Chapter 14

[1]For suggestive comments on this point see the essaysHarmonie et Melodieby Saint-Saëns, Chapters I and II.

[2]See Chapter II of Gurney'sPower of Sound, a book remarkable for its insight.

[3]It is understood that this statement is made in a subjective rather than a purely physical sense. See theCentury DictionaryunderSound.

[4]Il y a donc, dans l'art des sons, quelque chose qui traverse l'oreille comme un portique, la raison comme un vestibule et qui va plus loin.Harmonie et Melodie, Chapter II.

[4]Il y a donc, dans l'art des sons, quelque chose qui traverse l'oreille comme un portique, la raison comme un vestibule et qui va plus loin.

Harmonie et Melodie, Chapter II.

[5]La musique, ses lois, son evolution, by Jules Combarieu.

[6]Just as some people are color-blind there are those who are tone-deaf—to whom, that is, music is a disagreeable noise—but they are so few as to be negligible.

[7]From earliest times, mothers have doubtless crooned to their infants in instinctive lullabies.

[8]In this connection we cannot refrain from suggesting the improvement which should be made in the concert manners of the public. How often, at the beginning of a concert, do we see people removing their wraps, looking at their neighbors, reading the programme book, etc., instead of concentrating on the music itself; with the result that the composition is often well on its way before such people have found their bearings.

[9]Compare Parry'sEvolution of the Art of Music, passim and D.G. Mason'sBeethoven and his Forerunners, Chapter I.

[10]In comparatively recent times the term has been widened to include music in which there is onechiefmelody to which other portions of the musical texture are subordinate;e.g., the homophonic style of Chopin in whose works the chief melody, often in the upper voice, seems to float on underlying waves of sound.

[11]For a complete account of these early attempts which finally led to part-writing see Chapter IV in the first volume of theOxford History of Music.

[12]An historical account of this development as far as it is ascertainable may be found in the fifth chapter of Pratt'sHistory of Music.

[13]Consult the article on the Round inGrove's Dictionary.

[14]A rather crude English adaptation of the Latin term "Punctus contra punctum" which refers to the notes as punctūs (plural) or dots which were pricked with a stylus into the medieval manuscripts. In this phrase the emphasis is on thecontra, signifying a combination ofdifferentmelodies and rhythms, and calling attention to that higher importance which, everywhere in art, is caused by contrasted elements.

[15]For an interesting account of this tripartite activity see Naumann'sHistory of Music.

[16]See the facsimile of the original manuscript of "Sumer is icumen in" cited in the first volume of theOxford History of Music, pp. 326-332.

[17]For a simple, charming example of persistent use of a motive see Schumann's pianoforte pieceKind im Einschlummern, No. 12 of theKinderscenen.

[18]Another well-known example is the first theme of the first movement of theSonata in F minor(Appassionata) op. 57. This the student can look up for himself.

[19]For some additional comments on this broad principle see the first Chapter (passim) of Parry'sEvolution of the Art of Music.

[20]Everyone has experienced the agony of hearing the beginner practice, in an adjoining room, the same piece for hours at a time!

[21]For an eloquent presentation of the significance of Folk-music see the article by Henry F. Gilbert in theMusical Quarterlyfor October, 1917.

[22]For an able account of the important role that folk-melodies are taking in modern music see Chapter V ofLa Chanson Populaire en Franceby Julian Tiersot.

[23]The same statement is true of the Oriental nations, the Arabians, Persians and Greeks, who are left out of the enumeration only because their development in many respects has been along different lines from ours. For suggestive speculations as to early music among all nations seePrimitive Musicby Richard Wallaschek.

[24]For illuminating comments on the Folk-music of all the English-speaking peoples see Chapter XII of Ernest Walker'sHistory of Music in England. The famous Petrie collection of Irish Folk-tunes should also be consulted.

[25]In counting the measures of a phrase always consider the firstcompletemeasure,—nevera partial measure—asone.

