The Indians of New Mexico

Figure 2.Joy of the fisherman, rainbow trout

Management of the fishery has progressed with technical development. When fish were planted in early years, very little thought was given about the habitat except that it was water. There was little known of the requirements of fish. As a result, fish were placed in waters only to perish. To maintain a fish population now, all techniques available are employed and fish are stocked where water and species are compatible.

Water in the desert is always at a premium for the inhabitants. The early Indian cultures used water for irrigation, and there are still vestiges of canals used by Indians to convey water to their crops. The use of water by the Indians then had little or no effect on fish life, but as irrigation development increased, a new habitat was formed. The once free-flowingrivers became dry in places, and new waters were developed in the drainage ditches in the Rio Grande Valley. The competition for water is very keen and fish and wildlife uses come after domestic, commercial, and irrigation purposes.

The water requirements are so great, in fact, that it has been necessary to control water and its use by laws. The law of 1876 provided that water could not be refused a traveler. Community ditch commissioners were established by law in 1895. The basic laws governing water rights were established in 1907. These laws have been amended or added to as conditions dictate. Conservancy districts were recognized by law in 1927, and underground waters came under law in 1931. The Interstate Stream Commission was created in 1935. At present, New Mexico water laws are considered some of the best in the nation; however, it has been only recently that water for fish and wildlife has been recognized as one of the beneficial uses.

Converse to the use of water to the detriment of fish and wildlife, there are several areas in which water has been developed and impounded to the benefit of the fishery. Although some impoundments were single-purpose developments, they supply habitat in conservation pools or during years of abundant water supply.

Figure 3.Find the elephant!—at Elephant Butte reservoir

Waters impounded by man but used as a fishery are Elephant Butte Reservoir (fig. 3), 40,096 surface acres when full. It contains largemouth black bass, crappie, walleyed pike, catfish, and sunfish. This lake has not been full for many years; but like Alamogordo Reservoir (4650 surface acres), Caballo Reservoir (11,532 surface acres), McMillan Reservoir(2500 surface acres), Conchas Reservoir (16,640 surface acres), and Avalon Reservoir (950 surface acres), it has produced excellent fishing. These are large irrigation lakes and are all stocked generally with the same species of fish.

The lakes built for irrigation but utilized for trout are usually much smaller. The principal ones are Navajo Reservoir (15,600 surface acres) and El Vado (3500 surface acres). There are also Miami Lake (190 surface acres) and several others of small size.

In addition, several small lakes have been built or acquired for the primary purpose of providing fishing. A few of these are Hopewell Lake (14 surface acres), Lake Roberts (73 surface acres), and Charette Lakes (400 surface acres). There are many more varying in size. The smaller lakes are primarily for trout fishing, but a few in the southern part of the state do have species usually found in warmer waters.

In the process of reservoir construction, waterfowl habitat and resting areas are created. These new lakes, however, are a poor substitute for the natural marshes and potholes originally frequented by ducks and geese. Water mammals, likewise, find the artificial impoundments undesirable in comparison, and the increased water has added very little to this resource.

Every water development has with it the appeal of recreation other than fishing. Now a lake must have such facilities as picnic and camping areas, launching ramps, good accessibility, boat rentals, and a concessionaire. There is no single-purpose reservoir in respect to recreation.

Finally, it is concluded that the old adage, “fishing ain’t what it used to be,” should no longer be true for New Mexico. The fishing water has been added to greatly and the fish are managed better. The only problem is one of increased human population. Where there was one fisherman fifty years ago, there are a thousand now.

Truly, the water of the desert is used to the limit.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)The past living today—San Miguel, early mission church still used daily in Santa Fe

byPaige W. Christiansen

People entering New Mexico today find Indian cultures and Indian villages with traditions and ways of life that have changed little in many centuries. In this respect, man in the twentieth century shares an experience in common with Coronado, Oñate, and all the otherconquistadoreswho visited New Mexico so many generations ago. They, too, found the ancient Indian cultures strangely magnetic and exciting. If we could but remove the asphalt highways, the billboards, the telephone poles, and fences that seem always to surround us, the Indian villages in many parts of the state would look very much as they looked to the early Spanish explorers who were the first Europeans to see them. To meet the Indians of New Mexico and to visit their homes, if possible, is one of the greatest experiences available to residents and visitors alike. Although words are inadequate to give the true flavor and excitement of the Indian and his way of life, they are all we have to introduce the various people who make up the Indian population of New Mexico.

There are two main groups that should be known. First, the Pueblo Indians, those who developed sedentary village life and who are the descendants of the first Americans in New Mexico. Second, the “newcomers” to the state, those who, for some reason or other, moved into the state to replace earlier cultures. Let us, then, visit some of these people’s homes.

