"Sei einig nur Germania,So stehest du auch einzig da,Das grosse Vaterland!"
"Sei einig nur Germania,So stehest du auch einzig da,Das grosse Vaterland!"
was received with enthusiastic applause, and was greeted with deafening cheers.
This widely-expressed sympathy for German nationality found expression in various other ways, not the least conspicuous being the marked courtesy to the Expedition manifested by the natives of Chile itself, and in an especial degree at Santiago, the capital, where public officers, naturalists, and lovers of science vied with each other in welcoming such of our number as went over to spend a few days there, and in aiding them to carry out the object they had in view.
With these scientific aims were united others of a political nature, our Commodore having been honoured with H.I. Majesty's commands to enter into a commercial treaty with the free Republic of Chile. For this purpose Commodore von Wüllerstorf had gone to Santiago in company with the Austrian Consul-General, M. J. F. Flemmich, and the author of this narrative, the two geologists and the draughtsman of the Expedition having set out thither some days before.
The journey to the capital of Chile is not among the most inviting. There are numerous crests of mountains (questas) to be crosseden route, which at many points are steep, not to speak of the bad construction of the roads, and the little care taken to keep them in order. Frequently the carriage rolls along the very verge of a profound abyss; the soil seems about to give way, gravel and stones plunge thundering down, while neither wall nor wooden railing intervenes to prevent the traveller from following them. Moreover, the vehicles in ordinary use are not calculated to diminish the perils of such a journey, especially if it is an object to arrive speedily at one's destination, when the regular national coach, the Birloche, as it is called, must be used. It is a sort of double-seated two-wheeled cabriolet drawn by two horses, while five or six horses trot alongside, which furnish the change of horses when required. The driver rides one of the horses, as in Havannah, and is wonderfully skilful in his way. He usually wears the national brown-coveredponcho(a quadrangular piece of cloth with an opening in the centre through which the head passes), a small straw hat, linen pants, and on his bare feet enormous, heavy spurs, sometimes fastened by a piece of leather, sometimes with a mere cord.
We pushed forward without stoppage as far as Casa Blanca, one of the most ancient settlements of Chile, which, however, as previously remarked, has always preserved its village-like aspect. Here we fell in with several very handsome ladies,elegantly dressed, each sporting a gigantic crinoline. They had come from the neighbouringhaciendasto Casa Blanca to be present at a race-meeting. Having dispatched a hasty meal, we pushed busily forwards, and reached the village of Curacavi, where travellers to the capital usually pass the night. No great provision is made here in the shape of good inns, for considerable as is the traffic of loaded waggons, conveying merchandise and produce, the number of travellers is very limited, and even the few whom business or pleasure induces to visit the capital are for the most part natives of the country, or Europeans long resident, who usually take up their quarters with acquaintances or business connections, and are therefore exempt from all necessity to look after their comfort. Travellers who spend the night in such inns generally carry with them insect-powder, as the number of fleas and other troublesome insects is legion!!
At the capital, Santiago, the traveller is somewhat better off as regards houses of entertainment, and the Hotel Ingles (English Hotel), kept by a Frenchman, may not only boast of elegant apartments and an excellent cuisine, but surpasses all European hotels in expensiveness.[105]
Santiago de Chile lies in a beautiful fertile valley, and would present a much more imposing appearance, were it not that, owing to the frequency of earthquakes, the majority of the houses were built only one storey high. The long straightstreets intersecting each other at right angles, are in a state calling loudly for sanitary regulation; uneven, badly ballasted, with huge ruts at the sides, so that it is difficult to say whether the foot-passenger or the charioteer is the worst off. Much of this is due to the number of heavy two-wheeledcarretasor country waggons, drawn by six or eight oxen, in which all produce is conveyed from the interior of the country to the harbour, and foreign merchandise transported from the sea-board to the capital. On our journey hither we counted 124 of these lumbering vehicles, creaking and rattling on their way; but there are on the average 300 such on the road between Santiago and Valparaiso. A good deal of the less bulky merchandise is also carried on horse or mule-back.
