The most widely known and in many respects the most gifted of the Neo-Russian group is Rimsky-Korsakoff (1844-1908). He has been aptly characterized as the Dégas or Whistler of music, and for his marvellous powers of description, especially of the sea, and for his command of orchestral tone-painting he is considered the storyteller par excellence in modern music. As in the case of Borodin we are filled with amazement at the power of work and the versatility in Korsakoff's nature. For many years he was an officer in the Russian navy and throughout his life was involved with official duties. Yet he found time for a number of compositions of originality and finished workmanship. These comprise the symphonic poemsAntar,SadkoandScheherazade;[320]aSpanish Capricefor full orchestra; twelve operas of which the best known in this country is the fascinatingLe Coq d'Or; a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra; a large number of songs and many choruses for men's and women's voices. His treatises on harmony and orchestration are standard works, the latter being the authority in modern treatment of the orchestra. HisScheherazadeis undoubtedly the most brilliant descriptive work in modern literature, for an account of which we quote the eloquent words of Philip Hale.
"Scheherazade(Op. 35) is a suite inspired by the Arabian Nights. The Sultan, persuaded of the falseness and faithlessness of woman, had sworn to put every one of his wives to death in turn after the first night. But Scheherazade saved her life by interesting him in the stories she told him for a thousand and one nights. Manymarvels were told by her in Rimsky-Korsakoff's fantastic poem,—marvels and tales of adventure: 'The Sea and Sinbad's Ship'; 'The Story of the Three Kalandars'; 'The Young Prince and the Young Princess'; 'The Festival at Bagdad'; 'The Ship that went to pieces against a rock surmounted by a bronze warrior.' As in Berlioz'sFantastic Symphony, so in this suite, there is a theme which keeps appearing in all four movements. For the most part it is given to a solo violin. It is a free melodic phrase in Oriental bravura, gently ending in a free cadenza. There is no development of themes in this strange work. There is constant repetition in different tonalities; there is an exceedingly skillful blending of timbres; there is a keen sense of possible orchestral effects. A glance at the score shows how sadly the pedagogue might go astray in judgment of the work, without a hearing of it, and furthermore, the imagination of the hearer must be in sympathy with the imagination of the composer, if he would know full enjoyment: for this symphonic poem provokes swooning thoughts, such as come to the partakers of leaves and flowers of hemp; there are the stupefying perfumes of charred frankincense and grated sandal-root. The music comes to the listener of western birth and mind, as the Malay who knocked among English mountains at De Quincey's door. You learn of Sinbad, the explorer, who is nearer to us than Nansen; of the Kalandar Prince who spent a mad evening with the porter and the three ladies of Bagdad, and told of his incredible adventures; and Scheherazade, the narrator, she too is merely a shape in a dream; she fades away, and her soul dies on the high note exhaled by the wondering violin.
"The melody of this Russian is wild, melancholy, exotic; a droning such as falls from the lips of white-bearded, turbaned, venerable men, garrulous in the sun; and then again, there is the reckless chatter of the babbler in the market-place, heated with unmixed wine."
The most boldly individual of all Russian composers is Moussorgsky[321](1831-1881). Although of intense inspiration and of uncompromising ideals his musical education was so incomplete that his technique was inadequate for the expression of his message. As the French critic, Arthur Pougin well says, "His works bizarre though they be, formless as they often are, have in them a force of expression and a dramatic accent of which no one can deny the intensity. It would be unjust to pretend that he spoke for the purpose of sayingnothing; unfortunately he is too often satisfied with merely stammering." As Moussorgsky himself says: "Art is a means of talking with men; it is not an end. Starting with the principle that human speech is subject to musical laws, I see in music, not only the expression of sentiment by means of sound, but especially the notation of a human language." In fact the dominant idea of his music was to bring it into closer relation with actual life.