[26]The chief reason for this leading tone, in addition to the natural tendency of singers to raise their voices as near as possible to the upper tonic, was so that the dominant chord, the third of which is always the 7th degree, might invariably be aMajorTriad.

[27]For many suggestive comments on the whole subject see his bookEnglish Folk-Song.

[28]The example quoted, together with others equally beautiful, may be found in the collection edited by the Scottish composer, Hamish MacCunn. See, as well, theCycle of Old Scotch Melodiesarranged for four solo voices with pianoforte accompaniment by Arthur Whiting.

[29]For Irish folk-songs the best collections are the one by Villiers Stanford and aCycleby Arthur Whiting, prepared in the same way as that just cited on Scottish melodies.

[30]Taken from an excellent collection ofChansons Populairesedited by Julien Tiersot.

[31]The best popular collection of Hungarian melodies is that by Francis Korbay, the texts for which were translated and arranged by the American novelist, J.S. of Dale. It is well known what artistic use has been made of Hungarian melodies and rhythms by Schubert, Liszt and Brahms.

[32]The statement might be qualified by saying that, since Beethoven, instrumental style has become a happy mixture of homophony for the chief melodies and polyphony for the supporting harmonic basis. Stress is laid in the above text on the polyphonic aspect merely to emphasize the matter under discussion.

[33]Notable names are Léonin and Pérotin, both organists of Nôtre Dame at Paris.

[34]Although this is not the place to set forth all the details of this development, in the interest of historical justice we should not think of Bach without gratefully acknowledging the remarkable work of such pioneers as the Dutchman, Sweelinck (1562-1621), organist at Amsterdam; the Italian, Frescobaldi (1583-1644), organist at Rome, and—greatest of all, in his stimulating influence upon Bach—the Dane, Buxtehude (1636-1707), organist at Lübeck. Sweelinck and Frescobaldi may fairly be called the founders of the genuine Fugue, and there is a romantic warmth in Buxtehude's best work which makes it thoroughly modern in sentiment.

[35]In connection with the statement that music has developed according to natural law, it is worth noting that the four-part chorus early became the standard for both vocal and instrumental groups for the simple reason that there exist two kinds of women's voices—soprano and alto, and two of men's voices—tenor and bass. Originally, the chief voice in the ecclesiastical chorus was the tenor (teneo), because the tenorssustainedthe melody. Below them were the basses (bassus, low); above the tenors came the altos (altus, high) and still higher the sopranos (sopra, above).

[36]The best edition is that by Busoni, published by Breitkopf and Härtel.

[37]This technical term as well as others will later be more fully explained.

[38]Whenever Percy Grainger performs this fugue in his own arrangement for pianoforte, he always electrifies an audience.

[39]It is worthy of observation that, for those who will listen to them intelligently, fugues do not merely demand such a state of mind but actuallygenerateit.

[40]It is left to the teacher to explain to the student the key-relationship of Subject and Answer, and the difference between fugues, tonal and real; for as these points have rather more to do with composition they play but a slight part in listening to a fugue.

[41]Beethoven, commenting on the name, majestically said: "He is no brook; he is the open sea!"

[42]For a very suggestive article on this point by Philip Greeley Clapp see the Musical Quarterly for April, 1916.

[43]Some eloquent comments on Bach's style and significance may be found in Chapter III ofThe Appreciation of Musicby Surette and Mason.

[44]It is assumed that the music-lover has, as his birthright, an instinctive knowledge of the grouping of tones and semitones in our modern scales. Those who may wish to refresh their knowledge are recommended to the second Chapter in Foote and Spalding'sHarmony, and to the chapter on Scales in Parry'sEvolution of the Art of Music.

[45]Color in music is brought about chiefly through their use.

[46]As for example the famous one of Chopin.