Of striking public buildings Santiago is almost as destitute as Valparaiso, the Mint,[106]which dates from the time of Spanish Supremacy, being the sole building worth noticing. The city also boasts of a Plaza, a large quadrangular, open spot, of no special elegance, although it has on one side the Cathedral, still in process of erection, on the other a range of private dwellings with arcades beneath, in which nestle swarms of stall-vendors, besides several Government buildings which are concentrated here. Of public promenades, the Alameda, a long, wide poplar-alley, is, beyond all question, the finest, as well as most frequented, especially on Sundays and holidays. The period of our visit, the winter ofthe Southern Hemisphere was not favourable to our carrying away a correct impression of the public walks at their gayest, especially when, as in our case, the weather is raw and gloomy, and the mournful rustle of dead leaves sounds like the elegy of departed gaiety. Thus, for example, the dam along the sides of the river, the waters of which in the rainy season swell into a furious torrent, but the bed of which was now quite dry, forms in summer a delightful walk; whereas in winter it is only visited by students, preachers meditative of their next discourse, or lovers oblivious of the elements.
There is in Santiago a surprising degree of intellectual activity, and great readiness in promoting scientific discovery. The philosophical works, which have of late years made their appearance, are deserving of the highest praise. The educated foreigner is not regarded askance here with envious eye, nor, because he happens not to be a native, kept in the back-ground, and refused admission to positions of public trust and influence; he is rather encouraged in his exertions by the example of such men as Domeyko, Philippi, Pissis, Moesta, &c. The well-known costly work in 24 volumes, describing the physical and political history of Chile, was composed by a Frenchman named Claudio Gay,[107]the expense of printing it in Paris being borne by the Government. The annals of the University of Chile appear in regular publicationeach year from 1843, and comprise choice though miscellaneous information upon almost every topic of scientific interest.
One of the leading and most highly informed professors in this principal seat of education, Don Ignacio Domeyko, a Pole by birth, but who has made Chile his second home, very kindly acted as cicerone to our Expedition, and furnished us with most valuable details as to the present state of public instruction.
The University of San Felipe was founded in 1738, but the present system of instruction has only been in operation since 1842. The joint Council of the five professors of the faculties of philosophy and the humanities, physical and mathematical science, medicine, judicial and political instruction and theology, are intrusted with the supervision of the entire national education, each faculty having also the privilege of naming corresponding members, and in other respects occupying the position of similar institutions in Europe. The President of the Republic is the chief patron. The amount expended by the State annually in public instruction, is upwards of £120,000, an enormous amount considering the small population.[108]
The University is also charged with the custody of the national library of 32,000 volumes, embracing works upon every subject of scientific inquiry,[109]and the museum of natural history, in which are very complete ethnographical and geological collections. The most remarkable object in the latter is undoubtedly the native stag,Huemul, orGuamul(Cervus Chilensis), which figures conspicuously on the Chilean escutcheon, and was long regarded as a fabulous animal, as it had never been seen alive. However, in the year 1833, the specimens (male and female) at present in the museum were shot in the Cordillera de Campania, within a short period of each other.[110]
The observatory was in temporary quarters on an eminence in the midst of the city, but within a few years the new building would be completed, which was being constructed by Government for astronomical purposes, outside the town not far from the school of agriculture. The instruments in use were chiefly provided by the well-known North American traveller Gillis, who for many years carried on astronomical observations for the American Government in South America, especially in Chile, and when his labours were completed, left his instruments with the Chilean Government by way of indemnity. The management of the observatory is intrustedto Dr. Moesta, a German astronomer well-known in astronomical circles.
The school of Technology (Escuela de Artes y oficios), founded in 1845 by a French gentleman named Jariez, and, like the preceding, assisted by a grant from Government, has met with great support and success. In this eminently practical institution upwards of a hundred pupils are being taught the construction of machinery, and the various processes connected therewith, the children of poor parents having a preference. The pupils are boarded, lodged, and clothed gratuitously, and have therefore nothing to do but to remain four years in the establishment, after which they serve Government six years longer, assisting in the public works at a given remuneration, or if there should be no need for their services in the latter department, they are at liberty immediately on the expiry of their apprenticeship to follow what occupation they please. One young Chileno was pointed out to us who had risen from being a pupil to the position of foreman, and was now engaged in imparting instruction in drawing and mathematics.
As important in its way as the Escuela de Artes, and equally useful in the interests of science and industry, is theQuinta normalfor the landed proprietary. This model farm, founded in 1851, and arranged upon the French system, is situated outside the town, and consists of a tolerably extensive plot of land, which includes within its limits the new observatory and the botanical gardens. The present directoris a graduate of the Ecole Centrale of Paris, and his indefatigable activity speedily insured the prosperity of the undertaking. It is divided into two departments, a school of agriculture proper, and a veterinary college. The course, which comprises agriculture, botany, and treatment of diseases of animals, besides the elements of chemistry, physiology, geology, zoology, and geometry, besides geography and drawing, extends over three years, every pupil educated at the expense of the State being required to devote six years to the public service. Government has reserved to itself thirty free presentations, which it may increase to sixty.
