The Tamboura.Minnim,machalath, andnebelare usually supposed to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar kind.Minnim, however, appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in general than any particular instrument.
The Single Pipe.Chalilandnekebwere the names of the Hebrew pipes or flutes.
The Double Pipe.Probably themishrokithamentioned in Daniel. Themishrokithais represented in the drawings of ourhistories of music as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes placed in a box with a mouthpiece for blowing. But the shape of the pipes and of the box as well as the row of keys for the fingers exhibited in the representation of themishrokithahave too much of the European type not to suggest that they are probably a product of the imagination. Respecting the illustrations of Hebrew instruments which usually accompany historical treatises on music and commentaries on the Bible, it ought to be borne in mind that most of them are merely the offspring of conjectures founded on some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by the Rabbins.
The Syrinx or Pandean Pipe.Probably theugab, which in the English authorized version of the Bible is rendered “organ.”
The Bagpipe.The wordsumphonia, which occurs in the book of Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe. It is remarkable that at the present day the bagpipe is called by the Italian peasantry Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, themagrepha, generally described as an organ, was more likely only a kind of bagpipe. Themagrephais not mentioned in the Bible but is described in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is recorded to have been a powerful organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case or wind-chest, with ten holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was capable of emitting ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes or some similar contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be produced on this instrument. Further, themagrephais said to have been provided with two pairs of bellows and with ten keys, by means of which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was, according to the Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be heard at an incredibly long distance from the temple. Authorities so widely differ that we must leave it uncertain whether the much-laudedmagrephawas a bagpipe, an organ, or a kettle-drum. Of the real nature of the Hebrew bagpipe perhaps some idea may be formed from a syrinx with bellows, which has been found representedon one of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in Tarsus, Asia-minor, some years since, and here engraved. These remains are believed to be about 2000 years old, judging from the figures upon them, and from some coins struck about 200 yearsB.C.having been found embedded with them. We have therefore before us, probably, the oldest representation of a bagpipe hitherto discovered.
The Trumpet.Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz. thekeren, theshophar, and thechatzozerah. The first two were more or less curved and might properly be considered as horns. Most commentators are of opinion that thekeren—made of ram’s horn—was almost identical with theshophar, the only difference being that the latter was more curved than the former. Theshopharis especially remarkable as being the only Hebrew musical instrument which has been preserved to the present day in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown in the synagogue, as in time of old, at the Jewish new-year’s festival, according to the command of Moses (Numb.xxix. I). Thechatzozerahwas a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and was sometimes made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets are shown in the famous triumphal procession after the fall of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus, engraved on the next page.
The Drum.There can be no doubt that the Hebrews had several kinds of drums. We know, however, only of thetoph, which appears to have been a tambourine or a small hand-drum like the Egyptian darabouka. In the English version of the Bible the word is renderedtimbrelortabret. This instrument was especially used in processions on occasions of rejoicing, and alsofrequently by females. We find it in the hands of Miriam, when she was celebrating with the Israelitish women in songs of joy the destruction of Pharaoh’s host; and in the hands of Jephtha’s daughter, when she went out to welcome her father. There exists at the present day in the East a small hand-drum calleddoff,diff, oradufe—a name which appears to be synonymous with the Hebrewtoph.
The Sistrum.Winer, Saalfchütz, and several other commentators are of opinion that themenaaneim, mentioned in 2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the sistrum. In the English Bible the original is translatedcymbals.
Cymbals.Thetzeltzclim,metzilloth, andmetzilthaim, appear to have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments of percussion, differing in shape and sound.
Bells.The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest were calledphaamon. Small golden bells were attached to the lower part of the robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministrations. The Jews have, at the present day, in their synagogues small bells fastened to the rolls of the Law containing the Pentateuch: a kind of ornamentation which is supposed to have been in use from time immemorial.
Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given there occur several others in the Old Testament, upon the real meaning of which much diversity of opinion prevails.Jobelis by some commentators classed with the trumpets, but it is by others believed to designate a loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions. IfJobel(from whichjubilareis supposed to be derived) is identical with the nameJubal, the inventor of musical instruments, it would appear that the Hebrews appreciated pre-eminently the exhilarating power of music.Shalisbimis supposed to denote a triangle.Nechiloth,gittith, andmachalath, which occur in the headings of some psalms, are also by commentators supposed to be musical instruments.Nechilothis said to have been a flute, andgittithandmachalathto have been stringed instruments, andmachola kind of flute. Again, others maintain that the words denote peculiar modes of performance or certain favourite melodies to which the psalms were directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon possessed thirty-six different musical instruments. In the Bible only about half that number are mentioned.
Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their musical instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman beings. The Hebrews attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned in Genesis as “the father of all such as handle the harp and organ” (i.e., performers on stringed instruments and wind instruments). As instruments of percussion are almost invariably in use long before people are led to construct stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps be surmised that Jubal was not regarded as the inventor of all the Hebrew instruments, but rather as the first professional cultivator of instrumental music.
Many musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known to us by name; but respecting their exact construction and capabilities there still prevails almost as much diversity of opinion as is the case with those of the Hebrews.
It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical system from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers are said to have studied music in Egypt. It would, however, appear that the Egyptian influence upon Greece, as far as regards this art, has been overrated. Not only have the more perfect Egyptian instruments—such as the larger harps, the tamboura—never been much in favour with the Greeks, but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed are stated to have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo says: “Those who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated to Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of the present music. One author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the Asiatic kithara,’ another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some of the instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sambuka, Barbiton, Magadis, and many others.”
We know at present little more of these instruments than that they were in use in Greece. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfactorily ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind instrument. The other three are known to have been stringed instruments. But they cannot have been anything like such universal favourites as the lyre, because this instrument and perhaps thetrigononarealmost the only stringed instruments represented in the Greek paintings on pottery and other monumental records. If, as might perhaps be suggested, their taste for beauty of form induced the Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in preference to other stringed instruments, we might at least expect to meet with the harp; an instrument which equals if it does not surpass the lyre in elegance of form.
The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a splendid Greek vase now in the Munich museum, may be noted as an exceptional instance. This valuable relic dates from the time of Alexander the great. The instrument resembles in construction as well as in shape the Assyrian harp, and has thirteen strings. Polyhymnia is touching them with both hands, using the right hand for the treble and the left for the bass. She is seated, holding the instrument in her lap. Even the little tuning-pegs, which in number are not in accordance with the strings, are placedon the sound-board at the upper part of the frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If then we have here the Greek harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. Especially from the nations who inhabited Asia-minor the Greeks are stated to have adopted several of the most popular. Thus we may read of the short and shrill-sounding pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian pastoral flute, consisting of several tubes united; of the three-stringedkitharaof the Lydians; and so on.
The Greeks called the harpkinyra, and this may be the reason why in the English translation of the Bible thekinnorof the Hebrews, the favourite instrument of king David, is renderedharp.
The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, shown in the accompanying woodcuts, more or less differing in construction, form, and size, and distinguished by different names; such aslyra,kithara,chelys,phorminx, etc.Lyraappears to have implied instruments of this class in general, and also the lyre with a body oval at the base and held upon the lap or in the arms of the performer; while thekitharahad a square base and was held against the breast. These distinctions have, however, not been satisfactorily ascertained. Thechelyswas a small lyre with the body made of the shell of a tortoise, or of wood in imitation of the tortoise. Thephorminxwas a large lyre; and, like thekithara, was used at an early period singly, for accompanying recitations. It is recorded that thekitharawas employed for solo performances as early asB.C.700.
The design on the Grecian vase at Munich (already alluded to) represents the nine muses, of whom three are given in the engraving, viz., Polyhymnia with the harp, and Kalliope and Erato with lyres. It will be observed that some of the lyres engraved in the woodcuts on page 29 are provided with a bridge, while others are without it. The largest were held probably on or between the knees, or were attached to the left arm by means of a band, to enable the performer to use his hands without impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew, were more usually twanged with aplektronthan merely with the fingers. Theplektronwas a short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends.