Acoma Indian Pueblo, the Sky City, is famous in both history and legend. Built on the top of a lofty, almost inaccessible, redrock mesa some 357 feet high, it is one of the most picturesque of all New Mexico Indian pueblos. No other pueblo gives one such a clear sense of living in ancestral times. The movements of the people up and down the steep trails, the untiring vistas, and the ancient homesites are reminiscent of the life and times of the cliff dwellers. Here the archeologists can search out the secrets of ancient life by direct observation. Here, too, is brought forth in the fullness of its bloom an Indian culture of outstanding achievement.

The Indians of Acoma participated in the great Pueblo Revolt of 1680. They killed their priest, Fray Lucas Maldonado, in the first frenzy of the rebellion. Because of their isolation and the inaccessibility of the village, they were spared the vengeance of the Spaniards under de Vargas during the reconquest in 1692. There was an attempt by the Spanish in 1696 to take Acoma, but they succeeded only in destroying the crops and in capturing five Acoma warriors. The Indians held out until July 6, 1699, when they submitted to the Spanish governor of New Mexico, Governor Cubero. Thereafter, Acoma became an integral part of the mission complex established in New Mexico by the Spanish.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Starr Jenkins)Aspen Basin in Sangre de Cristo Mountains near Santa Fe

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside)Tent Rocks in Jemez Mountains

Acoma is noted for its excellent pottery. The ware is fashioned from clay of fine quality, is very well fired, and is carefully decorated in typical Acoma designs. Here is an excellent example of Indian artistic ability. Some weaving, such as belts and headbands, is engaged in and a few baskets are produced, but Acoma is most famous for its pottery.

One of the landmarks at Acoma is the great church which brave Fray Juan Ramirez toiled to create in the early seventeenth century. Surely there are few memorials of the Spanish epoch in the Southwest that present such a picture of dauntless faith in spiritual ideals as does this fortress church silhouetted high against the sky above the bare-rock mesa. It measures 150 feet in length and has walls that are 60 feet high and 10 feet thick. Timbers 40 feet long and 14 inches through support the roof and make a handsome ceiling. There are, of course, no seats and little decoration. And what a location for so magnificent a spiritual center it is! From there one may lift his eyes in rapt admiration of the splendid panorama of the great plain and the encircling mountains, and thereby appreciate more fully the work of the Deity.

The Acoma are agriculturists, cultivating their lands by irrigation; they raise corn, wheat, melons, squashes, and hay. Now, however, most of the people of Acoma do not live on their mesa which protected them for so many centuries. The dangers of attack are no longer present, and the farmers find it more advantageous to live closer to their irrigated plots. The result is that the people of Acoma are now scattered throughout several villages. Their great culture, their traditions, their fierce pride, and their deep reverence for their spectacular history is visible in their faces and manners. Acoma, the Sky City, remains the eternal city of New Mexico.

The Indians of Cochiti Pueblo claim the famed cave dwellings and ruins of the Rito de Frijoles (Bandelier National Monument) as their ancestral home. Failure of timber and water resources plus the constant attack of the various Apache Indian tribes over several centuries caused the residents of the Rito de Frijoles to seek a better home. This probably occurred about 1200A.D.In 1598, when Juan de Oñate, colonizer of New Mexico, arrived, the Indians of Cochiti were living in their present village. For a short time following the reconquest of New Mexico by de Vargas after the Pueblo Revolt, the people of Cochiti lived in Cañada de Cochiti, which was in a better position for defense against Spanish reconquest. In 1694, de Vargas took the canyon village by storm, burned it, and forced the people to return to the older village of Cochiti where they remain to this day.

The population of the village is slightly more than 300, and there has been little growth in the past thirty years. Like the other New Mexico pueblos, the main occupation is agriculture. Their ancient traditions arewell preserved, among them the well-known Rain Dance held during the annual festival of San Buenaventura in July.

Located at the pueblo is the ancient and beautiful Spanish mission, San Buenaventura de Cochiti, built in the early seventeenth century. To step into this church is to return to the Spanish days of yore. There are no seats, women kneel on one side, the men on the other, and the services are a mixture of old world orthodoxy and new world Indian traditions. Cochiti represents one of the finest examples of modern Pueblo Indian life.

Isleta Pueblo is the southernmost of the pueblos lying along the green and lush Rio Grande Valley today. It stands on the same site it occupied when Coronado came in 1540 and was a stopping place for every Spanish explorer and traveler who passed through New Mexico. It did not take part in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, but rather joined the Spanish in the retreat to El Paso del Norte (modern Juarez, Mexico). There they founded a new village just to the south of modern El Paso which they called Isleta del Sur. The main village of Isleta, in New Mexico, remained deserted until 1709 when it was re-established by Fray Juan de la Peña.