The small but well-arranged museum contains an admirably selected collection of the most important esculents and grasses suitable for foddering cattle, as also the conditions of soil which are best suited for growing these, besides a number of different fruits, executed inpapier maché, with remarkable fidelity to nature, belonging to trees and plants, cultivated at the Institute, with the purpose of ultimately selling them at the proper time to farmers, and thus not only do justice to agriculture as a science, but increase its own revenue, not to speak of the benefits, direct and indirect, to the country at large. The purchaser is thus enabled to judge for himself what description of fruit will be likely to prove most remunerative to him, while the establishment at the same time realizes a considerable sum by this sale of seedlings, plants, and seeds, in a country where hitherto so little attention has been bestowed on high-class agriculture.
The zealous and far-seeing director is also endeavouring to induce the Chilean landowner to grow turnips, and other tubers, which might be used for foddering the cattle in winter, and so lead to a more economical system of cultivation, and consequent improvement of the race of farmers themselves. At present, where this kind of farming is utterly unknown, as soon as winter sets in, many a landowner finds himself compelled, year after year, to sell or kill his cattle owing to want of fodder, while he himself goes out as a day labourer, till the return of spring. The introduction and extension of such a system, which would enable him to maintain his herds and flocks all the year round, would put a stop to his present unsettled mode of life, improve his farm, and impart increased comfort and security to every relation of his business.
At thisEscuela normalwe likewise found the sorgho, or Chinese sugar-cane, in course of cultivation with great success. Though the temperature is occasionally so low in Santiago as to form, during the winter, ice[111]about two lines in thickness, the sorgho does not seem to suffer any damage, but gives its three crops each year, besides being much used for fodder. The first seeds of this species of grass, which has within four years made the circuit of the globe, and is now profitably cultivatedin almost every part of the world, were imported into Chile from the free States of North America.
Professor Domeyko, who possesses a most admirable geological and mineralogical collection, presented the Expedition with a choice selection of interesting and costly ores from the copper, silver, cobalt, and quicksilver mines of the country; and although the rich stores of publications and geological specimens with which the director of the Geological Institution of the Austrian Empire, Counsellor Haidinger, had provided for the purpose to present them to scientific institutions in the different foreign countries visited, was already exhausted and done away with, yet we had at least the satisfaction of learning that the Imperial Institute of Geology,[112]whose eminent director has extended throughout the world the renown of Austria, as a pioneer of geology, maintains already an active correspondence with the managers of the museum of the Chilean Republic.
Very soon after our arrival at Santiago, our Commodore was honoured with a special audience by the President of the Republic, H.E. Don Manuel Montt. The Commodore was accompanied by the Austrian Consul-general and the author of this narrative. The reception came off in a plain butelegantly-furnished apartment of the palace-like Government House, the style of which is quite modern. Don Manuel Montt, a short, under-sized gentleman, with dark strongly-marked features, and straight, somewhat bristly, hair, had during the recent troubles displayed more courage and energy than his external appearance would have led one to expect, and used his dictatorial authority with such discretion and prudence, as to excite the astonishment and respect of all well-wishers of his native land. He was attended at the interview by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Don Jerónimo Urmeneta, a man of frank, attractive manners, whose youth was spent in the United States, and who speaks English fluently.
The conversation turned chiefly upon the proposed commercial and navigation treaty projected by the Imperial Government, a sketch of which in the Spanish language was read over to the President by the Commodore. Don Manuel (as the highest authority in the free State of Chile was called by the people) expressed the utmost readiness to carry out this arrangement, and repeatedly avowed his wish to enter into intimate relations with the Austrian Government, and execute all necessary papers, which could assist an object fraught with such benefits to both nations. He also spoke of the desirability of endeavouring to increase the intercourse between the scientific institutes of Chile and Austria, and in token of the interest he took in the objects of the Expedition, presented a copy of Gay's splendid work, as alsoan extensive collection of all the historical and statistical papers illustrative of Chilean history during the last ten years.