A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near Athens is deposited in the British museum. The two pieces constituting its frame are of wood. Their length is about eighteen inches, and the length of the cross-bar at the top is about nine inches. The instrument is unhappily in a condition too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any essential use to the musical inquirer.
Thetrigononconsisted originally of an angular frame, to which the strings were affixed. In the course of time a third bar was added to resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular frame resembled in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently it was still further improved, the upper bar of the frame being made slightlycurved, whereby the instrument obtained greater strength and more elegance of form.
Themagadis, also calledpektis, had twenty strings which were tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones. It appears to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information respecting its construction is still wanting. There appears to have been also a kind of bagpipe in use calledmagadis, of which nothing certain is known. Possibly, the same name may have been applied to two different instruments.
Thebarbitonwas likewise a stringed instrument of this kind. Thesambykeis traditionally said to have been invented by Ibykos,B.C.540. Thesimmikonhad thirty-five strings, and derived its name from its inventor, Simos, who lived aboutB.C.600. It was perhaps a kind of dulcimer. Thenablahad only two strings, and probably resembled thenebelof the Hebrews, of which but little is known with certainty. Thepandourais supposed to have been a kind of lute with three strings. Several ofthe instruments just noticed were used in Greece, chiefly by musicians who had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore hardly be considered as national musical instruments of the Greeks. Themonochordhad (as its name implies) only a single string, and was used in teaching singing and the laws of acoustics.
The flute,aulos, of which there were many varieties, as shown in the woodcut p. 31, was a highly popular instrument, and differed in construction from the flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians. Instead of being blown through a hole at the side near the top it was held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the mouth-piece, so that it might be more properly described as a kind of oboe or clarionet. The Greeks were accustomed to designate by the name ofaulosall wind instruments of the flute and oboe kind, some of which were constructed like the flageolet or like our antiquatedflûte à bec. The single flute was calledmonaulos, and the double onediaulos. Adiaulos, which was found in a tomb at Athens, is in the British museum. The wood of which it is made seems to be cedar, and the tubes are fifteen inches in length. Each tube has a separate mouth-piece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side and one is underneath.
Thesyrinx, or Pandean pipe, had from three to nine tubes, but seven was the usual number. The straight trumpet,salpinx, and the curved horn,keras, made of brass, were used exclusively in war. The small hand-drum, calledtympanon, resembled in shape our tambourine, but was covered with parchment at the back aswell as at the front. Thekymbalawere made of metal, and resembled our small cymbals. Thekrotalawere almost identical with our castanets, and were made of wood or metal.
The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most popular instruments originally from the Etruscans; a people which at an early period excelled all other Italian nations in the cultivation of the arts as well as in social refinement, and which possessed musical instruments similar to those of the Greeks. It must, however, be remembered that many of the vases and other specimens of art which have been found in Etruscan tombs, and on which delineations of lyres and other instruments occur, are supposed to be productions of Greek artists whose works were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans, or who were induced to settle in Etruria.
The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of ivory; those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a species of the lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze flute, somewhat resembling our flageolet, has been found in a tomb; likewise a huge trumpet of bronze. An Etruscancornu(engraved) is deposited in the British museum, and measures about four feet in length.
To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat similar contrivance which they calledhydraulos,i.e.water-flute, and which probably was identical with theorganum hydraulicumof the Romans. The instrument ought moreproperly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ, for the sound was produced by the current of air through the pipes; the water applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably caused to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those on our organ, which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction was evidently but a primitive contrivance, contained in a case which could be carried by one or two persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the emperor Nero, in the British museum. Only ten pipes are given to it and there is no indication of any key board, which would probably have been shown had it existed. The man standing at the side and holding a laurel leaf in his hand is surmised to represent a victor in the exhibitions of the circus or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was played on such occasions; and the medal containing an impression of it may have been bestowed upon the victor.
During the time of the republic, and especially subsequently under the reign of the emperors, the Romans adopted many new instruments from Greece, Egypt, and even from western Asia; without essentially improving any of their importations.
Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of which they had various kinds, called, according to their form and arrangement of strings,lyra,cithara,chelys,testudo,fidis(orfides), andcornu. The namecornuwas given to the lyre when the sides of the frame terminated at the top in the shape of two horns. Thebarbitoswas a kind of lyre with a large body, which gave the instrument somewhat the shape of the Welshcrwth. Thepsalteriumwas a kind of lyre of an oblong square shape. Like most of the Roman lyres, it was played with a rather large plectrum. Thetrigonumwas the same as the Greektrigonon, and was probably originally derived from Egypt. It is recorded that a certain musician of the name of Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer upon it that when exhibiting his skill in Rome he created the greatestfurore. Less common, and derived from Asia, were thesambucaandnablia, the exact construction of which is unknown.
The flute,tibia, was originally made of the shin bone, and had a mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was retained even when, at a later period, it was constructed of other substances than bone. Thetibia gingrinaconsisted of a long and thin tube of reed with a mouth-hole at the side of one end. Thetibia obliquaandtibia vascawere provided with mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to the tube; a contrivance somewhat similar to that on our bassoon. Thetibia longawas especially used in religious worship. Thetibia curvawas curved at its broadest end. Thetibia ligulaappears to have resembled our flageolet. Thecalamuswas nothing more than a simple pipe cut off the kind of reed which the ancients used as a pen for writing.
The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The double flute consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have a mouth-piece in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece. If the tubes were exactly alike the double flute was calledTibiæ pares; if they were different from each other,Tibiæ impares. Little plugs, or stoppers, were inserted into the finger-holes to regulate the order of intervals. Thetibiawas made in various shapes. Thetibia dextrawas usually constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed; and thetibia sinistra, of the lower and broader part. The performers used also thecapistrum,—a bandage round the cheeks identical with thephorbeiaof the Greeks.
The British museum contains a mosaic figure of a Roman girlplaying thetibia, which is stated to have been disinterred in the year 1823 on the Via Appia. Here theholmosor mouth-piece, somewhat resembling the reed of our oboe, is distinctly shown. The finger-holes, probably four, are not indicated, although they undoubtedly existed on the instrument.
Furthermore, the Romans had two kinds of Pandean pipes, viz. thesyrinxand thefistula. The bagpipe,tibia utricularis, is said to have been a favourite instrument of the emperor Nero.
Thecornuwas a large horn of bronze, curved. The performer held it under his arm with the broad end upwards over his shoulder. It is represented in the engraving, with thetubaand thelituus.
Thetubawas a straight trumpet. Both thecornuand thetubawere employed in war to convey signals. The same was the case with thebuccina,—originally perhaps a conch shell, and afterwards a simple horn of an animal,—and thelituus, which was bent at the broad end but otherwise straight. Thetympanumresembled the tambourine and was beaten like the latter with the hands. Among theRoman instruments of percussion thescabillum, which consisted of two plates combined by means of a sort of hinge, deserves to be noticed; it was fastened under the foot and trodden in time, to produce certain rhythmical effects in musical performances. Thecymbalumconsisted of two metal plates similar to our cymbals. Thecrotalaand thecrusmatawere kinds of castanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than the latter. The Romans had also atriangulum, which resembled the triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. Thesistrumthey derived from Egypt with the introduction of the worship of Isis. Metal bells, arranged according to a regular order of intervals and placed in a frame, were calledtintinnabula. Thecrepitaculumappears to have been a somewhat similar contrivance on a hoop with a handle.
Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated proof of musical instruments having been introduced into Europe from Asia. The Romans in their conquests undoubtedly made their musical instruments known, to some extent, also in western Europe. But the Greeks and Romans are not the only nations which introduced eastern instruments into Europe. The Phœnicians at an early period colonized Sardinia, and traces of them are still to be found on that island. Among these is a peculiarly constructed double-pipe, calledlioneddaorlaunedda. Again, at a much later period the Arabs introduced several of their instruments into Spain, from which country they became known in France, Germany, and England. Also the crusaders, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have helped to familiarize the western European nations with instruments of the east.