Two different missions were built at Isleta Pueblo. The first, San Antonio de Isleta, was constructed about 1629. The church was burned in 1680, and in 1681 was being used as a sheep corral. Between 1680 and the completion of the reconquest, it was completely destroyed. The second mission, still remaining at Isleta, called San Agustin de Isleta, was built in 1709 on the old site.

Agriculture is the primary pursuit of the Indians of Isleta, although they do considerable stock grazing. The population of Isleta is nearly 2000 persons. The annual fiesta takes place in late August.

The Jemez Indians were first seen by Europeans in 1541 when they were visited by Captain Francisco de Barrio-Nuevo, of Coronado’s expedition. He counted seven villages, naming them Aguas Calientes because of the many hot springs in the canyon of the Jemez River. The ancient pueblos are now all in ruins, with one preserved as the Jemez State Monument. The present pueblo, built on the mesa where the Jemez River leaves the mountains, was constructed after the Pueblo Revolt. The Jemez people fled their older villages during the reconquest and for a time lived with the Navajo, whom they disliked but preferred to the Spanish.

There have been four notable missions among the Jemez Indians. The first, San Diego de Jemez Mission, was built in the early seventeenth century. It was one of the most successful of the New Mexico missions; reportedly, more than 6000 converts were made among the Jemez Indians before 1622. Because of the constant attacks of the Navajo, the traditional enemies of the Jemez people, the ancient pueblos gradually declined and were finally completely abandoned after Jemez participationin the Pueblo Revolt. The ruins of this church, now the Jemez State Monument, are among the most picturesque in all New Mexico. Its walls are three feet thick and were put together with intricate care. In its time, it must have been a beautiful building.

The second, San Juan de Los Jemez Mission, was built in 1617 at a village located near the junction of the Guadalupe and Jemez rivers, six miles north of the present pueblo. The ruins are faint but still visible. The mission was abandoned in 1680.

The third mission had a very brief history. It was called San Jose de los Jemez Mission and was located near San Juan de Los Jemez, of which it was avisita. Like San Juan, San Jose was abandoned in 1680.

The present mission was founded early in the eighteenth century and is one of the interesting things to visit at Jemez Pueblo. This old church is the center of the annual festival held at Jemez on November 12.

Jemez is noted for its splendid presentation of the Buffalo Dance in the winter and for its Corn Dances during the November festival.

Laguna Pueblo is the youngest and second largest of the pueblos in New Mexico. Built in 1697, shortly after the reconquest by de Vargas, the name was derived from a large lake which existed at one time just west of the village. In addition to the main village, a number of small settlements have developed where the terrain is suitable for agriculture, the main occupation of the Lagunas. The most important of these villages are Paguate, Encinal, Paraje, Mesita, Seama, and Casa Blanca. The Laguna Indians are of mixed origin, composed of four linguistic stocks: Tano, Keres, Shoshone, and Zuni.

Rock-walled Santa Maria mission, Laguna Reservation

Although the occupation of the pueblo was traditionally agriculture, in recent years a moderate revolution has been visible. The people of Laguna are in the middle of one of the richest uranium mining areas in the world, and many of them have been employed in mining activities. Also, the pueblo lies on the main line of the Santa Fe Railway, allowing some employment with the railroad. Laguna Pueblo is one of the most progressive of all the Indian groups in New Mexico. It has a population well in excess of 3000.

Located at Laguna is the San Jose de Laguna mission, built in 1699. The plaster on the building is native earth. Indian symbols are painted on the ceiling of the chancel, and a large picture of St. Joseph done on elk skin hangs on the reredos. The halos on the saints are triangular rather than circular. The altar is covered with animal skins painted with Christian symbols.

Nambé is one of the smallest of the pueblos but is located in an area noted for its scenic beauty and climate. Its population is less than 200. It was not always so small; during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the population was greatly reduced by intertribal war and witchcraft executions. The Nambé people played an active role in the pueblo rebellion of 1680, murdering their priest and destroying their church.

The original church at Nambé was one of the first missions founded after the establishment of the first European settlement of San Gabriel at San Juan in 1598. Destroyed in 1680, it was rebuilt in 1696. In 1729, the converts had increased to such numbers that a new church was required. This church remained in use until 1909 when, because of carelessness in keeping it in repair, the roof collapsed during a storm. The annual Nambé fiesta is held in early October.

Picurís is seldom visited by the tourist, for it lies in the mountains forty miles north of Santa Fe and can only be reached over a gravel road. The people of Picurís were among the most warlike of the normally peaceful pueblo peoples. They participated actively in the pueblo rebellion in 1680, killing their priest and all the Spaniards in the vicinity. They also participated in the battle for Santa Fe which broke Spanish power in New Mexico until 1692. After the revolt, fear of the Spanish caused them to abandon their village until they were induced to return in 1706. The population of Picurís is very small, being slightly more than 100.

