CHAPTER XVI

The great majority ofconcertosare for piano and orchestra, but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment) have also been written. A few modern composers have applied the termconcertoto certain large organ works (with no orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly justifiable.When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra), this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).

When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra), this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).

156. Asymphonyis a sonata for full orchestra. In general its construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.

Thesymphonywas accepted as a standard form in the time of Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827), reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers whose works are at present being performed include Schumann, Tschaikowsky, and Dvořák.

The wordsymphonywas formerly used synonymously withritornelle, both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.

157.Sonata-form(sometimes calledsonata-allegro) is a plan for the construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies, etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.

Thesethree parts of sonata-formwith their usual subdivisions are:I.Exposition(1) Principal theme (or first subject).(2) Link-episode (or modulation group).(3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly related key.(4) Closing group.(5) Coda.II.Development SectionTreating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of thematic development. (SeeSec. 148).III.Recapitulation (or Reprise)Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in theexposition, but differing from this first section in one essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary theme in arelatedkey, the entire recapitulation is in theprincipalkey. This third section is always followed by a coda (which may either be very short or quite extended), bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.The second part ofsonata-form(the development section) is sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and inventive skill. It is principally because of this development section that the sonata is so far superior as aformto its predecessors. For an analyzed example ofsonata-form, seeAppendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and go through the first movements with a view to finding at least the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the form will of course be so irregular that all the parts indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of the scheme will always be present.

Thesethree parts of sonata-formwith their usual subdivisions are:

I.Exposition

(1) Principal theme (or first subject).

(2) Link-episode (or modulation group).

(3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly related key.

(4) Closing group.

(5) Coda.

II.Development Section

Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of thematic development. (SeeSec. 148).

III.Recapitulation (or Reprise)

Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in theexposition, but differing from this first section in one essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary theme in arelatedkey, the entire recapitulation is in theprincipalkey. This third section is always followed by a coda (which may either be very short or quite extended), bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.

The second part ofsonata-form(the development section) is sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and inventive skill. It is principally because of this development section that the sonata is so far superior as aformto its predecessors. For an analyzed example ofsonata-form, seeAppendix E. The student is advised to take other sonatas and go through the first movements with a view to finding at least the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the form will of course be so irregular that all the parts indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of the scheme will always be present.

158. Asonatina, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development, the second section being of slight importance as compared with the corresponding section of a sonata.

Agrand sonatais like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually large dimensions.

159.Program musicis instrumental music which is supposed to convey to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer, but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except the title of the composition.

Program musicrepresents a mean betweenpure music(cf. the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, anddescriptive music(in which actual imitations of bird-calls, whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses, the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most program music is written for the orchestra, examples being Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc.

160.Asymphonic poem(ortone poem) is an orchestral composition of large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it occurs to the particular moods expressed by theprogramat those points.

Thesymphonic poemwas invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saëns and others. It came into existence as a part of the general movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way, but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in his own individual way.

161. Ananthemis a sacred choral composition, usually based on Biblical or liturgical[34]words. It may or may not have an instrumental accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five, six, eight, or more.

The wordanthemis derived fromantifona(orantiphona), meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively,i.e.,antiphonally, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation.

Afull anthemis one containing no solo parts; asolo anthemis one in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while averse anthemis one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for concerted solo voices (i.e., trios, quartets, etc.).

162.A capella(sometimes spelledcappella) oralla capella musicis part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.

This term means literally "in chapel style," and refers to the fact that in the early days of the church all singing was unaccompanied.

163.A motetis a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular music. The motet is intended fora capellaperformance, but is often given with organ accompaniment.

164. Achoralis a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is usually harmonized in four voices. Thechoral(sometimes spelledchorale) is described as having "a plain melody, a strong harmony, and a stately rhythm." It differs from the ordinary English and American hymn-tune in beingusually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a pause at the end of each line of text.