Allowing for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural to the lively imagination of Asiatics, there is no reason to doubt that the Chinese possessed long before our Christian era musical instruments to which they attribute a fabulously high antiquity. There is an ancient tradition, according to which they obtained their musical scale from a miraculous bird, called foung-hoang, which appears to have been a sort of phœnix. When Confucius, who lived aboutB.C.500, happened to hear on a certain occasion some Chinese music, he became so greatly enraptured that he could not take any food for three months afterwards. The sounds which produced this effect were those of Kouei, the Orpheus of the Chinese, whose performance on theking—a kind of harmonicon constructed of slabs of sonorous stone—would draw wild animals around him and make them subservient to his will. As regards the invention of musical instruments the Chinese have other traditions. In one of these we are told that the origin of some of their most popular instruments dates from the period when China was under the dominion of heavenly spirits, called Ki. Another assigns the invention of several stringed instruments to the great Fohi who was the founder of the empire and who lived aboutB.C.3000, which was long after the dominion of the Ki, or spirits. Again, another tradition holds that the most important instruments and systematic arrangements of sounds are an invention of Niuva, a supernatural female, who lived at the time of Fohi.
According to their records, the Chinese possessed their much-esteemedking2200 years before our Christian era, and employed it for accompanying songs of praise. It was regarded as a sacred instrument. During religious observances at the solemn moment when thekingwas sounded sticks of incense were burnt. It was likewise played before the emperor early in the morning when he awoke. The Chinese have long since constructed various kinds of theking, one of which is here engraved, by using different species of stones. Their most famous stone selected for this purpose is calledyu. It is not only very sonorous but also beautiful in appearance. Theyuis found in mountain streams and crevices of rocks. The largest specimens found measure from two to three feet in diameter, but of this size examples rarely occur. Theyuis very hard and heavy.Some European mineralogists, to whom the missionaries transmitted specimens for examination, pronounce it to be a species of agate. It is found of different colours, and the Chinese appear to have preferred in different centuries particular colours for theking.
The Chinese consider theyuespecially valuable for musical purposes, because it always retains exactly the same pitch. All other musical instruments, they say, are in this respect doubtful; but the tone of theyuis neither influenced by cold nor heat, nor by humidity, nor dryness.
The stones used for thekinghave been cut from time to time in various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals: as, for instance, a bat with outstretched wings; or two fishes placed side by side: others are in the shape of an ancient Chinese bell. The angular shape shown in the engraving appears to be the oldest and is still retained in the ornamented stones of thepien-king, which is a more modern instrument than theking. The tones of thepien-kingare attuned according to the Chinese intervals calledlu, of which there are twelve in the compass of an octave. The same is the case with the other Chinese instruments of this class. They vary, however, in pitch. The pitch of thesoung-king, for instance, is four intervals lower than that of thepien-king.
Sonorous stones have always been used by the Chinese also singly, as rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is calledtse-king. Probably certain curious relics belonging to a temple in Peking, erected for the worship of Confucius, serve a similar purpose. In one of the outbuildings or the temple are ten sonorous stones, shaped like drums, which are asserted to have been cut about three thousand years ago. The primitive Chinese characters engraven upon them are nearly obliterated.
The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently arranged in sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The Chinese name for the bell istchung. At an early period they had a somewhatsquare-shaped bell calledté-tchung. Like other ancient Chinese bells it was made of copper alloyed with tin, the proportion being one pound of tin to six of copper. Theté-tchung, which is also known by the name ofpiao, was principally used to indicate the time and divisions in musical performances. It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of these bells attuned to a certain order of intervals were not unfrequently ranged in a regular succession, thus forming a musical instrument which was calledpien-tchung. The musical scale of the sixteen bells which thepien-tchungcontained was the same as that of thekingbefore mentioned.