"In order to understand Moussorgsky's work and his attitude towards art, it is necessary to realise the social conditions under which he lived. He was a true child of the sixties, of that period of moral and intellectual ferment which followed the accession of Alexander II and the emancipation of the serfs. Of the little group of composers then striving to give musical expression to their newly awakened nationality, none was so entirely carried away by the literary and political movements of the time as Moussorgsky. Every man was asking himself and his comrades the question posed by the most popular novel of the day: 'What shall we do?' The answer was: 'Throw aside social and artistic conventions. Make art the hand-maiden of humanity. Seek not for beauty but for truth. Go to the people. Hold out the hand of fellowship to the liberated masses and learn from them the true purpose of life.' To this democratic and utilitarian spirit, to this deep compassion for the people, to this contempt for the dandyism and dilettantism of an earlier generation Moussorgsky strove to give expression in his music, as Perov expressed it in painting, as Tchernichevsky, Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoi expressed it in fiction. We may disagree with his aesthetic principles, but we must confess that he carried out with logical sequence and conviction a considerable portion of his programme. In his sincere efforts to attain great ends he undoubtedly overlooked the means. He could never submit to the discipline of a thorough musical training as Tchaikowsky and Rimsky-Korsakoff. He preserved his originality intact, but at a heavy cost. The weakness of his technique has been exaggerated by those who put down all his peculiarities to ignorance; but in some respects—particularly as regards orchestration—his craftsmanship was certainly unequal to the demands of his inspiration, for his aims were very lofty. Had this been otherwise, Moussorgsky's name would have been more closely linked with those of Berlioz and Richard Strauss."[322]
His acknowledged masterpieces are first, the songs, especially the series theNurseryand theSongs and Dances of Death, in which we see mirrored with extraordinary fidelity the complex nature of the Russian people. Rosa Newmarch has called him the Juvenal of musicians. Second, his national music drama,Boris Godounoff—dealing with one of the most sensational episodes in Russian history—which, for the gripping vividness of its descriptions, is quite unparalleled.
"Boris Godounoff, finished in 1870, was performed four years later in the Imperial Opera House. The libretto of this opera he took from the poetic drama of Pushkin, but he changed it, eliminating much and adding new scenes here and there, so that as a whole it is his own creation. In this work Moussorgsky went against the foreign classic opera in conception as well as in construction. It is a typically Russian music-drama, with all the richness of Slavic colors, true Byzantine atmosphere and characters of the medieval ages. Based on Russian history of about the middle of the seventeenth century, when an adventurous regent ascends the throne and when the court is full of intrigues, its theme stands apart from all other operas. The music is more or less, like many of Moussorgsky's songs, written in imitation of the old folk-songs, folk dances, ceremonial chants, and festival tunes. Foreign critics have considered the opera as a piece constructed of folk melodies. But this is not the case. There is not a single folk melody in Boris Godounoff, every phrase is the original creation of Moussorgsky."[323]
In concluding this account of Russian music let the statement be repeated that only by a thorough knowledge of the life and character of this strange yet gifted people can their music be understood. It is necessary therefore to become acquainted with Russian literature and pictorial art—with the works of Gogol, Tolstoi and Dostoyevsky and the paintings of Perov and Veretschagin. In this way only will be made clear what is otherwise inexplicable—the depth and sincerity of the Russian soul.
The other two prominent national schools in modern times are the Bohemian and Scandinavian. Although from neither of these have we products at all comparable in breadth; or depth of meaning with those of the Russian school, yet each has its note of exotic individuality and hence deserves recognition. The Bohemian Schoolcentres about the achievements of Fibich, Smetana[324]and Dvořák, and its prevalent characteristics are the variety of dance rhythms (Bohemia having no less than forty national dances) together with the peculiarly novel harmonic and modulatory scheme. The dances best known outside of Bohemia are thePolka[325]and theFuriant; the former being used so frequently by Smetana and Dvořák that it has attained an international status. The first of the above group, Fibich (1850-1900), was a composer of marked versatility—there being extant over seven hundred works in every form—and no little originality. Many of his pianoforte pieces have distinct charm and atmosphere and should be better known. Fibich was strongly influenced by Schumann, and there is found in his music the same note of fantastic freedom prominent in the German master. But the first impression of Bohemian music upon the world in general was made by Smetana (1824-1884). An ardent follower of Liszt, he definitely succeeded in the incorporation of Bohemian traits with the current musical idiom just as Liszt had done with Hungarian folk-music. Smetana's style is thoroughly original, his form is free yet coherent and he has a color sense and power of orchestral description peculiar to his race. Bohemia is one of the most picturesque countries in the world and the spirit of its woodlands, streams and mountains is always plainly felt in Bohemian music. The Bohemians are an out-of-door people with an inborn instinct for music (with its basic factors of rhythm and sound) by which they express the vigorous exuberance of their temperament.