165.Themassis the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when a composer writes a musicalmass, and which form the basis of the celebration of the Communion.[35]These six hymns are as follows:

Kyrie.Gloria(including theGratias agimus,Qui tollis,Quoniam,Cum Sancto Spirito).Credo(including theEt Incarnatus,Crucifixus, andEt Resurrexit).Sanctus(including theHosanna).Benedictus.Agnus Dei(including theDona nobis).Therequiem massis the "mass for the dead" and differs considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiemmasseshave been written by many of the great composers (Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases thesemassesare so complex that they are not practicable for the actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only by large choral societies, as concert works.

Kyrie.

Gloria(including theGratias agimus,Qui tollis,Quoniam,Cum Sancto Spirito).

Credo(including theEt Incarnatus,Crucifixus, andEt Resurrexit).

Sanctus(including theHosanna).

Benedictus.

Agnus Dei(including theDona nobis).

Therequiem massis the "mass for the dead" and differs considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiemmasseshave been written by many of the great composers (Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases thesemassesare so complex that they are not practicable for the actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only by large choral societies, as concert works.

166. Acantatais a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written for piano, organ, or orchestra.

When sacred in character thecantatadiffers from the oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually having definite characters, and in being written for church use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance.When secular in subject thecantatadiffers from the opera in not usually having definite characters, and in being always rendered without scenery or action.Examples of thesacred cantataare: Stainer's "The Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of thesecular cantataare: Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha."

When secular in subject thecantatadiffers from the opera in not usually having definite characters, and in being always rendered without scenery or action.

Examples of thesacred cantataare: Stainer's "The Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of thesecular cantataare: Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha."

167. Anoratoriois a composition on a large scale for chorus, soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious subject. Theoratorio, as noted above, is notintended for the church service, but is written for concert performance.

168. Anoperais a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It is a drama set to music.

Grand operais opera with a serious plot, in which everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.Opera comiqueis a species of opera in which part of the dialog is spoken and part sung.Opera comiqueis not synonymous withcomic opera, for the plot of opera comique is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction between the termsgrand operaandopera comiqueis being broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.Acomic operais a humorous opera, the plot providing many amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It corresponds with thecomedyin literature.Alight operais one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as trivial as the plot.The termmusic dramawas used by Wagner in referring to his ownoperas, and is also sometimes applied to other modernoperasin which the dramatic element is supposed to predominate over the musical.

Grand operais opera with a serious plot, in which everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.

Opera comiqueis a species of opera in which part of the dialog is spoken and part sung.Opera comiqueis not synonymous withcomic opera, for the plot of opera comique is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction between the termsgrand operaandopera comiqueis being broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.

Acomic operais a humorous opera, the plot providing many amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It corresponds with thecomedyin literature.

Alight operais one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as trivial as the plot.

The termmusic dramawas used by Wagner in referring to his ownoperas, and is also sometimes applied to other modernoperasin which the dramatic element is supposed to predominate over the musical.

169. Alibretto(lit.—little book) is the word-text of an opera, oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.

170.Recitativeis a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios, and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by musical considerations.

Recitativeundoubtedly originated in the intoning of the priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when applied to the opera it became an important means of securing dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action of the play moved along rapidly.Recitativeis thus seen to be a species of musical declamation.In the early examples ofrecitativethere was scarcely any accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello) being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full chords were played they were not written out in the score, but were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass,"p. 85,Sec. 200.)But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly different style ofrecitativewas invented, and in this type the orchestra was employed much more freely in the accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while singing. This new style was calledrecitativo stromento(i.e., accompanied recitative), while the original type was calledrecitativo secco(i.e., dry recitative).During the last century the style ofrecitativehas been still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in this latest phase ofrecitative, it is the word-text that decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part. Fig. 61 shows an example ofdry recitative, taken from "The Messiah."

In the early examples ofrecitativethere was scarcely any accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello) being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full chords were played they were not written out in the score, but were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass,"p. 85,Sec. 200.)