Thehiuen-tchungwas, according to popular tradition, included with the antique instruments at the time of Confucius, and came into popular use during the Han dynasty (fromB.C.200 untilA.D.200). It was of a peculiar oval shape and had nearly the same quaint ornamentation as theté-tchung; this consisted ofsymbolical figures, in four divisions, each containing nine mammals. The mouth was crescent-shaped. Every figure had a deep meaning referring to the seasons and to the mysteries of the Buddhist religion. The largesthiuen-tchungwas about twenty inches in length; and, like theté-tchung, was sounded by means of a small wooden mallet with an oval knob. None of the bells of this description had a clapper. It would, however, appear that the Chinese had at an early period some kind of bell provided with a wooden tongue: this was used for military purposes as well as for calling the people together when an imperial messenger promulgated his sovereign’s commands. An expression of Confucius is recorded to the effect that he wished to be “A wooden-tongued bell of Heaven,”i.e.a herald of heaven to proclaim the divine purposes to the multitude.
Thefang-hiangwas a kind of wood-harmonicon. It contained sixteen wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, suspended in a wooden frame elegantly decorated. The slabs were arranged in two tiers, one above the other, and were all of equal length and breadth but differed in thickness. Thetchoung-touconsisted of twelve slips of bamboo, and was used for beating time and for rhythmical purposes. The slips being banded together at one end could be expanded somewhat like a fan. The Chinese state that they used thetchoung-toufor writing upon before they invented paper.
Theou, of which we give a woodcut, likewise an ancient Chinese instrument of percussion and still in use, is made of wood in the shape of a crouching tiger. It is hollow, and along its back are about twenty small pieces of metal, pointed, and in appearancenot unlike the teeth of a saw. The performer strikes them with a sort of plectrum resembling a brush, or with a small stick calledtchen. Occasionally theouis made with pieces of metal shaped like reeds.
The ancientouwas constructed with only six tones which were attuned thus—f,g,a,c,d,f. The instrument appears to have become deteriorated in the course of time; for, although it has gradually acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces of metal, it evidently serves at the present day more for the production of rhythmical noise than for the execution of any melody. The modernouis made of a species of wood calledkieouortsieou: and the tiger rests generally on a hollow wooden pedestal about three feet six inches long, which serves as a sound-board.
Thetchou, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made of the wood of a tree calledkieou-mou, the stem of which resembles that of the pine and whose foliage is much like that of the cypress. It was constructed of boards about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. In the middle of one of the sides was an aperture into which the hand was passed for the purpose of holding the handle of a wooden hammer, the end of which entered into a hole situated in the bottom of thetchou. The handle was kept in its place by means of a wooden pin, on whichit moved right and left when the instrument was struck with a hammer. The Chinese ascribe to thetchoua very high antiquity, as they almost invariably do with any of their inventions when the date of its origin is unknown to them.
Thepo-fouwas a drum, about one foot four inches in length, and seven inches in diameter. It had a parchment at each end, which was prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled in water. Thepo-fouused to be partly filled with a preparation made from the husk of rice, in order to mellow the sound. The Chinese name for the drum iskou.
Thekin-kou(engraved), a large drum fixed on a pedestal which raises it above six feet from the ground, is embellished with symbolicaldesigns. A similar drum on which natural phenomena are depicted is calledlei-kou; and another of the kind, with figures of certain birds and beasts which are regarded as symbols of long life, is calledling-kou, and alsolou-kou.
The flutes,ty,yo, andtchéwere generally made of bamboo. Thekoan-tseewas a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of bamboo. Thesiao, likewise a Pandean pipe, contained sixteen tubes. Thepai-siaodiffered from thesiaoinasmuch as the tubes were inserted into an oddly-shaped case highly ornamented with grotesque designs and silken appendages.
The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early period a curious wind-instrument, calledhiuen. It was made of baked clay and had five finger-holes, three of which were placed on one side and two on the opposite side, as in the cut. Its tones were in conformity with the pentatonic scale. The reader unacquainted with the pentatonic scale may ascertain its character by playing on the pianoforte the scale of C major with the omission offandb(thefourthandseventh); or by striking the black keys in regular succession fromf-sharp to the nextf-sharp above or below.