[326]Smetana's significant worklies in his numerous operas, his symphonic poems and in the remarkable String Quartet in E minor entitled "Aus meinem Leben." The operas deal with subjects so strongly national that they can have but little vogue outside their own country. However,Prodana Nevesta—The Bartered Bride—has been universally recognized as one of the genuine comic operas in modern times and its spirited Overture (the first theme on a fugal basis) is played the world over. His six Symphonic Poems, comprised under the titleMein Vaterland, are works of considerable power and brilliant orchestral treatment. Perhaps the finest sections areVltava(Moldau), celebrating the beauties of Bohemia's sacred river, andVyšehrad, a realistic description of the national fortress at Prague.[327]The Quartet in E minor, noted for its freedom and intimacy of style, has become a classic. Whenever it was performed Smetana wished the sub-title "Aus Meinem Leben" to be printed on the program; for, as he says in a letter to a friend, "My quartet is no mere juggling with tones; instead I have wished to present the hearer with pictures of my life. I have studied theory; I know what style means and I am master of it. But I prefer to have circumstances determine form and so have written this quartet in the form which it itself demanded." In the first and last of the four movements there is a long sustained high E, symbolic of the buzzing sound which the composer constantly heard as his congenital deafness increased. This malady finally affected his mind and was the cause of his tragic death in an asylum at Prague.
Although in some respects not so characteristic as Smetana, Dvořák[328](1841-1904), by reason of his greater breadth and more cosmopolitan style, is considered the representative Bohemian composer. Dvořák's music in its simplicity and in its spontaneity of treatment is a reincarnation of Schubert's spirit; we feel the same overflowing musical life and we must make the same allowances for looseness of structure. Dvořák, however, has made one contribution thoroughly his own—his skill in handling the orchestra. He was a born colorist and his scores in their clarity, in the subtle distinctions between richness and delicacy, are recognized masterpieces. As a sensuous delight to the ear they may be compared to the fine glow of certain Dutch canvases—those for example of Vermeer. Dvořák'scompositions are varied and fairly numerous (some 111 opus numbers) comprising operas, cantatas, chamber music, symphonies, overtures, pianoforte pieces and songs. From 1892 to 1895 he was in this country as director of the National Conservatory in New York. Three works composed during this period, aQuartet, aQuintetandThe New World Symphony, are of special interest to us since they were meant as a compliment to the possibilities of American music and also reflect Dvořák's attitude toward the sources of musical inspiration. A true child of the people, and the embodiment of folk-music, he naturally searched for native material when he wished to compose something characteristically American. But folk-music in our country, as has been stated inChapter II, is (or was at Dvořák's time) practically limited to that of the Indians and the Negroes. It is often stated, in fact, that the New World Symphony is founded upon Negro tunes. This, however, is a sweeping assertion. There is no doubt that Dvořák found a strong affinity between certain of the Southern plantation melodies and the songs of his native land,e.g., the following melody (the second theme of the first movement) which is similar to "Swing low, sweet chariot."
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But the individual tone of the melodies could come only from a Bohemian and if they seem both Negro and Bohemian it simply proves the common bond existing in all folk-music.[329]ThisNew World Symphonyhas had a great vogue and by reason of the warmth of its melodies and the rich, colorful scoring is indisputably a work full of charm.[330]Two prevalent traits of Dvořák's music are noticeable in this symphony—the unexpectedness of the modulations and theunusual harmonic scheme.[331]The structure is at times rather loose, particularly in the Finale where the joints often crack wide open. But, as an offset, there is great rhythmic vitality—observe in particular the swing of the Trio from the Scherzo—and that sensuous tone-color peculiar to the composer. In fact, the scoring of the slow movement with its magical theme for English horn would alone compensate for many structural blemishes. This movement closes with a mysterious chord for divided double basses (four solo instruments) which is one of many touches in individual treatment. The Finale, in accordance with modern practise, although containing themes of its own, finally becomes arésuméof preceding material. The two main themes are striking and well contrasted; but Dvořák was a mediocre architect and the movement, in comparison with the Finales of Franck and Tchaikowsky, is more of a potpourri than a firmly knit organic whole. The final page is stimulating in its bold use of dissonances. But we must take Dvořák as he is. There is no question of his genius, for his music is spontaneous, never labored, and he has expressed with convincing artistic skill the emotions and ideals of his gifted race.