But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly different style ofrecitativewas invented, and in this type the orchestra was employed much more freely in the accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while singing. This new style was calledrecitativo stromento(i.e., accompanied recitative), while the original type was calledrecitativo secco(i.e., dry recitative).

During the last century the style ofrecitativehas been still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in this latest phase ofrecitative, it is the word-text that decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part. Fig. 61 shows an example ofdry recitative, taken from "The Messiah."

Messiah

[Listen]

171.Ariais likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the recitative. In theariathe word-text is usually entirely subordinate to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills, runs, etc.

The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as "coloratura singing," but it should be noted that not allariasare coloratura in style.

The familiar solos from The Messiah—"Rejoice Greatly," and "The trumpet shall sound" are good examples of the aria style.

172. Alied(Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the effect of the whole.

Strictly speaking the wordliedmeans "a poem to be sung," and this meaning will explain at once the difference between theliedon the one hand, and the Italian recitative and aria on the other, for in theliedthe text is of great importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the recitative the text was important but the music very slight, and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the music held the center of interest.

The most pronounced characteristic of theliedis the fact that it usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this "single mood, or sentiment, or picture" was originally conceived by the poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as through the expressiveness of the voice part.

The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the same tune is called the "strophe form," while that in which each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the "continuous" or "through-composed" form (Ger. durch-componiert).

173. Aballadwas originally a short, simple song, the words being in narrative style,i.e., the word-text telling a story. In the earlierballadseach verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune (strophe form), but in theart-balladas developed by Loewe and others the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the events described by the poem. These laterballadsare in consequence neither "short" nor "simple" but compare in structure with the lied itself.

174. Afolk-songis a short song sung by and usually originating among the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usuallysimplicity, this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one). The text of thefolk-songis usually based on some event connected with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru the Rye, are examples offolk-songs.

There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a realfolk-song: recent writers seem to be taking the sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it remains popular for some time among the common people, then it is just as much afolk-songwhether the composer happens to be known or not.

175. Amadrigalis a secular vocal composition having from three to eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually sung a capella.

176. Agleeis a vocal composition in three or more parts, being usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having more than one movement. Thegleemay be either gay or sad in mood, and seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.

177. Apart-songis a composition for two or more voices, (usually four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's "Now is the Month of Maying" is an example of thepart-song, as is also Sullivan's "O Hush Thee, My Baby." The termpart-songis often loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.

178. Thefour elementscommonly attributed to music (in the order of their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or tone-color).

179.Rhythmis the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and non-accented beats (or pulses)—according to some specified measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm possible. (Seep. 44,Sec. 97.)

180. Amelodyis a succession of single tones of various pitches so arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and pleasing to the ear.

The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized compositions is often referred to as "the melody."

181.Harmonyis the science of chord construction and combination.

The termharmonyrefers to tones sounding simultaneously,i.e., tochords, as differentiated from tones sounding consecutively, as in melody. The wordharmonymay therefore be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to asuccessionof such chords when we speak of "harmony." It is possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern music have developed together and the style of present-day melody is directly based upon the development that has recently taken place in harmonic construction.Harmony(as contrasted withcounterpoint) first began to be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D.,i.e., at the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when form was established, and when our modern major and minor scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was composed on a contrapuntal basis.

Harmony(as contrasted withcounterpoint) first began to be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D.,i.e., at the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when form was established, and when our modern major and minor scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was composed on a contrapuntal basis.

182.Timbreis that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (orvoice) from a tone produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.

The wordtimbreis synonymous with the termsquality of tone, andtone quality(Ger.—Klang-farbe), the excuse for using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word would be eliminated) if the single wordqualitywere to be adopted as the equivalent oftimbre. Thus,e.g., the soprano voice singing c' has aqualitydifferent from the contralto voice singing the same tone.(The remainder of this chapter and all ofChapter XVIIIdeal with terms commonly encountered in the study ofharmony. Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales, but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the next topic in harmony study, viz.—the interval.)