[47]Even great composers have at times made this mistake,e.g., Mendelssohn in the first movement of theScotch Symphony, where the interminable length of the portion in A minor (of all keys!) is simply deadening in its effect. Compare also thePrelude to the Rheingold; where, however—for dramatic purposes—to depict the world as "without form and void" Wagner remains in the key of E-flat major for some 150 measures!

[48]It is left to the teacher to explain, by the ratios found in the overtones of the Harmonic Series, the validity of this statement.

[49]Some modern theorists,e.g., Calvacoressi (see the New Music Review for September, 1909) have thought that the dominant relationship was "overworked." It is true that the great charm of modern music is its freedom and boldness in modulation; but the dominant keys can never be entirely abandoned, for the relationship between them and a tonic is as elemental as that between the colors of the spectroscope.

[50]Two tones are said to be "enharmonic" when, although written differently, they sound the same on an instrument of fixed temperament like the pianoforte, or organ,e.g., D-sharp and E-flat, E and F-flat. A violin, however, can make a distinction between such notes and often does.

[51]This assertion holds for most of our Western European music; though in Hungarian and Scotch music we find a natural fondness for phrases ofthreemeasures, and the Croatians are known for their phrases offivemeasures so often used by both Haydn and Schubert. But it is true that wetendto think in groups which are some multiple of 2,i.e., either 4, 8, 12 or 16 measures.

[52]Always count the firstcompletemeasure asone.

[53]The two phrases are often designated Thesis and Antithesis.

[54]In listening to a clock it is impossible to think of the ticks singly, or otherwise than in groups of two: an accented beat and an unaccented; although the beats are of equal strength and duration. This principle of dual balance is derived from the rhythmic pulsation of the human heart and, as we shall see, runs through all music.

[55]Whenever this book is used in class, the teacher can easily explain, on the pianoforte and by charts, the different cadential effects. For those who have sufficient harmonic insight Chapter XIV in Foote and Spalding'sModern Harmonyis worth consulting.

[56]See also the strikingly original cadences in Debussy'sL'Isle joyeuse.

[57]Another interesting eight-measure sentence may be found at the beginning of the slow movement of Beethoven's Eighth Sonata, in which every section differs from any one of the others; in the opening sentence of the first movement of the Tenth Sonata—noticeable for the indefiniteness of the cadences until the final close is reached in measure 8, and in the first sentence of the Allegretto of the Sixth Sonata which is one long sweep, with only the faintest indications of subdivision.

[58]Lack of space will prevent hereafter the citation in actual notes of the examples from Beethoven. His works are readily accessible, and it may even be assumed that every music-lover owns the Pianoforte Sonatas.

[59]Another excellent example of a 12 measure sentence with an extended cadence may be found at the beginning of the first movement of the Third Beethoven Sonata.

[60]For a burlesque of this practise see the closing measures of the Scherzando movement of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony.

[61]Other charming examples of five-bar rhythm may be found in Schubert's Quartet in A minor, op. 29, and in the opening choral (St. Anthony) of Brahms'sOrchestral Variations, op. 56a.

[62]This effect is clearly brought out in symphonic music where one portion of the orchestra, with a certain tone color, may be ending a phrase at the same moment at which another part, with a contrasting tone color, begins. An excellent example is the first theme of the Slow movement of Schumann's Second Symphony (measures 7-8).

[63]For a complete account of this process see Parry'sEvolution of the Art of Music, p. 115seq.

[64]This book makes no attempt to give an historical account of the development of instrumental form. The subject is set forth comprehensively in the article on Form in Grove's Dictionary (Vol. II, p. 73) and in the Fifth and Sixth Chapters of Parry'sEvolution of the Art of Music.

[65]SeeThe Appreciation of Musicby Surette and Mason, p. 36.

[66]As an illustration of this tendency see the Scherzo of Beethoven's Second Sonata, the second part of which has a new theme of its own, although the movement as a whole is clearly in Two-part form.