Scandinavian music, ethnologically considered, would comprise that of the three related nations, the Swedes, the Danes and the Norwegians; some would include even the Finns, with their eloquent spokesman Sibelius. Although the Danes have considerable folk-music, and as a people love music, they have produced no composer of distinction save Niels Gade (1817-1890), who was so encrusted with German habits of thought that his music is neither one thing or the other—certainly it is not characteristically Danish. The best known of the Swedish composers is Sjögren from whom we have some poetic songs. He also attempted the larger instrumental forms but without notable success.
Scandinavian music, as far as the outside world is concerned, practically centres about the Norwegian composer Grieg[332](1843-1907) just as its dramatic art centres about Ibsen. The names, however, of four other Norwegian composers deserve mention: the pioneers Kjerulf (1815-1868) noted for his melodious songs; Svendsen (1840-1911) endowed with a fine sense for orchestral color; and Nordraak (1842-1866) the first self-conscious representative of the Norwegianspirit: a talented musician who exerted a marked influence upon Grieg—his promise cut short by an early death. In modern times the mantle of Grieg has fallen upon Sinding (1856-still living) whose songs and poetic pieces for the pianoforte have become household favorites. In Norwegian music we find the exuberant rhythmic vitality typical of a people living in the bold and highly colored scenery of that sun-lit land.[333]Grieg, a born lyric poet saturated with folk-music, has embodied this spirit in his works. His fame rests upon his songs and descriptive pianoforte pieces; though in his Pianoforte Concerto, in his Peer Gynt Suite, in the Violin Sonatas and String Quartet he proved that he was not lacking in power to handle larger forms. But most of his work is in miniature—the expression, like the music of Schubert and Chopin,[334]of moods short and intense. While Grieg's music is patterned upon Norwegian folk-dances and folk-melodies it is something far more. He has evoked from the characteristics of his native land a bold, original harmony and a power of color and description thoroughly his own. He might say with de Musset "Mon verre n'est pas grand, mais je bois dans mon verre." In his music we feel the sparkling sunshine and the breezes of the North. In fact, Grieg was the first popular impressionist and for his influence in humanizing music and freeing it from academic routine his fame will endure. We have cited in the Supplement (Nos. 68, 69) one of his most original songs—the melody of which was used also for the workIm Frühlingfor string orchestra—and a pianoforte piece which illustrates his rhythmic life and also in certain measures that melodic line typical of all Norwegian music: the descent from the leading tone,i.e., G, F-sharp, D.
For a complete appreciation therefore of national music, we must always take into consideration the traits and environment of the people from which it sprung. Music, to be sure, is a universal language, but each nation has used this language in its own way. The most striking fact in present-day music is the variety gained from a free expression of nationalism[335]without infringing upon universality of appeal.
MODERN music—broadly speaking, music since the beginning of the twentieth century—is certainly manifesting the characteristics which the preceding survey has shown to be inherent in its nature: that is, it has grown by a course of free experimentation, it is the youngest of the arts, and it is a human language as well as a fine art. Hence we find that modern composers are making daring experiments in dissonance, in rhythmic variety, in subtle blends of color and, above all, in the treatment of the orchestra. In comparison with achievements in the other arts music often seems in its infancy; being limited by no practical or utilitarian considerations, and employing the boundless possibilities of sound and rhythm, there is so much still before it. The truth contained in the saying, that music is the youngest as well as the oldest of the arts, becomes more apparent year by year; for although a work which originally had imaginative life can never die, yet many former works have passed out of recognition simply because they have been superseded by more inspired ones, composed since their day. We can no longer listen with whole-hearted enthusiasm to many of the older symphonies, songs and pianoforte pieces, because Brahms, Franck, Debussy and d'Indy have given us better ones.