(The remainder of this chapter and all ofChapter XVIIIdeal with terms commonly encountered in the study ofharmony. Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales, but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the next topic in harmony study, viz.—the interval.)

183. Anintervalis the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is anharmonic interval, but if sounded consecutively the result is amelodic interval. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a melodic interval.

Figs. 62-63

[Listen]

184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in mind:

(1) Thenumber nameof the interval (third, fifth, sixth, etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the diatonic scale. Thus the interval C—E is athirdbecause E is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic scale. C—G is afifthbecause G is the fifth tone above C in the diatonic scale.It should be noted however that the samenumber-namesapply even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified by sharps, flats, etc. Thuse.g., C—G♯is still afifth, as are also C♯—G♭and C♭—G♯.(2) In determining thespecificname of any interval (perfectfifth,majorthird, etc.), the half-step and whole-step (often referred to respectively asminorsecond, andmajor second) are used as units of measurement.Thehalf-stepis usually defined as "the smallest usable interval between two tones." Thus, C—C♯is ahalf-step, as are also B—C, F—G♭, etc.Awhole-stepconsists of two half-steps. C—D is awhole-step, as are also B♭—C, E—F♯, F♯—G♯, G♭—A♭, etc.The expressionshalf-stepandwhole-stepare much to be preferred tohalf-toneandwhole-tone, as being more clear and definite. Thuse.g., the sentence "The two tones are ahalf-stepapart" is much better than "The two tones are ahalf-toneapart."

It should be noted however that the samenumber-namesapply even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified by sharps, flats, etc. Thuse.g., C—G♯is still afifth, as are also C♯—G♭and C♭—G♯.

(2) In determining thespecificname of any interval (perfectfifth,majorthird, etc.), the half-step and whole-step (often referred to respectively asminorsecond, andmajor second) are used as units of measurement.

Thehalf-stepis usually defined as "the smallest usable interval between two tones." Thus, C—C♯is ahalf-step, as are also B—C, F—G♭, etc.

Awhole-stepconsists of two half-steps. C—D is awhole-step, as are also B♭—C, E—F♯, F♯—G♯, G♭—A♭, etc.

The expressionshalf-stepandwhole-stepare much to be preferred tohalf-toneandwhole-tone, as being more clear and definite. Thuse.g., the sentence "The two tones are ahalf-stepapart" is much better than "The two tones are ahalf-toneapart."

185. Aprimeis the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by the same degree of the staff.

Aperfect primeis one whose tones have the same pitch. Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would offer an example.Anaugmented primeis one whose second tone is one half-step higher than the first. Ex. C—C♯.

Aperfect primeis one whose tones have the same pitch. Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would offer an example.

Anaugmented primeis one whose second tone is one half-step higher than the first. Ex. C—C♯.

186. Asecondis the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and fourth space.)

Aminor secondis one comprising one half-step. Ex. B—C.Amajor secondis one comprising two half-steps. Ex. B—C♯.Anaugmented secondis one comprising three half-steps. Ex. F—G♯.

Aminor secondis one comprising one half-step. Ex. B—C.

Amajor secondis one comprising two half-steps. Ex. B—C♯.

Anaugmented secondis one comprising three half-steps. Ex. F—G♯.

187. Athirdis an interval comprising two seconds.

Adiminished thirdhas two minor seconds (i.e., two half-steps). C—E♭♭.Aminor thirdhas one minor and one major second (i.e., three half-steps). C—E♭.Amajor thirdhas two major seconds (i.e., four half-steps). C—E.

Adiminished thirdhas two minor seconds (i.e., two half-steps). C—E♭♭.

Aminor thirdhas one minor and one major second (i.e., three half-steps). C—E♭.

Amajor thirdhas two major seconds (i.e., four half-steps). C—E.

188.A fourthis an interval comprising three seconds.

Adiminished fourthhas two minor and one major second. C♯—F.Aperfect fourthhas one minor and two major seconds. C—F.Anaugmented fourth(tritone) has three major seconds. C—F♯.

