty, and place the strand around the hole of the joint, taking care that the ends lap evenly, so that the joint shall be of even thickness. It is better, however, to bend a piece of lead or iron wire to suit the size and shape of the hole in the joint, and then wind the hemp and red lead around the wire. And in cases where the flanges of the joint are sufficiently strong to have no danger of their breaking from the pressure due to screwing up the nuts, the piece of lead wire, if given a neat butt joint or neatly lapped, may be employed without any red-lead putty or hemp; this does not, however, make a good permanent joint. In cases where a joint requires to be made thick to accommodate the length of the pipe, pasteboard may be used in the place of canvas, giving to it a thinly-spread coating of red-lead putty on each side, and, if possible, leaving the pasteboard a trifle too thick and springing open the flanges of the joint to get the pasteboard into position without scraping off the red-lead putty.
Where it is required that a joint stand great heat or fire, asbestos board, about1⁄16inch thick, makes a good and permanent joint. It is coated with red lead mixed thinly with boiled oil, containing as much as it will soak up, leaving a thin layer of the lead upon the surface of the asbestos. The holes for the bolts to pass through in the duck, canvas, pasteboard, or asbestos joint should be cut large enough to well clear the bolts.
For cold water, where it is not subject to great variations of temperature, common sheet lead makes a very good joint; but under excessive changes of temperature the expansion of the pipes will soon cause the sheet lead to squeeze out and the joint to leak.
Joints are frequently made with copper wire rings, made of a diameter to pass around the hole of the joint and lie within the diameter of the bolt holes, and brazed together at the ends; but if the joint be rectangular instead of circular the wire must either lie in a recess, or else a shoulder must be left for the wire to abut against, which will prevent its blowing or becoming forced out by the pressure.
In some practice softened sheet copper about1⁄32inch thick isused to make joints on surfaces that have been planed. Joints of this kind are used for locomotive steam chests.
Rubber joints are used to make steam, water, and air-tight joints, and are usually made from what is known as combination rubber—that is, sheet rubber having a linen or other web running through it; with one such web it is called single, and with two webs two-ply, and so on. There is in many cases, however, an objection to this form of joint, in that it compresses; and hence in the case of the steam chest, for example, it affects the distance of the slide-spindle hole in the chest from the seat, and throws it somewhat out of line with the eccentric. In long eccentric rods the variation is of course minute; but still it exists, and must exist, since it is impossible to tell exactly how much the rubber will compress in making the joint. Furthermore, if it is required to break such a joint, the rubber will very often cling so tenaciously to the seat in one place and to the chest in the other, that it will tear asunder in breaking the joint. To obviate this as much as possible, however, we may chalk the rubber on one face and slightly oil it on the other, so that the oil will aid the rubber in clinging to one face, while the chalk will assist it in separating from the other face of the joint.
Rubber joints slowly compress after being under pressure a day or so, and also if subjected to heat; hence they should have their bolts screwed up after becoming heated, or after having stood some time. It is advisable also that the rubber be as thin as the truth of the surfaces will admit. If it is necessary to use more than one thickness of rubber, the thickness may be made up of rings, whose diameter will just pass within the bolt holes.
The holes in a rubber gasket should be made larger than the bolt holes, so that there shall be no danger of the bolt, when being inserted, catching the gasket.
If the flanges should not come fair, and it is determined not to set them fair, the rubber should be as thick as the widest part of the opening between them, and shaved off to suit the thin side of the joint, and in this case the bolts must be tightened very uniformly and gradually around the joint to secure a tight one. If there is room to shave the gasket to the amount of taper, and use in addition a ring around the bolt holes, it will make a safer job.
When the gasket requires to be split to pass it around or over a rod, it should be cut through to the canvas on one side, and a short distance off cut through to the canvas on the other side; the rubber may then be stripped carefully back from the canvas and the latter cut through and passed over the rod, when the rubber may be put back and sewed to the canvas again.
Sheet rubber with a gauze wire insertion instead of canvas makes an excellent joint.
Fig. 2452Fig. 2452.
Fig. 2452.