These experiments, just referred to, have been particularly notable on the part of two composers of the neo-Russian group, Stravinsky and Scryabin. Stravinsky,[336]in his brilliant pantomime ballets,L'Oiseau du Feu,Petroushka, andLe Sacre du Printemps, has proved incontestably that he is a genius—it being of the essence of genius to create something absolutely new. These works, in their expressive melody, harmonic originality and picturesque orchestration, have widened the bounds of musical characterization. Scryabin[337](1871-1915) is noted for his esoteric harmonic scheme, shown in a series of pianoforte preludes, sonatas and, above all, in his orchestral works, theDivine Poem, thePoem of EcstacyandPrometheusorPoem of Fire. The effect of Scryabin's harmonies is one of great power, and, as previously said of Debussy in his earlier days, his imagination has undoubtedly heard sounds hitherto unrealized. The sensational style ofPrometheusis augmented by the use of a color machine which flashes upon a screen hues supposed to supplement the various moods of the music. How many of these experiments will be incorporated into the accepted idiom of music, time alone will tell; but they prove conclusively that modern music is thoroughly awake and is proving true to that spirit of freedom which is the breath of its being.
Music is, furthermore, not only a fine art in which have worked and are working some of the best intellects of our race, but is inevitably becoming a universal language. We see this clearly in the rapid growth of music among peoples and nations which, comparatively a short time ago, were thought to be quite outside the pale of modern artistic development. No longer is music confined exclusively to the Italians, French and Germans. A national spokesman for the Finns is the gifted Sibelius, the composer of five symphonies, several Symphonic poems, numerous songs and pianoforte pieces; his second Symphony in E minor being a work of haunting beauty, and the Fourth noted for its bold use of the dissonant element. The Roumanians have come to the fore in Enesco, who has written several characteristic works for orchestra. The Spaniards are endeavoring to restore their former glories—for we must not forget that, in past centuries, the Spanish composers Morales and Vittoria ranked with the great painters which that nation has produced. Three Spanish composers, indeed, are worthy of distinct recognition: Albeniz for his pianoforte pieces,tangos,malagueñas, etc., in which there is such a fascinating treatment of national dance rhythms; Granados,[338]with several operas to his credit, and Laparra, the composer of a fantastic suite recently played by the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Spanish rhythms, melodies and local color have been frequently incorporated in the works of other composers,e.g., by Bizet inCarmen, by Debussy inIbéria, and in the pianoforte pieceSoirée dans Granade, by Chabrier inEspaña, by Lalo in several works, and by the Russians, Glinka and Rimsky-Korsakoff, inbrilliant orchestral works. The Spanish influence,[339]in fact, may be called one of the most potent in modern music.
Although there is no doubt of the strong musical instinct inherent in the Hungarians—witness the prevalence of Hungarian rhythms in Schubert, Liszt, Brahms and others—their country has always been so torn with political dissensions that the lack of a national artistic culture is not to be wondered at. Recently however three Hungarian composers, Dohnányi, Moor and Béla Bartok, have produced works embodying racial tendencies and yet of such significant content and sound workmanship as to attract the attention of the world outside.
Italy, also, is awakening from a long sleep, and there is now a group of young men representing New Italy (of whom Malipiero and Casella are the best known) which should accomplish results worthy of the glorious musical traditions of that country.
England is shaking off her subserviency[340]to the influence of Handel and Mendelssohn, and at last has made a promising start toward the achievement of works which shall rank with her glories in poetry, in fiction and in painting. Among the older group we have such names as Sullivan, with his inimitable series of operas, theMikado,Gondoliers,Iolanthe, etc.; Parry, with some notable choral works, and Stanford—a most versatile man—Irish by birth, and with the humor and spontaneity natural to his race; hisIrish Symphonyand his operaShamus O'Brienwould give lustre to any period. The only genius of the first rank however which England has produced since the days of Purcell is Edward Elgar (1857-still living). Practically self-educated and spending his early life in his native country he escaped the influences of German training which so deadened the efforts of former composers, such as Pierson and Bennett. Elgar's music is thoroughly English in its sturdy vigor[341]and wholesome emotion. With something first-hand to say he has acquired such a technique in musical expression that his compositions rank in workmanship with those of the great continental masters. In his use of the modern orchestra Elgar need be considered second to none. His overturesIn the SouthandCockaigne, his two Symphonies and hisEnigma Variationsare universally acknowledged to be models of richly-colored and varied scoring. Although his music is English it is never parochial but has that note of universal import always found in the work of a real genius. Among the younger men there are Wallace, both composer and writer on musical subjects (his Threshold of music being particularly stimulating), Holbrook, Vaughan Williams, Roger Quilter, Arthur Hinton, Balfour Gardiner and John Ireland, a composer of genuine individuality, as is evident from his Violin Sonata in D Minor.