Adiminished fourthhas two minor and one major second. C♯—F.

Aperfect fourthhas one minor and two major seconds. C—F.

Anaugmented fourth(tritone) has three major seconds. C—F♯.

189. Afifthis an interval comprising four seconds.

Adiminished fifthhas two minor and two major seconds. C—G♭.Aperfect fifthhas one minor and three major seconds. C—G.Anaugmented fifthhas four major seconds. C—G♯.

Adiminished fifthhas two minor and two major seconds. C—G♭.

Aperfect fifthhas one minor and three major seconds. C—G.

Anaugmented fifthhas four major seconds. C—G♯.

190. Asixthis an interval comprising five seconds.

Aminor sixthhas two minor and three major seconds. C—A♭.Amajor sixthhas one minor and four major seconds. C—A.Anaugmented sixthhas five major seconds. C—A♯.

Aminor sixthhas two minor and three major seconds. C—A♭.

Amajor sixthhas one minor and four major seconds. C—A.

Anaugmented sixthhas five major seconds. C—A♯.

191. Aseventhis an interval comprising six seconds.

Adiminished seventhhas three minor and three major seconds. C—B♭♭.Aminor seventhhas two minor and four major seconds. C—B♭.Amajor seventhhas one minor and five major seconds. C—B.

Adiminished seventhhas three minor and three major seconds. C—B♭♭.

Aminor seventhhas two minor and four major seconds. C—B♭.

Amajor seventhhas one minor and five major seconds. C—B.

192. Anoctaveis an interval comprising seven seconds.

Adiminished octavehas three minor and four major seconds. C—C♭.A perfect octavehas two minor and five major seconds. C—C.Anaugmented octavehas one minor and six major seconds. C—C♯.

Adiminished octavehas three minor and four major seconds. C—C♭.

A perfect octavehas two minor and five major seconds. C—C.

Anaugmented octavehas one minor and six major seconds. C—C♯.

193. Aninthis usually treated as a second, atenthas a third, etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as afifteenth.

194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.

Fig. 64

[Listen]

In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller thanmajoris alwaysminor, while that next smaller thanperfectorminoris alwaysdiminished: but that the interval next larger than bothmajorandperfectisaugmented.

195. An interval is said to beinvertedwhen the tone originally the upper becomes the lower. Thus C—E, a major third, inverted becomes E—C, a minor sixth.

196. Achordis a combination of several tones sounding together and bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is thetriad, which consists of a fundamental tone called theroot, with the third and fifth above it. C—E—G is a triad, as are also D—F—A, F—A—C, and G—B—D.

197. Triads are classified asmajor,minor,diminished, oraugmented.

Amajor triadhas a major third and a perfect fifth,i.e., it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G.Aminor triadhas a minor third and a perfect fifth,i.e., it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex. C—E♭—G.Adiminished triadhas a minor third and a diminished fifth,i.e., it is a minor third with another minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E♭—G♭.Anaugmented triadhas a major third and an augmented fifth,i.e., it is a major third with another major third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G♯.

Amajor triadhas a major third and a perfect fifth,i.e., it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G.

Aminor triadhas a minor third and a perfect fifth,i.e., it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex. C—E♭—G.

Adiminished triadhas a minor third and a diminished fifth,i.e., it is a minor third with another minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E♭—G♭.

Anaugmented triadhas a major third and an augmented fifth,i.e., it is a major third with another major third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G♯.

198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V, are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called thecommon chords. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral (with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of the scale. Thuse.g., the large I shows that the triad on the first tone (in major) is amajor triad, the smalliishows that thetriad on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this clear.

Fig. 65

[Listen]

The triads in the minor scale are as follows:

minor triads

[Listen]

199. A triad is said to bein fundamental positionwhen its root is the lowest tone. It is said to be in thefirst inversionwhen thethirdis the lowest tone, and in thesecond inversionwhen the fifth is the lowest tone. Thuse.g., in Fig. 66 the same chord (C—E—G) is arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position, at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.