One of the few old missions left in New Mexico, the San Lorenzo de Picurís church shows the strange mixture of Spanish and Indian traditions. Near the door is a human skull covered with an old cloth, but unfortunately, its story is lost to antiquity.

An interesting feature at Picurís is the unusual construction seen in some of the buildings. Made of puddled adobe, they are the oldest still standing of any pueblo in the Rio Grande Valley. The buildings weremade by pouring adobe mud into wall forms. This is the same kind of construction that is found at Casa Grande, Arizona, one of the significant prehistoric ruins in the United States.

Pojoaque, though still listed among the Indian villages of New Mexico, is no longer populated by Indians. Two missions were established at Pojoaque in the early Spanish days, the first shortly after 1600. This was destroyed in the rebellion in 1680. Later, in 1706, a new church was constructed which is still in use. The Indian population of Pojoaque was gradually reduced until, in 1900, the few remaining families abandoned the village. Since that time, Spanish-American families have occupied the buildings. It is a picturesque village seldom seen, for it is hidden from the passing tourist by a hill. Yet some of the buildings in this ancient village date back to pre-Coronado times and are a significant part of the romance of New Mexico.

Sandia Pueblo is a remnant of the Tiguex villages visited by Coronado in 1540. A mission was created at Sandia shortly after the colonization by Oñate, and it was an important mission center until the Pueblo Revolt. After the revolt, Sandia peoples scattered rather than again submit to Spanish control. Many of them went to live with the Hopi and there founded the village of Payupki on the middle mesa, the walls of which can still be found. After 62 years, in 1742, a few families returned to the Rio Grande Valley to found the modern pueblo. The old mission remains visible, although reduced to a rubble of adobe. Sandia Pueblo remains a small village, containing less than 150 people.

San Felipe is one of the most conservative of the pueblos and has retained much of its Indian heritage despite the impact of Spanish and American influences. It has a close affinity with its neighbors, particularly Santo Domingo only five miles distant. San Felipe was a well-established village when the Spanish first arrived. Its people joined in heartily when the pueblo uprising began in 1680 but abandoned their village during a Spanish counteroffensive in 1681 (which failed). When reconquest was completed in 1692, the people returned to their village. Thereafter, they remained friendly to the Spanish and suffered many attacks from the Navajo, who hated them for this loyalty.

One of the finest remaining structures showing early Franciscan mission architecture can be seen at the San Felipe church. The present church is not the original mission, for three different churches were located at San Felipe over the centuries. The first was built in 1605 and destroyed during the Pueblo Revolt. The second was built in a new part of the village in 1694, but shortly after 1700, the village wasmoved and a new church constructed. The latter church is the one now in use at San Felipe. On May 1, the nearly 1000 people of the pueblo celebrate their annual fiesta.

San Ildefonso has gained fame throughout the world because of the excellence of its pottery. The high quality and general acceptance of this commodity has made the village prosperous. It boasts some of the most famous Indian artists and artisans in the United States, among them Julian and Maria Martinez, perhaps the best-known potters in the world.

San Ildefonso participated in the Pueblo Revolt but did not contest the reconquest, at least not at first. In 1694, when de Vargas began to wage war on the northern pueblos, San Ildefonso did take part. The people fortified themselves on Black Mesa, a high, steep mesa of volcanic origin near the pueblo. There they successfully withstood Spanish efforts to dislodge them. Notwithstanding their initial success, they were ultimately conquered and brought into the Spanish system. Today there are several hundred people living in the village, and they are among the friendliest of the pueblo peoples. San Ildefonso is easily accessible from Santa Fe.

The mission church dates back to the 1890’s, although earlier churches at the pueblo played an important role in bringing Christianity to the Pueblo Indian world. The older churches are long since gone.

San Juan Pueblo is best noted for its close association with the first Spanish settlement in New Mexico in 1598. Oñate, colonizer of New Mexico, selected a site for his first headquarters which was a part of the ancient Pueblo of San Juan. The natives living in that part of the village willingly gave up their homes to the Spaniards and were taken in by the remainder of the people of San Juan. Oñate, in appreciation for this hospitality, bestowed upon the pueblo the nameSan Juan de los Caballeros, a name which the pueblo is still proud to bear.

Yet this same friendly people also contributed Po-pé, the great leader of the Pueblo Revolt, to the history of New Mexico. While Po-pé shared with many other pueblo leaders a hatred of the Spanish conqueror, he was the spiritual force and the organizer of the rebellion that broke the control of the Spaniard for twelve years and returned New Mexico to the Indian. This great rebellion stands as one of the significant efforts in the history of the world of a people to cast off the bonds of foreign control.