Even such outlying parts of the world as Australia and South America have contributed executive artists of great ability though, to our knowledge, as yet no composer.
What, now, in this connection can be said of America? This much at least: when we consider that, beyond the most rudimentary attempts, music in our land is not yet a century old, a start has been made which promises great things. Such pioneers as Paine, Chadwick, MacDowell, Foote, Parker, Osgood, Whiting and Mrs. H.H.A. Beach have written works, often in the larger forms, showing genuine inspiration and fine workmanship, many of which have won permanent recognition outside of their own country. Of late years a younger group has arisen, the chief members[342]of which are Converse, Carpenter, Gilbert, Hadley, Hill, Mason, Atherton, Stanley Smith, Brockway, Blair Fairchild, Heilman, Shepherd, Clapp, John Powell, Margaret Ruthven Lang, Gena Branscombe and Mabel Daniels. These composers all have strong natural gifts, have been broadly educated, and, above all, in their music is reflected a freedom, a humor and an individuality which may fairly be called American; that is, it is not music which slavishly follows the "made-in-Germany" model.[343]The composer of greatest genius and scope in America is undoubtedly Charles Martin Loeffler; but, although he has become a loyal American, and although his best works have been composed in this country, we can hardly claim him as an American composer, for his music vividly reflects French taste and ideals. His inspired works—in particularLa Mort de Tintagiles,The Pagan Poemand a Symphony (in one movement)—are of peculiar importance for their connectionwith works of literature and for consummate power in orchestration. Not even Debussy has expressed more subtly the tragic spirit of Maeterlinck than has Loeffler inLa Mort de Tintagiles; andThe Pagan Poem, founded on an Eclogue of Virgil portrays most eloquently the romance of those pastoral days. Loeffler's latest work, a String Quartet[344]dedicated to the memory of Victor Chapman, the Harvard aviator, is remarkable for the heart-felt beauty of its themes and for advanced technique in treating the four solo instruments.
Let us now indulge in a few closing remarks of advice to the young student faced with all this perplexing novelty. Our studies should have made plain two definite facts: first, that the real message of music is contained in its melody—that part of the fabric which we can carry with us and sing to ourselves. Harmony and color are factors closely involved with melodic inspiration, but their impression is more fleeting; and in general, no work lacking in melody, however colorful or filled with daring harmonic effects, can long endure. But we must be judicious and fair in estimating exactly what constitutes a real melody. The genius is always ahead of his time; if he thought just as other men, he would be no genius. New types of melody are continually being worked out; all we can say is that the creative composer hears sounds in his imagination, the result of his emotional and spiritual experiences and of his sympathy with the world. He recreates these sounds in terms of notation, hoping that, as they mean so much to him, they may be a delight and inspiration to his fellowmen. If enough people like these works for a long enough time, theyare; that is, they live—no matter how much they differ froma prioristandards as to what music should be.
The second fact concerns the structure of music; that is, the way in which the thought is presented. We have seen that music always has a carefully planned architecture—that being necessary by reason of the indefiniteness of the material. But let us always remember that without abandoning the fundamental principles of all organic life, form may be—and should be—free and elastic. Every work which lives reveals a perfect balance between the emotional and imaginative factors and their logical presentation. If we are puzzled by the structure of a new work the assumption should be, not that it is formless but that, when we know the work, it will be seen to employ simply a new use of old and accepted principles; for the worksanalyzed must have convinced us that the principles of unity, contrast, balance and symmetry are eternal; and, however modified, can never be abandoned. The normal imagination must express itself logically, and can no more put forth incoherent works than the human body would give birth to misshapen offspring. Musical compositions, which after study prove to be incoherent, diffuse and flabby, are to be considered exceptional and not worth condemning; they are only to be pitied. The chief aim of the music-lover should be to become an intelligent and enthusiastic appreciator of the great works already composed, and to train himself liberally for the welcome of new works. Towards such an end we hope that this book may offer a helpful contribution.