Fig. 66

[Listen]

200.When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to show what chord is to be played or written. Thus,e.g., the figure 6 over a bass note means that the note given is thethirdof a chord, the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note:i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is thefifthof the chord, the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the note given;i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.

The use of these and other similar figures and signs is calledfigured bass(orthorough bass)notation. An example of afigured bassis given in Fig. 67.

Fig. 67

[Listen]

Thorough bass notationwas formerly used extensively in writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these works the chords have been printed in full and the signs omitted.

201.Aseventh chordconsists of a fundamental tone with its third, fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. Aninth chordconsists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.

202. Acadenceis the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.

The wordcadenceis derived fromcadere, a Latin word meaning tofall, the reference being to the falling of the voice (i.e., the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close of a sentence.

203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V—I is called theauthentic cadence.

204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is therootof that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the cadence is calledperfect[36]authentic,and when the third or fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is calledimperfect authentic. Fig. 68 shows the chord G—B—D cadencing to C—E—G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called aperfect authentic cadence, but the last two (c) and (d) areimperfect authentic.

Fig. 68

[Listen]

205. Aplagal cadenceis one in which the tonic chord is preceded by the sub-dominant chord (IV—I). Theplagal cadence(sometimes called thechurch cadence, oramen cadence), like the authentic, is described as beingperfectwhen the soprano of the tonic chord is the root of that chord, andimperfectwhen the soprano of the final chord is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F—A—C cadencing to C—E—G in three ways. The first one (a) is called aperfect plagal cadence, the last two areimperfect plagal.

Fig. 69

[Listen]

206. Ahalf-cadenceoccurs when the dominant chord is used as the final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord. This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of thehalf-cadenceat the close of such a phrase.

Fig. 70. Bach

[Listen]

207. Adeceptive cadenceis the progression of the dominant chord to some other chord than the tonic, the worddeceptiveimplying that the ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do so. The most common form ofdeceptive cadenceis that in which V (or V7) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71 gives an example.

Fig. 71. Wm. Mather

[Listen]

208. Asequenceis a succession of similar harmonic progressions, these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part. See Fig. 72.

Fig. 72

[Listen]

The wordsequenceis also applied to a succession of similar melodic progressions, as in Fig. 73.

Fig. 73

[Listen]

209.Modulationis a change of key without any break in the continuity of chords or melody tones.Harmonic modulationsare usually effected through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to both keys. Examples of bothharmonicandmelodic modulationsare shown in Figs. 74 and 75.

Fig. 74

[Listen]

The chord most frequently used in modulating is thedominant seventh,i.e., a seventh chord (seeSec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key. In the key of C this chord is G—B—D—F; in the key of D it is A—C♯—E—G; in the key of A♭it is E♭—G—B♭—D♭, etc.

Fig. 75

[Listen]

210. Asuspensionis the temporary substitution of a tone a degree higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (a).

Fig. 76

[Listen]

211. Aretardationis the temporary substitution of a tone a degree lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77 (a).

Fig. 77

[Listen]

The "regular chord tone" to which both suspension and retardation resolve is called thetone of resolution.

212. Theanticipationis a chord-tone introduced just before the rest of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (a).

Fig. 78

[Listen]

213. Apedal point(ororgan point) is a tone sustained through a succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it usually belongs. The termpedal pointoriginated in organ playing, (where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used in this way. See Fig. 79.

Fig. 79. Schumann

[Listen]

214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an octave apart), the termclose positionis applied. But when the upper voices are not written close together, the termopen positionis applied.

215. Bytranspositionis meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of music in some other key than the original. Thuse.g., if a song written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the accompanist sometimestransposesit to a lower key (as F or E), thus causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when the same song was played in the original key.

A battuta—with the beat; in strict rhythm.

À quatre mains—for four hands.

Accompagnamento—the accompaniment.

All'unisono—in unison.

Alla breve—2/2 measure.

Back to Index Next