San Juan cannot claim a church dating back to theconquistadores, but it does have one of the great landmark churches in the Southwest. In 1890, the chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes was dedicated at San Juan. It was constructed of red volcanic rock found west of the Rio Grande. This beautiful structure is an architectural jewel set in desert surroundings.

The nearly 700 people of San Juan welcome visitors to their homes; their undecorated burnished black pottery is particularly distinctive and popular. The pueblo’s annual festival is held in June.

Santa Ana Pueblo lies along the banks of the Rio Jemez, which enters the Rio Grande from the west. The pueblo was visited by Oñate and a mission was built there about 1600, shortly after his visit. The people of Santa Ana joined in the Pueblo Revolt, and since there was no priest serving their church in 1680, they joined with the Indians of Santo Domingo and San Felipe to massacre the padres at San Felipe. In 1687, during one of the Spanish efforts to reconquer New Mexico, Santa Ana was destroyed and her people fled. Later, at the urging of de Vargas, the modern pueblo was established, along with the church now standing there. The population of Santa Ana is nearly 400. Its annual festival takes place in August. It is often difficult to find many of the people at the main pueblo for they spend most of the growing season at El Ranchito, to the east in the Rio Grande Valley.

Santa Clara Pueblo is near the mouth of Santa Clara Creek, a year-round stream flowing out of the Jemez Mountains into the Rio Grande. To the west of the pueblo, on lands owned by Santa Clara, are the famous Puye Cliff Dwellings ruins. The people of Santa Clara claim these natural cliff homes as their ancestral dwelling places, a fact which has been substantiated by archeologists. The Santa Clara Indians represent, then, an important living Indian group in which one can observe institutions and traditions that can be linked to traditions of the cultures that lived in the caves and abandoned cities of Southwest antiquity.

Like most of the pueblo people, Santa Clara joined the Pueblo Revolt, but this action did not seriously harm the pueblo. The real damage was done to Santa Clara in the late eighteenth century when intertribal warfare over witchcraft, plus the ravages of disease, took nearly 500 lives in the village. The current population is about 500.

The church at Santa Clara is quite modern, having been constructed in the twentieth century. The old church, built in 1760, was caught up in the modernization craze that swept through the pueblo world in the early 1900’s. Perhaps one of the most substantial and beautiful of all pueblo churches, the old church collapsed during a storm in 1909 (the same storm that destroyed the church at Nambé); it had been structurally weakened by the removal of the roof for remodeling.

The village has excellent agricultural lands and supplements its income by manufacturing an excellent and distinctive pure black pottery. Its annual festival is in mid-August.

Santo Domingo is one of the largest of the pueblos, having a population of nearly 1500. It is also the most conservative in retention of itsnative culture. This makes its dances and dress of particular interest to the visitor to New Mexico. The present pueblo was established after the reconquest in 1692. The Indians of Santo Domingo took a particularly active part in the Pueblo Revolt, killing three padres resident at the pueblo. When de Vargas moved to retake Santo Domingo, he found the people had abandoned the village. They had constructed a village in the Jemez Mountains to the west, and it was there that de Vargas defeated them. Even then, the people of Santo Domingo did not give up the fight, and only after a long series of defeats and serious loss of life did they surrender and again return to the vicinity of their original village.

The church at Santo Domingo is not so old as many other pueblo edifices, but its qualities remain among the most typical aspects of early New Mexico mission architecture. In early August, during the great annual festival, the Indians completely clean and whitewash the church. Two large horses are painted on the front of the building by native artists. The dances during the Santo Domingo festival are among the most colorful and authentic in New Mexico.

Taos represents the northernmost of the pueblos in New Mexico. It is also one of the most scenic, lying at the foot of the Taos Mountains, a spur of the mighty Sangre de Cristo range. It is a prosperous village of about 900 persons. There is no finer example of pueblo apartment architecture in New Mexico. The main pueblo building rises five stories above the mesa. One must be careful not to confuse the Spanish town, don Fernando de Taos, and the old Indian farming center, Ranchos de Taos, with the pueblo, San Geronimo de Taos. It is the latter that is Indian and is, therefore, by far the oldest of the three.