The hope indulged by the Commodore of being able to get the preliminaries of the Treaty signed before our departure, were unfortunately frustrated by the serious political events which then entirely occupied the attention of the various members of Government. It was necessary by moderate measures and an energetic policy to crush out the Revolution, which had broken out about two months prior to our arrival, before it had attained uncontrollable dimensions. The insurgents in this case were not vehement hot-headed Republicans, desirous of further liberty, but reactionary Ultramontanes (of whom there always are some, even in a Republic), who wished to overthrow the existing Liberal Government, and substitute in its place a more flexible cabinet, more dependent upon party tactics. The dread lest the insurrection should spread till it resulted in civil war, which would throw back for years the prosperity of the country, proved to be well-grounded. For several of the most prominent and distinguished citizens of Chile, as also the clerical party always so powerful in Spanish American colonies, had united with the insurgents, whose youthful and ardent leader, Don Pedro Gallo, belonged to one of the wealthiest and most influential families in Chile. He had already assumed a threatening attitude in the northern provinces, where his family was held in high consideration, and had cut off all communication with the mining city of Copiapó.His mother, a lady some sixty years of age, harangued her son's troops from the balcony of her house, and repeatedly excited her auditory by shrieking out the thrilling assurance, that "she would sacrifice her last farthing would it but ensure the downfall of the existing Government, and the return to power of the party of thePeluqueros" (literally wig-makers, or Whigs, who in Chile are regarded as adherents of the Conservative, or rather reactionary party).
Of the immense sums which ambition and party rancour are willing to sacrifice in Chile, some idea may be formed from the fact that the Gallo family, at the commencement of the insurrection, engaged to devote their whole fortune, estimated at more than £600,000, in promoting the aims of the revolutionists. Fortunately for the pecuniary interests both of the family and the State, it was nipped in the bud, before any enormous expenses had been incurred, although it must be confessed that also in Chile making war is a most costly pastime. The Intendant of Valparaiso, Don Joaquim Novoa, informed us that the cost of maintaining the highly-paid Chilean army, which does not number above 8000 men, amounts to 500,000 dollars (£100,000)A WEEK!!! considerably more, proportionally, than four times the estimated cost of the highly-trained British army.
Our evenings in Santiago were usually spent in private circles, and we found ourselves in no small degree astonished at the elegance and luxury which were visible, both in the fitting up of the reception-rooms and the toilettes of the guests.It is true, we associated with the wealthiest and most distinguished families in the country, but we had not expected to find the subdued but exquisite French taste so universally prevalent. The external aspect of the houses of the Chilean patricians is rather massive than elegant. The heavy iron grating which surrounds the wide lofty windows leave a disagreeable gloomy impression. The large quadrangular court, or Patìo, enclosed by the bed-chambers, and which is common to every Spanish American house from Chile to Mexico, is intended less for the passage of air and light to the various apartments than as a place to fly to in case of an earthquake (which, however, within the last 20 years were of rare occurrence in Chile and of no great importance), whence it would be easy to escape. Usually the reception-room has no cost or pains spared to embellish it; every object or article of furniture in it being designed to produce a certain effect. The expense and risk attending the transport of a large mirror or pianoforte, or other article of similar value, from the factory at Paris to its destination in Chile, is enough to make the visitor open his eyes with amazement at beholding them there!
Conversation, which, owing to the limited information of the ladies, usually turns in South American drawing-rooms upon the most common-place subjects, is marked in Chile by all the interest and vivacity consequent on the important influence exercised by the fair sex over the politics of the country, which prefers debating important political events to idle chatter and ordinary talk.
Even more agreeable than the evenings we spent among the patrician circles of Santiago, were those which we passed with an Austrian gentleman, Dr. Herzl, settled here some ten years, and with some German-Spanish families. Here everlasting politics, or rather party squabbles, had not, as in the nativesalons, banished music and song, the latter being cherished as a means of rising out of the hurly-burly, and keeping the annoyances of public life, for the moment at least, at arm's length.
In Chilean salons nothing was talked but politics; here the bent of conversation was towards literature and art, and, climax of the evening, the beloved melodies of our native land. Madame Z——, a native of Madrid, a second time married to a German, is a downright musical prodigy. In her youth she had studied at theConservatoirein Paris in company with Madame Malibran, and although now 54, and the mother of 16 children, she still entrances by her clear ringing voice, and the charm of her exquisitely appreciative intonation.