Another curious wind-instrument of high antiquity, thecheng, (engraved, p. 46) is still in use. Formerly it had either 13, 19, or 24 tubes, placed in a calabash; and a long curved tube served as a mouth-piece. In olden time it was calledyu.
The ancient stringed instruments, thekinandchê, were of the dulcimer kind: they are still in use, and specimens of them are in the South Kensington museum.
The Buddhists introduced from Thibet into China their god of music, who is represented as a rather jovial-looking man witha moustache and an imperial, playing thepepa, a kind of lute with four silken strings. Perhaps some interesting information respecting the ancient Chinese musical instruments may be gathered from the famous ruins of the Buddhist templesOngcor-WatandOngcor-Thôm, in Cambodia. These splendid ruins are supposed to be above two thousand years old: and, at any rate, the circumstance of their age not being known to the Cambodians suggests a high antiquity. On the bas-reliefs with which the temples were enriched are figured musical instruments, which European travellers describe as “flutes, organs, trumpets, and drums, resembling those of the Chinese.” Faithful sketches of these representations might, very likely, afford valuable hints to the student of musical history.
In the Brahmin mythology of the Hindus the god Nareda is the inventor of thevina, the principal national instrument of Hindustan. Saraswati, the consort of Brahma, may be regarded as the Minerva of the Hindus. She is the goddess of music as well as of speech; to her is attributed the invention of the systematic arrangement of the sounds into a musical scale. She is represented seated on a peacock and playing on a stringed instrument of the lute kind. Brahma himself we find depicted as a vigorous man with four handsome heads, beating with his hands upon a small drum; and Vishnu, in his incarnation as Krishna, is represented as a beautiful youth playing upon a flute. The Hindus construct a peculiar kind of flute,which they consider as the favourite instrument of Krishna. They have also the divinity Ganesa, the god of Wisdom, who is represented as a man with the head of an elephant, holding atambourain his hands.
It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations in different parts of the world an ancient tradition, according to which their most popular stringed instrument was originally derived from the water.
In Hindu mythology the god Nareda invented thevina—the principal national instrument of Hindustan—which has also the namecach’-hapi, signifying a tortoise (testudo). Moreover,naradenotes in Sanskrit water, andnarada, ornareda, the giver of water. Like Nareda, Nereus and his fifty daughters, the Nereides, were much renowned for their musical accomplishments; and Hermes (it will be remembered) made his lyre, thechelys, of a tortoise-shell. The Scandinavian god Odin, the originator of magic songs, is mentioned as the ruler of the sea, and as such he had the name ofNikarr. In the depth of the sea he played the harp with his subordinate spirits, who occasionally came up to the surface of the water to teach some favoured human being their wonderful instrument. Wäinämöinen, the divine player on the Finnishkantele(according to the Kalewala, the old national epic of the Finns) constructed his instrument of fish-bones. The frame he made out of the bones of the pike; and the teeth of the pike he used for the tuning-pegs.
Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out an old tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national ballads, of a skilful harper who constructs his instrument out of the bones of a young girl drowned by a wicked woman. Her fingers he uses for the tuning screws, and her golden hair for the strings. The harper plays, and his music kills the murderess. A similar story is told in the old Icelandic national songs; and the same tradition has been preserved in the Faroe islands, as well as in Norway and Denmark.
May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical flow of the waves and the soothing murmur of running water have led various nations, independently of each other, to the widespread conception that they obtained their favourite instrument of music from the water? Or is the notion traceable to a common source dating from a pre-historic age, perhaps from the early period when the Aryan race is surmised to have diffused its lore through various countries? Or did it originate in the old belief that the world, with all its charms and delights, arose from a chaos in which water constituted the predominant element?
Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was evidently also the ruler of the clouds; and Odin had his throne in the skies. Indeed, many of the musical water-spirits appear to have been originally considered as rain deities. Their music may therefore be regarded as derived from the clouds rather than from the sea. In short, the traditions respecting spirits and water are not in contradiction to the opinion of the ancient Hindus that music is of heavenly origin, but rather tend to support it.