The ruins of the old San Geronimo mission at Taos represent one of the most historic and fateful in all the Southwest. It was there that two priests were murdered in 1680 during the first days of the Pueblo Revolt. It was there that Po-pé sowed the first seeds of that rebellion. Again in 1696, the Taos Indians sought to free themselves from Spanish control by killing their priests and other Spaniards in the vicinity. Again they were subdued. In 1847, when the Americans annexed New Mexico, the Taos Indians tried once more to gain their independence. Inflamed by Mexican citizens who refused to accept American authority, they attacked the Americans at Fernando de Taos, killing nine of them. Governor Charles Bent, builder of the famous Bent’s Fort on the Santa Fe Trail, was among those killed. On February 3, 1847, the American army in New Mexico laid siege to the village and the Indians fortified themselves in the mission. It became the Alamo of the Taos people. American artillery was brought to bear, and the walls of the ancient church were battered down; the Indians fled, first to the village and then into the mountains, leaving behind 150 dead and many wounded. They were finally forced to surrender, and their leaders were hung. Those so hung remain martyrs to this day. The ruins of the Taos mission, built three and a quartercenturies ago, still can be seen. They are a stark landmark to the stubborn independence of the people of Taos.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)Souvenir of the American army’s work in 1847: Taos Pueblo mission

The traditions and ceremonials of Taos are well preserved. Their arts and crafts, however, have declined and are not of the high quality found in some of the other pueblos. Their ceremonials are excellent and are noted for their beauty and precision. The feast day of San Geronimo, September 30, is the most important event of the year.

Tesuque is a small village, perhaps numbering no more than 150 persons. Even though it has always been small, it holds a major place in the history of New Mexico. It was at Tesuque that the first blood was shed in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. On August 9, Cristobal de Herrera was murdered, and two Tesuque Indians rushed to Santa Fe to warn the Spanish governor of the impending rebellion. The Indian leaders, now aware that their plot was known, moved the date of the revolt from August 13 toAugust 10. On August 10, Father Pio, in charge of the Tesuque mission, went out from Santa Fe to say Mass and also was murdered.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)Most-painted church in America?... Ranchos de Taos

Although its handicrafts are of poor quality, the Tesuque Indian ceremonials are colorful and authentic. The people have retained much of their early culture while living in proximity to the white man (Santa Fe is only nine miles distant). The pueblo’s most important festival falls on November 12.

The story of Zia is one of tragedy and difficult problems of existence. Located on a basalt flow on the north bank of the Jemez River some fifteen miles above its junction with the Rio Grande, Zia has poor land and a limited supply of irrigation water. Agriculture is the main economic pursuit, but the pueblo’s unfortunate location makes trading for part of its food supply necessary.

Oñate reported Zia to be a large pueblo. However, it suffered greatly because of its participation in the Pueblo Revolt. Some historians estimate that during the reconquest, nearly 600 of the people of Zia were killed defending themselves from the Spanish. Continued wars and pestilence reduced the pueblo to a very few families. Over the past century, the group has again showed signs of growth and now has a population of more than 300.

The church at Zia dates from 1692, and thus represents one of the fine examples of ancient Franciscan architecture in New Mexico. The annual festival, dedicated to Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, is celebrated with an excellent Corn Dance on August 15.

Zuni has the distinction of being the first of the pueblos seen or visited by Europeans. Seen from a distance by Fray Marcos de Niza in 1539, it was reported as a rich and extensive city. Nearby were six other pueblos, and the Spanish immediately associated the Zuni complex with an old Spanish legend about seven golden cities, the Seven Cities of Cibola. The expedition of Coronado was formed to explore and conquer the rich pueblos of New Mexico. His first contact was at Zuni, then calledHawikuh. It was neither golden nor rich.

Although Zuni was an important stopping place on the early trails to Mexico, it managed to remain least influenced by European ideas. The Spanish concentrated their efforts in the Rio Grande Valley and Zuni went its own way most of the time. While there were missionary efforts from time to time, by the nineteenth century, the stout resistance to such activity caused it to cease. In recent years, sporadic missionary activity has been evident, but it has not been notably successful.

The most famous of all New Mexico Indian ceremonial dances is held at Zuni each year. The Shalako, which occurs in early December, is authentic and spectacular. The dancers, carrying huge ceremonial figures on their shoulders, must train and practice constantly during the entire year.

Zuni is the largest of the pueblos in New Mexico, with a population numbering more than 5000 persons. The main occupation is agriculture. The Zunis supplement their income by manufacturing silver inlay jewelry that shows great creative skill and is beautiful to behold.

In addition to the well-known Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, there are four other areas of Indian lands. Three of these belong to peoples of Athapascan origin, sometimes better known as Apache Indians. By name, they are the Jicarilla Apache, the Mescalero Apache, and Navajo. The fourth group is the Ute Indian.