The chief engineer and director of the southern railway (Ferro Carril del Sur), a North American gentleman named Evans, a graduate of West Point, had the kindness to invite some members of the Expedition to visit the Maipú Bridge, distant some 17 miles from Santiago, and accompanied them in person on their excursion to this the most interesting engineering work of the line. We set off at 1P.M.by one of the ordinary trains. The road is intended to unite Santiagowith the very productive district of Talca, a distance of 180 miles, and is destined to exercise a most beneficial influence in improving the position of the peasantry.
The drive through the valley of Santiago is exceedingly interesting, as the line keeps close beneath the Cordillera through nearly its entire length, thus revealing to the gaze of the astonished traveller a succession of Alpine landscapes, such as one might behold in crossing the Semmering Alp. The ordinary rate of travelling in Chile is 25 miles an hour, but the expresses occasionally run at the rate of 60 miles per hour. As the splendid pastures on either side are grazed by innumerable herds, some of which were constantly straying upon the line, the item for injury done to cattle used to assume serious proportions, owing to the negligence of the drivers, till the directors, under the advice of Mr. Evans, offered a premium of 30 dollars a quarter to any engine driver who should during that space avoid killing any of the cattle: a singular regulation, but which put a stop to the evil. The line is solidly constructed, but very simply equipped, the waiting-rooms at the different stations being entirely deficient in that luxury which the traveller is accustomed to on first-rate European lines. But it tells in favour of the dividend.[113]
The splendid and substantially-built iron bridge thrown over the Maipú here, 1500 feet wide, at an elevation of 1822 feet above the level of the sea, was like everything used on the line, with the exception of the wood, imported from North America. Of the difficulty and expense attending land-transport in Chile, some idea may be formed from the fact that the freightage of one ton of goods from New York to Valparaiso, 10,000 miles by sea, is but £1 1s., whereas the conveyance of the same quantity from Santiago to Valparaiso, only 100 miles, costs £7 7s.!!
Although evening surprised us ere we returned to Santiago from Maipú, and a dense mist hung over the landscape quite precluding all views for the greatest part of the road, we were so fortunate, shortly before our arrival at the city, as to be favoured with a glimpse of the majestic range of the Cordillera, lit up by the declining rays of the sun, a spectacle resembling the sunset splendours of the Alps in Switzerland; but the novelty of the details of which, coupled with its suddenness and brevity of duration, greatly deepened the impression of awe and admiration with which we regarded it.
At noon of the 30th of April we set out on our return to Valparaiso. On this occasion we availed ourselves of a differentkind of vehicle, an American mail-coach as it is termed, from its having been first organized by a North American, which admitted of our seeing a different range of country. In this journey we were fortunate enough to be accompanied by Mr. James Volckmann, a young German gentleman, who is an active colleague of the renowned geologist, Mr. Pissis, and has already himself contributed many valuable additions to our acquaintance with the geology of Chile. The coach stopping at Melepilla, the next station, a neat little town nestling on a level surface at the foot of a lovely valley, whence it was to proceed the following morning to the port, we took advantage of the opportunity to pay animpromptuvisit to a Chilean family in the neighbourhood, to which we had introduction. We rode out accordingly to thehaciendaof Las Esmeraldas, about two miles distant from Melepilla, where we were received like old friends of the hospitable family Lecaros. Most of the wealthy landowners of the country pass only a few months of each year in their splendid houses at Valparaiso or Santiago, and spend the rest of their time in affluent retirement upon their properties. The small, externally unsightly, mansion was furnished within with all that could minister to that genuine English notion of COMFORT; and the ladies, though the hour was so late that they could scarcely have expected any further visitors, received us in full Parisian toilette. This surprised us the more, inasmuch as the national costume is very much more graceful than that of Europe,—even an elderly female, dressedin sombre-hued silk, and with a long black coif around the head, the left ribbon of which is turned over the right shoulder, having quite a unique, piquant, and attractive appearance.
Even here the conversation took a political tone, and it speedily came to light that the stay of the ladies at Las Esmeraldas at the present inclement season was attributable less to any admiration of the beauties of nature than to some political disagreement; for the Chilean ladies, like all their sex of the Latin stock, delight in political demonstrations. However, they are mainly taken up with keeping the Ultramontane element, the influence of which is everywhere apparent, within the limits assigned it by the Constitution itself. The head of the family, Don José Antonio Lecaro, an excellent energetic old gentleman, told us a great deal about his property, of the improvements he had made and was still projecting, and we regretted that the advanced hour prevented our examining this well-managedhacienda, which is so large that the pasturage can maintain several thousand horned cattle and horses. Nevertheless, so far as regards numbers of farm-animals, it is probable that the proprietor of Las Esmeraldas is very far from being among the most extensive land-holders of Chile.