The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record have, almost all of them, remained in popular use until the present day scarcely altered. Besides these, the Hindus possess several Arabic and Persian instruments which are of comparatively modern date in Hindustan: evidently having been introduced into that country scarcely a thousand years ago, at the time of the Mahomedan irruption. There is a treatise on music extant, written in Sanskrit, which contains a description of the ancient instruments. Its title isSângita râthnakara. If, as may be hoped, it be translated by a Sanskrit scholar who is at the same time a good musician, we shall probably be enabled to ascertain more exactly which of the Hindu instruments of the present day are of comparatively modern origin.
Thevinais undoubtedly of high antiquity. It has seven wire strings, and movable frets which are generally fastened with wax. Two hollowed gourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed toit for the purpose of increasing the sonorousness. There are several kinds of thevinain different districts; but that represented in the illustration is regarded as the oldest. The performer shown is Jeewan Shah, a celebrated virtuoso on thevina, who lived about a hundred years ago. The Hindus divided their musical scale into several intervals smaller than our modern semitones. They adopted twenty-two intervals calledsrutiin the compass of an octave, which may therefore be compared to our chromatic intervals. As the frets of thevinaare movable the performer can easily regulate them according to the scale, or mode, which he requires for his music.
The harp,chang, has become almost obsolete. If some Hindu drawings of it can be relied upon, it had at an early time a triangular frame and was in construction as well as in shape and size almost identical with the Assyrian harp.
The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They maintain that theravanastron, one of their old instruments played with the bow, was invented about five thousand years ago by Ravanon, a mighty king of Ceylon. However this may be there is a great probability that the fiddle-bow originated in Hindustan; because Sanskrit scholars inform us that there are names for it in works which cannot be less than from 1500 to 2000 years old. The non-occurrence of any instrument played with a bowon the monuments of the nations of antiquity is by no means so sure a proof as has generally been supposed, that the bow was unknown. The fiddle in its primitive condition must have been a poor contrivance. It probably was despised by players who could produce better tones with greater facility by twanging the strings with their fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have remained through many centuries without experiencing any material improvement. It must also be borne in mind that the monuments transmitted to us chiefly represent historical events, religious ceremonies, and royal entertainments. On such occasions instruments of a certain kind only were used, and these we find represented; while others, which may have been even more common, never occur. In two thousand years’ time people will possibly maintain that some highly perfected instrument popular with them was entirely unknown to us, because it is at present in so primitive a condition that no one hardly notices it. If theravanastronwas an importation of the Mahomedans it would most likely bear some resemblance to the Arabian and Persian instruments, and it would be found rather in the hands of the higher classes in the towns; whereas it is principally met with among the lower order of people, in isolated and mountainous districts. It is further remarkable that the most simple kind ofravanastronis almost identical with the Chinese fiddle calledur-heen. This species has only two strings, and its body consists of a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with the skin of a serpent. Theur-heenhas not been mentioned among the most ancient instruments of the Chinese, since there is no evidence of its having been known in China before the introduction of the Buddhist religion into that country. From indications, which to point out would lead too far here, it would appear that several instruments found in China originated in Hindustan. They seem to have been gradually diffused from Hindustan and Thibet, more or less altered in the course of time, through the east as far as Japan.
Another curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high antiquity,is thepoongi, also calledtoumrieandmagoudi. It consists of a gourd or of the Cuddos nut, hollowed, into which two pipes are inserted. Thepoongitherefore somewhat resembles in appearance a bagpipe. It is generally used by theSampurisor snake charmers, who play upon it when they exhibit the antics of the cobra. The namemagoudi, given in certain districts to this instrument, rather tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical historians that themagadisof the ancient Greeks was a sort of double-pipe, or bagpipe.
Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different names in different districts; and, besides, there are varieties of them. On the whole, the Hindus possess about fifty instruments. To describe them properly would fill a volume. Some, which are in the Kensington museum, will be found noticed in the large catalogue of that collection.
Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before the Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be surmised that they closely resembled those of the Assyrians, and probably also those of the Hebrews.