Academic Overtureof Brahms,233.Aeolian mode,24.Aeschylus, compared with Brahms,239.Albeniz, pianoforte pieces,327.answer (to a fugue),42.Apthorp, W.F., comments on Brahms,238;eulogy on Brahms'sFirst Symphony,246;comments onIstar,283.arabesque,83.Aristophanes, his humor compared with Beethoven's,150.Arnold, Matthew, lines on Byron apropos of Berlioz,203;stanza applicable to Brahms,233;definition of style,234.Atherton, Percy Lee,329.Auber,255.augmentation, definition of,44.
Babbitt, Irving, book on Romanticism,161;The New Laocoön,207.Bach, Emmanuel, use of two themes,93;contributions to the Sonata-form,100.Bach, J.S.,Well-tempered Clavichord,23;choral (Phrygian mode),25;polyphonic style,34;Goldberg Variations,37;celebrated organ fugues,41;analysis ofFugue in E-flat major,42-43.Bagatelles, of Beethoven,166.Balakireff, works and features of style,315-316.Baldensperger, F., eulogy of Franck,258.Ballet music toPrometheus,140.Balzac, comment on Chopin,189.Barcarolle, of Chopin, color effect therein,193;analysis of,200-201.Bartered Bride Overture,121,322.basso ostinato,86.Baudelaire,293.Beach, Mrs.,Menuet Italien,78,329.Beethoven,2,5,8:motive ofFifth Symphony,12;Waldstein Sonata,15;String Quartet (Lydian mode),26;fugal passages in symphonies,41;sentences from sonatas,58-61;Egmont Overture,77;Rondo Capriccio,82;sets of Variations,88;biography,122-126;love of Nature,125;features of style,126-129;development of the Sonata-form,126-127;treatment of the Coda,127;variety of rhythm,127-128;use of dissonances,128;humor,128-129;development of Program music,129;development of varied air,129;characterization of the Symphonies,130-132;estimate of the Pianoforte Sonatas,140;pianistic effect in Sonatas,145;as a programmistic composer,153-154;quality of themes,156;dramatic use of single notes,156-157;theme ofNinth Symphonycompared with theme from Brahms'sFirst Symphony,247.Béla Bartok,328.Berlioz, quotation fromGrotesques de la Musique,21;canon inCarnaval RomainOverture,37;comment on Trio ofFifth Symphony,150;biography,202-205;names of his Parisian friends,204;features of style,205-206;Fantastic Symphony, analysis of,207-211;Carnaval RomainOverture, analysis of,211-212;Damnation of Faust, instrumental numbers from,213-214;Harold in ItalySymphony, analysis of,214-215;Romeo and JulietSymphony, comments on,215-216.Bie, Oscar,74;on the style of Couperin and Rameau,152.Bizet,L'Arlésienne Suites,80.Bohemian School,320-321.Boieldieu, comment on Beethoven,134,255.bolero,75.Boris Godounoff, description of,320.Borodin, works and features of style,316-317.Boschot, work, in three parts, on Berlioz,207.bourrée,75.Brahms,First Symphony,8,14,21,44;modal expression in works,23;Fourth Symphony(Phrygian mode),25;canonic style,36;C minor Trio,67;sets of variations,88;biography,231-233;features of style,233-238;analysis ofFirst Symphony,239-249;ofViolin Sonata,250-252;ofG minor Ballade for Pianoforte,252-253;attitude toward program music,253;the nature of hisIntermezzi,253;of theCapriccios,253;hisRhapsodies,254;analysis of songMeine Liebe ist grün,254;other songs,255.branle (brawl),75.Branscombe, Gena,329.Brenet, M.,Life of Haydn,104.Brockway, H., on American folk-songs,33,329.Browning,1;quotation apropos of the fugue,49;quotations apropos of theFifth Symphony,146,150.Bruckner, movement fromSeventh Symphony,231.Bruneau,History of Russian Music,314.Bull, John,79,85.Bülow,Sonatasof E. Bach,100;comment on Grieg,325.Burney, on the 18th Century,103.Buxtehude,34.Byrd, William,12,79,85.Byron, influence on Schumann's style,177.