In the evening we adjourned to the elegant drawing-room, where time flew away in the most delightful manner with music and singing; the music, chiefly German, being selected, if we were not mistaken, quite as much through genuine appreciation of the greatmaestroswhose works were chosen, as to do honour to the nationality of the guests.
During the night we returned on horseback to Melepilla, and the following morning, 1st May, 1859, continued our journey to Valparaiso, where we arrived about fourP.M., full of the most delightful and varied memories of our trip.
When we reached Valparaiso the frigate was ready to sail, but her departure was delayed, as our Commodore resolved to await the arrival of the next European mail, in case he should receive further instructions as to his route. In every social circle at this place, men hoped against hope that a European Congress would be convoked, which should devise a peaceful solution of existing differences. If, however, there was to be war, then amongst all, especially the Germans resident here, it was a foregone conclusion that Germany ought to make common cause with Austria. The disappointment was not long waited for—* * * *!
The uncertainty of our stay did not admit of any more excursions being made to a distance, and the naturalists accordingly redoubled their activity in searching for subjects in the environs of the town. The Directors of the railroad from Valparaiso to Santiago, which, however, is as yet only completed as far as the little village of Guillota, were so kind as to invite the members of the Expedition to make free use of their line, and the chief engineer, Mr. Lloyd, had also issued instructions to the various station-masters to give all manner of facilities to the foreign guests, and assist them in their collections to the utmost of their power. Unfortunately we found no time to avail ourselves of this very friendly invitation,and thus had to forego an excellent opportunity for examining the line itself, and studying its interesting geological features.
We succeeded once in getting as far as Guillota, the Spa of Chile. This portion of the road, 30 miles in length, is much travelled over, the fares being 1, 2, and 3 dollars according to class, and the monthly receipts amount to from 20,000 to 25,000 dollars (£4200 to £5250).
The little village of Guillota, lying in a valley laid out in orchards and vineyards, is of enormous extent; theCalle larga, or Long Street, being six English miles in length. The houses are usually one storey, very plain and unpretending but scrupulously clean. The stranger who wanders though Guillota, and becomes sensible of the filth and dust in the streets, and the entire absence of comfort within-doors, is apt to puzzle himself how the place came to be selected for a summer resort of the fashionable world, as indeed he may marvel how the Spanish navigators, to whom Valparaiso is indebted for its name, contrived to associate the idea of the Vale of Paradise with its sandy hills and glades bare of vegetation. Possibly the summer guests, who flock hither from October to March, may be sufficiently enthusiastic in their admiration of natural scenery, to feel themselves indemnified for discomfort within-doors by the charm of the surrounding landscape. The environs are exceedingly beautiful, the valley abounds in luxuriant vegetation and beautiful distant prospects, and from the little hill of Mañaca, 150 to 200 feet in height, on thesummit of which a large wooden cross was set up by missionary preachers in 1849, there is stretched at the feet of the beholder a magnificent picture of unrivalled interest and beauty, especially when the sun is near his setting, and lights up the magnificent peaks, from 3000 to 4000 feet in height, called, from their form resembling that of a bell, Campaña and Campañita. More probably, however, the visitors from the port are at that hour busily employed at the "green tables," where, at faro and roulette, enormous sums are frequently lost and won.
One marked peculiarity, which it is impossible to avoid noticing, is the vast disproportion here between the sexes. One hardly ever sees any but ladies in the streets, or sitting elegantly attired on low stools in front of the open door, their hands busy with their work, their eyes watching the passers-by. The numerous hard-working male population is much more profitably employed in working at the city, rather than staying at home engaged in agriculture; whence it results that at Guillota, just as in some European fishing villages along our sea-coasts, the male portion of the household are often absent for weeks together, and the little hamlet has the appearance of being the head-quarters of a tribe of Amazons.
From Guillota we went on to a large hacienda, about nine miles further, called La Calera, the property of a native of Bolivia. Part of this is planted with almond trees, but by far the larger portion is devoted to wine-growing. One of theMandadores, or overseers; begged us to enter a large, handsome building where the process of wine-preparing was being carried on, and gave us some new wine, here calledChicha(pronounced Tchitcha), which tasted very sweet and palatable. The Chicha is used in enormous quantities in Chile, and is even sent abroad in large bottle-shaped skins, but, owing to this mode of keeping it, the wine, which is set down much as cider is in Normandy, acquires a villanous twang that is anything but agreeable.