[67]SeeThe Sonata Formby W.H. Hadow, Chapter III.

[68]The three-part form is derived partly from the Italian "da Capo Aria" and partly from the fundamental instinct for restatement which we have seen in the Folk-song.

[69]Additional illustrations, which will repay study are the following: the Allegretto of Beethoven's Sixth Sonata; the Schubert Impromptu, op. 90, No. 4; Brahms's Intermezzo, op. 117, No. 1 and the Ballade in G minor, op. 118, No. 3, and for orchestra—in extended treatment—Debussy'sPrélude à l'après-midi d'un Faune.

[70]For an interesting and comprehensive account of this development see Grove's Dictionary, Volume IV, article on the Suite.

[71]For extensive comments on Scarlatti's style seeThe History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Playersby Oscar Bie, pp. 68-90.

[72]These titles, according to Parry (see his life of Bach, Chapters IV and XII passim), were not given by Bach himself but were assigned, in the case of the French Suites, to denote the delicacy of treatment found therein, and in the English, a certain massive style.

[73]So-called because it is written on a sustained bass note or pedal point; a feature of the Musette (the French name for Bagpipe) being its persistent drone bass on the tonic and the dominant.

[74]An interesting example may also be found in Grieg'sHolberg Suite for Pianoforte.

[75]For a vivid description of these dances see Chabrier'sLettres à Nanette, Paris, 1910.

[76]See alsoLe Tombeau de Couperinin which is a very novel Rigaudon.

[77]For a complete account of the historical development see the article on Form in Grove's Dictionary Vol. II and Hadow'sSonata Form, Chapter IX.

[78]There is an early example in the Rondo of Mozart's Sonata for Pianoforte in B-flat major.

[79]For a complete detailed analysis of the movement see Prout,Applied Forms, pp. 120-121.

[80]We would cite the piece entitledLes Buffonsby Bull, and Byrd's variations to the popular tune theCarman's Whistle, which latter have considerable archaic charm and distinction; for Byrd was a real genius. These are readily accessible in popular editions.

[81]Consult the comprehensive article on Variations in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. V.

[82]For the derivation of the term consult the interesting article in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. IV.

[83]A work before which Schumann said every musician should prostrate himself in adoration.

[84]For a detailed account see the third volume of D.G. Mason'sAppreciation of Musicseries.

[85]These compositions are not printed in the Supplement, as it may be assumed that the student can readily procure them. They are published in a number of editions.

[86]For some illuminating comments on the whole Sonata see Baxter Perry'sDescriptive Analysis of Pianoforte Works. (The Theodore Presser Co.)

[87]Except in the comparatively rare cases where we have a Fugue on two subjects.

[88]Illuminating comments on this point will be found inOutlines of Musical Formfrom W.H. Hadow'sStudies in Modern Music(2nd Series).

[89]See the prelude in D major of the second book of theWell-tempered Clavichord.

[90]For further information consult the first chapter of J.S. Shedlock'sThe Pianoforte Sonata.

[91]For an extended account of this development see the second chapter, Vol. II, ofThe Art of Music(The National Society of Music, N.Y.). See also Chapter XIX of Pratt'sHistory of Music.

[92]The form is also sometimes used independently, as in Brahms'sRhapsody in G minorand often, of course, in the Overture.

[93]I.e., 1st Violin, 2d Violin, Viola and Violoncello.

[94]See the eloquent comments on this analogy by d'Indy in hisCourse in Composition, Vol. II, Chap. 5.

[95]"Art is not more a riot of the passions than it is a debauch of the senses; it contains, no doubt, sensuous and emotional elements, the importance of which there is no need to undervalue, but it is only artistic if it subordinate them to the paramount claims of reason." W.H. Hadow,Studies in Modern Music(second series), preface.

[96]Some composers have also experimented with still freer key-relationships.

[97]For striking examples see the Expositions of the first movements of Beethoven'sThird Symphonyand of Tchaikowsky'sSixth Symphony.