InFig. 2452is shown a method of making a steam-tight joint largely employed in England, upon the steam chest joint where the cylinders of crank shaft (inside cylinder) engines are bolted together.ais the flange of one cylinder, which is bolted to the other by the boltb.cis a strip of copper let into a dovetail groove cut one half in one cylinder, and the other half in the other. After the boltsbare all firmly screwed home, hammer blows are delivered upon the top of the copper strip as denoted by the arrowe, expanding the copper so that it completely and closely fills the dovetail groove, and makes a steam-tight groove.
In riveting the copper it is necessary to hammer it evenly all along lightly, and only sufficiently to make it closely fill the groove, otherwise it will spring the joint open, and cause it to leak, notwithstanding the boltsb, which will give under the extreme strain.
Temporary joints are sometimes made by bending a piece of lead wire into a ring or frame, of such a size as to well clear the inside of the bolt holes. The ends are neatly joined, and the lead wire compressing and accommodating itself to the inequalities of the surfaces forms a joint.
Fig. 2453Fig. 2453.
Fig. 2453.
Fig. 2454Fig. 2454.
Fig. 2454.
Joints for Boiler Fittings.—Let it be assumed that the casting shown inFigs. 2453and2454requires to be fitted to a boiler, both being new. In this case, the holes for the studs or bolts should first be drilled in the flange of the casting, which will reduce its weight and render it easier to handle. The casting should then be held against the boiler in its proper position and location; and, with a fork scriber whose width of points is equal to the widest space between the face of the casting flange and the boiler, pass the fork scriber around the fitting or casting with one point against the boiler shell and the other pressed against the edge of the casting, the result being to mark around the flange of the latter a line exactly following the surface or contour of the boiler, and at a distance from the boiler the nearest that will suffice to properly bed the casting to the boiler surface, or, in other words, the line that will exactly mark the amount of metal requiring to be cut off the flange face to make it bed all over; and that face may, therefore, be cut down to the line. In chipping and filing it, however, the straight-edge may be used to advantage asfollows:—
Fig. 2455Fig. 2455.
Fig. 2455.
Suppose the casting flange to be gripped in the vice facing the operator, as inFig. 2455, and thatl lrepresents the scribed line: then the cape chisel cuts may be carried clear across the flange, coming exactly down to the line on each side of the flange, while a straight-edgesmay be used as shown to show when the cut is carried across level. Then, when the intermediate spaces are cut out with the flat chisel the surface will be of correct shape, and the surface may be rough filed. The casting should be cut clear down to the lines, and if the job has been properly set, marked and faced, no further trying will be necessary previous to marking the bolt or stud holes in the boiler. It is well, however, if theoperator is inexperienced in this kind of work, to again set the casting in its proper position to correct the fit. But, with proper care, all the holes in the boiler may be marked without any second fitting of the flange, since the operation properly performed is bound to give correct results. In doing a job of this kind it must be borne in mind that it is very easy to consume more time in trying and altering the job than is required under proper conditions to do the entire job; hence, in setting the casting, preparatory to marking it with the fork scriber, nothing is near enough that does not carry with it a conviction of perfect reliability; and if any doubt exists it is better to go through the process again. If the casting flange varies much in shape from its seat, and rocks or is unsteady, wooden wedges may be placed beneath it, or a few pellets of stiffly mixed red lead may be placed on the boiler where there is most room between it and the casting, the boiler surface being coated or painted with red marking, so that the pellets shall adhere to it and not to the flange face. If the casting is too heavy to be steadied by hand, one hole may be drilled in the boiler and a temporary bolt inserted to hold the casting while setting it in position, and marking with the fork scriber.
When the flange is approaching a fit, it must be placed in position on the boiler and the stud holes marked on the boiler with an ordinary scriber, its point being pressed against the boiler while it is pressed against the side of the hole in the casting flange and traversed around it, so as to scribe on the boiler surface circles corresponding to the holes in the flange. From the centres of these circles others of the proper size of the tapping holes may be struck and the tapping holes may then be drilled, and the studs put in. The remainder of the fitting operation consists in applying red marking on the boiler surface, bolting the casting to its place and filing the high spots. The marking is made to show plainly upon the flange by light hammer blows with a piece of wood interposed between the hammer and the flange face to prevent piercing the latter. These blows, however, should be lightly delivered, or they will cause the marking to be deceptive.