The Apache tribes were relative newcomers to the Southwest. Their origin was the plains area between the northern Rocky Mountains and Hudson Bay in Canada. About 1000A.D., a part of these northern Plains Indians began a migration that ultimately brought them to New Mexico. Down the High Plains across the western Dakotas, western Nebraska, Kansas, and finally to western Texas and eastern New Mexico, these people came. At about the latitude of Albuquerque, the migration split. Part of the group continued south, across the Staked Plains, into southeastern New Mexico, west Texas, and northern Coahuila and Chihuahua, Mexico. Here they divided into the Lipan, the Mescalero, and the NatageApache. Today, in south-central New Mexico are the descendants of the Mescalero. The Mescalero Apache reservation is crossed by U.S. Highway 70, a scenic drive through pine forests. The tribe operates the Sierra Blanca ski area, one of the southernmost ski areas in the United States. Its annual Crown Dance and coming-of-age ceremonials are held July 1 to 4, followed by an Apache rodeo. The Lipan and the Natage have virtually disappeared.

The second group of the migration discovered for the first time in their long trek down the eastern fringes of the Rockies that the country opened up to the west. They poured through the passes and entered the areas traditionally controlled by pueblo farmers. Gradually, they took over these lands for themselves, driving out the farmers. By the time the Spanish came on the scene, most of the peaceful farmers had given way before the onslaught of the warlike Athapascan savages. Only one group remained, the pueblos of the central Rio Grande Valley. The migration that moved into the desert and mountain lands divided into a number of groups which are known by modern names: the Chiricahua, White Mountain, Western, and Jicarilla Apache and the Navajo. The Jicarilla Apache reside mainly in north-central New Mexico on reservation lands, and the Navajo reservation lies partly in extreme northwestern New Mexico. Most of the Navajo land and all the lands of the others are in Arizona.

The Ute Indians, driven from the plains by stronger tribes, settled in the central Rocky Mountain area. There they raided the wealthy (at least in their eyes) pueblos to the south. They fought sporadically against white penetration but were finally subdued and placed on reservation lands in the Four Corners area, part of which lies in New Mexico.

While the history of these peoples is fascinating and full of romance, there is little besides scenery to be seen when visiting their reservations. The populations are often scattered over many hundreds of square miles, and the people have only rudimentary handicrafts. The exception is the Navajo, and a trip to the Navajo reservation is worthwhile. These Indians have developed techniques of weaving and silversmithing that contribute significant art forms to Southwest handicrafts.

The outstanding Indian event of the year in New Mexico is the Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial at Gallup, held during mid-August. Some thirty tribes from the Southwest and Midwest meet to compete in arts, crafts, and ceremonial dancing.

byPaige W. Christiansen

When driving across New Mexico or when visiting some part of the state, one should be aware of the wealth of history that is always close at hand. Many people, when faced with what seems like endless miles of empty country, fail to realize that the very emptiness is one of the charms of the state. They also do not recognize that in the vast expanses of mountain and desert, people of the ancient past or a recent past have lived and worked and died. Sometimes the fruits of their labor are clear and evident and live on in cities and towns. In many instances, however, the mountains and desert have reclaimed their own and the works of man have succumbed. A mental picture must be cast over the landscape on which great historical events took place but which is almost empty of signs of man’s efforts. If travelers are fortunate, there may still be some sign—a ghost town, a ruined ranch, some old artifacts—to tell the story; if not, imagination must be given rein. The search is the adventure, and to give aid in that search, the following might suffice as a faint guiding light.

To simplify the descriptions of these reminders of the past, New Mexico is divided into seven geographical regions which a traveler might well visit:

1.North from Santa Fe, including U.S. Highways 64, 285, and 84, and connecting state highways.2.The northeast, including U.S. 85 from Santa Fe to Raton, U.S. 66 east from Albuquerque to the Texas line, U.S. 56 from Springer to the state line, and connecting state highways.3.The northwest, including U.S. 66 west from Albuquerque to the Arizona line, U.S. 666 north from Gallup to Colorado, and State Highway 44 from Bernalillo to Farmington.4.East-central, including U.S. 60 east from Bernardo, U.S. 380 east from San Antonio, U.S. 70 from the Mescalero Indian Reservation to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Clines Corners to Roswell, U.S. 54 from Three Rivers to Santa Rosa, and connecting state highways.5.West-central, including U.S. 60 west of Socorro, U.S. 180-260 and State Highway 12 in Catron County, U.S. 85 from Los Lunas to Elephant Butte, and connecting state highways.6.Southeast, including U.S. 70 from Las Cruces to the Mescalero Indian Reservation, U.S. 54 from El Paso to Three Rivers, U.S. 62 from Hobbs to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Roswell to the Texas line, and numerous state roads.

1.North from Santa Fe, including U.S. Highways 64, 285, and 84, and connecting state highways.

2.The northeast, including U.S. 85 from Santa Fe to Raton, U.S. 66 east from Albuquerque to the Texas line, U.S. 56 from Springer to the state line, and connecting state highways.

3.The northwest, including U.S. 66 west from Albuquerque to the Arizona line, U.S. 666 north from Gallup to Colorado, and State Highway 44 from Bernalillo to Farmington.