In Valparaiso we were so fortunate as to fall in with Mr. Kindermann, one of the founders of the German settlement of Valdivia, who has been long resident there, and has large landed property in that direction. We also made the acquaintance of Dr. Philippi, who, although attending to his duties as Professor of Natural History in the University of Santiago, finds time to take an active part in the colony of Valdivia. It would appear from the inquiries instituted by competent persons, that the main obstacle to the permanent success and extension of the German colony consists in the want of roads, and that the fertility of the soil justifies the most sanguine hopes, so soon as more ready means of communication are provided, that the numerous products raised by this industrious community will no longer want either a steady market or extensive buyers.
Another German colony, which was organized with extensive privileges established at Punta Arenas in Magelhaen's Straits, and now numbers some 150 colonists, not onlydisplays the most cheering signs of vitality, and that in a climate which has acquired, most unjustly however, an unenviable reputation, but promises to be of great importance both to Chile itself and to the vessels of all nations navigating the Straits of Magelhaen[114]. This will be more particularly the case, so soon as the scheme projected by certain Chilean patriots is realized, of which there is an early prospect, of placing a number of steamers upon the Magelhaen-Straits' line, for the purpose of towing vessels through.
In order to form an adequate conception of the importance of this undertaking, both for Chile and all seafaring nations, it must be borne in mind, that by thus making the Straits available, vessels will not alone escape the storms of Cape Horn, but will effect a great saving in time. Maury estimates the time required by a vessel to pass from the eastern entrance of the Straits around Cape Horn to the western entrance at 25 days. They could be towed through in from four to five days, thus saving some 20 days. The tonnage passing round Cape Horn to Valparaiso alone cannot be much short of 120,000 tons of merchandise, valued at about 16,000,000 dollars (£3,200,000), so that the pecuniary returns realized by the saving of time in the voyages of these vessels promises to realize to the company a net profit of 257,776 dollars (£53,600)[115].
Of course the estimate will become very much larger, if all the sailing vessels be included which pass annually round the Horn from E. to W., amounting to some 500 in number, with a tonnage of 400,000, and cargoes valued at 53,000,000 dollars (£11,000,000). The projectors also propose to erect a lighthouse and telegraph station, both at Cape Virgin on the East, and Cape Pilar at the Western entrance, as also in Possession Bay, 40 miles W. of Virgin's Cape, at the Eastern entrance, and to have the dépôt buildings for the requisite materials at the entrance of Smythe Channel, 35 miles east of Cape Pilar. Four or five steamers of at least 500 tons are to perform the towing service, for which they propose to charge sailing vessels 1.50 dollars (6s. 3d.) per ton, less, in fact, than the charge for towing in China, Australia, &c.
The carrying out of this scheme, which must exercise an incalculable influence on the commerce of the Pacific slope of the Indies, is mainly dependent on the disposition of the Chilean Government to guarantee a given interest, and accord certain facilities to the company which is to undertake so important and heavy an enterprise. Its requirements are by no means extravagant. During a period of fifteen years, it asks for an annual subvention of 125,000 dollars,for the first five years,[116]during the next five years of 100,000 dollars, and in the last five years 75,000 dollars, after which all aid from the State is to be withdrawn. Further, the company seeks to be secured in the exclusive right during those fifteen years of working the coal-fields,[117]which are known to exist in the Straits, to be presented free of expense with the land required for the various buildings and stations, and, lastly, permission to fell wood all along Magelhaen's Straits, and in the divergent bays, gulfs, and channels, but on the condition that one half of the soil so reclaimed shall remain the property of the State, the other half to remain in perpetuity the property of the adventurers. From the day on which this project is ushered into existence by the munificence and under the auspices of the Chilean Government, a new era will commence for the shipping interest along the west coast of South America! The difficulty is in securing a monopoly of the Straits. At present any captain may run the Straits if he will, and this is occasionally done. An English man-of-war passed through in the spring of 1862.