[98]The ultra-conservative attitude of Brahms is shown by his retention of the double bar and repeat, although this is often ignored by modern conductors.

[99]It was probably a development of this kind which called forth the characteristic comment from Debussy who once remarked to a friend at a concert, "Let us flee! he is going to develop."

[100]See Grétry's amusing comments on the Sonata-Form cited by Romain Rolland in the essaysMusicians of Former Days.

[101]See also Wagner's comments on theThird Leonora Overture, cited by Ernest Newman in hisMusical Studies, pp. 134-135.

[102]Additional illustrations of this treatment may be found in Chabrier's Overture toGwendolineand in the first movement of F.S. Converse'sString Quartet.

[103]Those interested in this development should consultThe Pianoforte Sonataby J.S. Shedlock, and above all, d'Indy'sCourse of Musical Composition, Part III.

[104]This, according to d'Indy, was so-called because pleasing to the ladies who played an important part in the elaborate court ceremonial of that day.

[105]Six of P.E. Bach's Sonatas edited by von Bülow are readily accessible and some excellent comments upon the most significant ones may be found in Shedlock (seeabove).

[106]See hisStudy of the History of Music, p. 154.

[107]See for example theSalomon Symphony in E-flat, every movement of which is founded on a Croatian folk-song.

[108]For a comprehensive account of this whole subject consult theOxford History of Music, Vol. V, Chapter VIII, and Mason'sBeethoven and His Forerunners, essay on Haydn.

[109]Witness for example, the attitude taken by Wallace in hisThreshold of Music, pp. 148-153.

[110]For the early and significant achievements in orchestral effect of the Mannheim Orchestra under its famous leader Stamitz, seeThe Art of Music, Vol. 8, Chapter II.

[111]For interesting comments on the String Quartets see Hadden'sLife of Haydn, pp. 174-175.

[112]The Oxford History of Music, Vol. V, Chapter I, andThe Present State of Music in Germanyby Burney present a vivid picture of the times and of the results of 18th century patronage.

[113]For an entertaining account of the two London visits, which took place during the latter part of his career, see the essayHaydn in Londonby Krehbiel in hisMusic and Manners.

[114]In many cases Haydn's second theme is merely a varied version of the first.

[115]Haydn's life is of great interest in showing the traits which are reflected in his music. Everyone should read the biography in Grove's Dictionary, Vol. II, p. 348, and the excellent life by M. Brenet inLes Maîtres de la Musique.

[116]Haydn himself used to speak of his melodic invention as "a stream which bursts forth from an overflowing reservoir."

[117]In every large city there are, of course, frequent opportunities to hear the Quartets of Haydn played by such famous organizations as the Flonzaley Quartet etc. The student is urged to take advantage of these occasions.

[118]Those who erroneously think that there is nothing of the dissonant element in Haydn should examine the Prelude toThe Creation—a real anticipation, in its use of the chromatic element, ofTristan and Isolde.

[119]All symphonic scores give a much better effect when performed on two pianofortes than in a four-hand arrangement for a single instrument. The freedom in control of both pedals possessed by each player secures a greater richness and sonority of tone and it is much easier to make prominent voices stand out in relief.

[120]Amadeus (the beloved of God).

[121]We may appropriately state that in regard to ancestry and environment all four of the so-called Viennese masters, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert are distinct refutations of the claims so persistently made by German scholars that everything good in music we owe to the Teutons. Haydn was largely Croatian; Mozart was strongly influenced by non-Teutonic folk-music (Tyrolese melodies frequently peep out in his works); Schubert's forebears came from Moravia and Silesia; and Beethoven was partly Dutch. If there be anysinglerace to which the world owes the art of music it is the Italians, for they invented most of the instruments and hinted at all the vocal and instrumental forms. We may be grateful to the Germans for their persevering appropriation of what others had begun; only let them not claimallthe credit.

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