4.East-central, including U.S. 60 east from Bernardo, U.S. 380 east from San Antonio, U.S. 70 from the Mescalero Indian Reservation to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Clines Corners to Roswell, U.S. 54 from Three Rivers to Santa Rosa, and connecting state highways.

5.West-central, including U.S. 60 west of Socorro, U.S. 180-260 and State Highway 12 in Catron County, U.S. 85 from Los Lunas to Elephant Butte, and connecting state highways.

6.Southeast, including U.S. 70 from Las Cruces to the Mescalero Indian Reservation, U.S. 54 from El Paso to Three Rivers, U.S. 62 from Hobbs to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Roswell to the Texas line, and numerous state roads.

7.Southwest, including U.S. 85 from Truth or Consequences to El Paso, U.S. 180 north from Deming to the Catron county line, U.S. 70-80 west from Las Cruces to Arizona, and state roads.

The country north of Santa Fe is the heart of Indian and Spanish New Mexico. Here, if he looks beyond the narrow boundaries of the highway right-of-way, the traveler can see Indian and Spanish villages which have not changed significantly in two and a half centuries. Along the lush green of the Rio Grande Valley or of its tributaries dashing out of the Sangre de Cristo range to the east, these sleepy concentrations of people reveal cultural and language patterns which smack of theconquistadoresof the sixteenth century or of the ancient cliff dwellers. It is a slow and easy world, perhaps most representative of the “land of mañana.” In a region already worked for centuries for what it can produce, there is no hurry. It will be there tomorrow and forever. The people of this region are typically New Mexican. The hills are dotted with piñon and juniper trees which give a greenish to black cast to the land. This, too, is typically New Mexican.

(Forest Service, U.S.D.A.)Cool drive on a summer day, Red River Canyon

There is one short trip that would be fruitful for him who wants to know New Mexico, to feel the romance of Spanish culture, and to seek adventure off the beaten track. Just north of Española, State Highway 76 strikes east from U.S. 64. Nowhere in the state can be found so much of old world charm or spectacular scenic beauty. Heading east, the traveler passes through Chimayó, a village famed throughout the world for its weaving, though seldom visited, then on through Truchas and Las Trampas to Penasco, heart of the Penitente country. The Penitentes were a religious sect growing out of long isolation from the main threads of Roman Catholicism. They gradually reverted to relatively primitive Christian practices without guidance from main church centers but within the past few years have returned to the Church. The many white crosses that can be seen in the area attest to their former activity. From Penasco, the traveler can return to U.S. 64 via State Highway 75.

The area northwest of Santa Fe, stretching some thirty or forty miles on the southeast flanks of the Jemez Mountains, is the noted Pajarito Plateau, the home of great numbers of Indian cultures, living and dead. Many of the modern Indian pueblos will be found in this region. Also, some of the most significant ancient Indian ruins are found here, such as the Frijoles Canyon (Bandelier National Monument) and Puye Cliff Dwellings.

The entire area north of Santa Fe, then, is alive with history. In every village, in every canyon, there is something that will add to the romance of Spanish-Indian New Mexico. In our Southwest, the heritage handed down by these two great cultures is held dear by the people. To the traveler will come a greater appreciation and a greater understanding of New Mexico and the Southwest if these are but understood.

The section designated as northeast New Mexico is an area of mountains and plains, and its historical mosaic shows elements of both: the rugged Sandia Mountains near Albuquerque and the southernmost parts of the extensive Sangre de Cristo range, which thrusts north from U.S. Highway 85 far into Colorado, and part of the famed buffalo plains. The area is drained by two main river systems; the Canadian River flows east to join the Arkansas and the Mississippi and the Pecos River flows south to join the Rio Grande.

Through this vast area ran one of Americas greatest highways, the Santa Fe Trail. Beginning in Missouri communities, the Trail hurled itself into the intricate patterns of the Great Plains with all of their dangers—Indians, boredom, violent storms, treacherous rivers, and prairie grass fires. Then on into the foothills of the mighty Rocky Mountains and the steep and backbreaking approaches to Raton Pass in New Mexico. The new highway across this pass (U.S. 85) and the nature of our vehicles have made this an easy passage. But the traveler should pause at some high point, or perhaps leave the main highway for a moment, and try to imagine crossing this rugged land in Conestoga wagons. From Raton, the Santa FeTrail continued south to Las Vegas and thence into Santa Fe via Glorieta Pass (current route of U.S. 85). Over this trail passed the goods of the world. In part, these were intended for the people of New Mexico, but over other trails they also found markets in Mexico and in California. For the curious and adventurous, sections of the Santa Fe Trail can still be seen. Local inquiry will elicit directions to remaining parts of the wide rutted Trail, scene of so much of the American westward movement.

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