C minor Symphony(Beethoven), analysis of,145-151.C minor Symphony(Brahms), analysis of,239-249.cadences,55-57.Calvacoressi, on dominant relationship,52.canon,11;account of,36-37.canzona,69.Carnaval RomainOverture, analysis of,211-212.Carpenter, John Alden,Adventures in a Perambulator,80,329.Casella,328.Casse-Noisette Suite,80.Cellini, Benvenuto, compared with Berlioz,202;opera by Berlioz,211.Chabrier,Bourrée Fantasque,80,297;España,80,297;Overture toGwendoline,99,297;account of style,297.chaconne,86;Bach's for violin solo,87.Chadwick,Canonic Studies,36;fugal passage inVagrom Ballad,41,329.Chamisso, texts for Schumann's songs,170.Chantavoine, Life of Beethoven,159.Charpentier,Impressions of Italy,80.Chausson, Ernest, account of style,298.Chavannes, Puvis de, compared with Franck,258.Chopin, type of melody,10,21;Sonata in C minor,67;biography and features of style,188-189;analysis ofPrelude in C major,198;Étude in A-flat major,199;Mazurka in F-sharp minor,199;analysis ofPolonaise in E-flat minor,200;ofBarcarolle,200-201;ofScherzo in C-sharp minor,201.chromatic changes,51.Clapp, P.G.,48,329.coda, definition and examples of,99.color, in different keys,51.Combarieu, Jules,2.Converse, F.S., Dramatic Poem,Job(Phrygian mode),26;String Quartet,99,329.Corelli,70,74.CoriolanusOverture, analysis of,152-156.counterpoint, definition of,11.counter-subject (of a fugue),42.Couperin,70,74,81,85;descriptive pieces,152,255.courante(corrente),75.Croatian Folk-songs (in Haydn),101-102.csárdás,76.
D major Sonataof Beethoven, analysis of,140-145.D Minor Symphonyof Schumann,179-184.d'Albert,Suite for Pianoforte,78.Damnation of Faust, instrumental numbers from,213-214.Daniels, Mabel,329.Dannreuther, eulogy on Beethoven,159;comment on Berlioz's counterpoint,209.Dargomijsky, use of whole-tone scale,289.Debussy, modal expression in works,23,288-289;Pelléas et Mélisande(Dorian mode),24;comments upon,294;Minstrels(cadence in),55-56;Sarabandefor pianoforte,77;comment on development,97;compared with Mendelssohn,185;apropos of new music,204;features of style,287-297;whole-tone scale,289-290;titles of pianoforte pieces,292-293;on his pianoforte style,295-296.de Musset, quotation apropos of Grieg,325.deceptive cadence,56.Dent, E.J.,Mozart's Operas,112.De Pachman, playing of Mendelssohn's pieces,185.De Quincey, quotation from theDream Fugue,49.Deutsches Requiem,233.development section of Sonata-form,93-94,97-98.Dickinson, Edward, estimate of Haydn,101.diminution, definition of,44.d'Indy, modal expression in works,23;canonic style,36;Symphonic Variations,Istar,67;comments on the Sonata-form,95,100;comment on Beethoven'sSeventh Symphony,131;comment onSonata Pathétique,142;comments on D major Sonata,145;comments onFifth Symphony,145;Life of Beethoven,159;comments on Franck's themes,268;biography and features of style,280-282;Istar, analysis of,283-287.dissonance, discord, distinction between terms,143.Dohnányi,328.Dominant, acoustical and harmonic importance of,22-23,52.Don Giovanni,111,119.Don Juan,85.Don Quixote,89.Dorian mode,24.Dostoyevsky,314,319,320.Doumic, René, essay on George Sand,189.Dowland, John, hisPavans,80.Duparc, Henri, account of his style,298.Dvořák,New World Symphony,9,21;modal expression in works,23;New World Symphony(Aeolian mode),26;Suite for Orchestra,79;works and features of style,322-324.