At last, on 8th May, the European mail came in, but failed to bring the letters we expected, giving us instead only newsof several months back, our bag having been sent to Lima instead of Valparaiso. However, the news received direct from Europe left no doubt that a war was imminent between France and Austria, and this circumstance at once determined our commander, like a true patriot, to return immediately home, so as to make his own services as well as those of his subordinates available in protecting our native land from the dangers impending over it. The original plan of sailing to Lima, and thence, after visiting the Galipagos, to Buenos Ayres and Monte Video, was under the prevailing circumstances totally abandoned. In a few days more the vessel was to sail for Gibraltar direct round Cape Horn.
As this decision involved a sea-voyage of some 10,000 miles, which must naturally be almost barren of ethnographic or statistical interest, and as the arrival of theNovaraat Gibraltar could scarcely be expected under from 80 to 90 days, the author of this narrative requested permission of the commander of the Expedition to devote the time required for the frigate to make her voyage, in prosecuting a journey overland to Lima and Panama, with the intention of catching at Aspinwall the next British royal mail steamer to Europe, and thus again fall in with theNovaraat Gibraltar about the beginning of August. The paramount motive for this proposal was the wish expressed to dedicate all this time to visit Lima, Panama, and the intermediate ports, and thus to forward to the utmost the objects of the Imperial Expedition, even when it was in facthomeward bound. It was also his intention to institute certain inquiries while residing in the capital of Peru, respecting the actual condition of those Tyrolese families, who, misled by alluring prospects of all sorts, had resolved on emigrating to Peru in 1851, and had since then sunk into a most wretched state, according to indirect accounts received of their unhappy case. Commodore Wüllerstorf, always ready to assist, whenever it is in his power, in promoting and advancing scientific aims, at once acceded to this request, conceiving that it was a deviation quite within the scope of his instructions for the Expedition, and compatible with the objects aimed at by its illustrious projector.
Before the departure of theNovara, the Austrian Consul-General gave a splendid entertainment. This had been repeatedly postponed, as, under existing circumstances, it was not certain whether Chilean society could well be present. The intelligence, however, which a few days previous had been received from the Northern provinces as to the attitude of Government, the suppression of the insurrection, and the flight of the leaders, had produced a vehement reaction in the public mind, and, at least among governmental circles, had given hope of a happy solution.
Accordingly the ball came off, and very gay it was. The spacious and elegant residence of M. Flemmich (the head of the distinguished English firm of Huth, Grüning, & Co.) was richly adorned with flowers in every apartment, and the whole brilliantly lit up, while a bevy of graceful ladies sweptthrough the salons, whose natural charms were enhanced by their agreeable geniality, not less than by an elegance of toilette such as Parisian salons themselves could not have surpassed.
A few days before theNovarasailed, a merchantman dropped anchor in the roads, which on her voyage from Melbourne to Europe had, while running 11 miles an hour, come into collision with an iceberg in 60° S. and 149° E., by which she had lost bowsprit, foremast, and all her topmasts, besides carrying away her cutwater and figurehead, and damaging the hull, and, sad to relate, sacrificing the lives of sixteen persons! The spectacle presented by this mere ruin of a ship, as she ran in half dismasted under jury-rig, created profound emotion even among the seafaring portion of the community, which was still further deepened, when the full particulars of their sufferings were detailed by the passengers. The captain, fully expecting that a ship so seriously damaged must go to the bottom, formed the unworthy resolution of escaping in a boat with fifteen of the men. The whole perished, it is supposed, as nothing was ever heard of them, while the vessel, which owed her truly marvellous preservation to the fact that, having struck stem on, she had sprung no leak, though so terribly injured, was enabled to pursue her voyage to Valparaiso, where she arrived, the wind proving favourable, after a passage of 55 days.
On the 11th May all was ready for the departure of theNovara, and the officer on duty only waited a favourablebreeze to weigh anchor and set sail. Unfortunately, however, none such sprung up, and when towards 7A.M.a gentle breeze at last rippled the water, it did not last long enough to enable the vessel to clear the roads. The captain of H.M.S.Ganges(80), who, as also Admiral Baines, the venerable Commander-in-chief of the British naval forces on the Pacific station, had already in a variety of ways cordially coöperated with and aided the Austrian Expedition, sent some of his boats to tow the frigate out of the roads, in which the French corvetteConstantine, which had arrived the day before, politely assisted. Thus towed along by no less than 14 boats, theNovarasucceeded in getting into the open ocean. Favoured with a gentle breeze from the northward, she was soon able to lie her course, and towards evening, when a rather fresh S.W. sprang up, she was rapidly leaving the hospitable shores of Chile.
The Commodore thought it advisable to make an offing of from 100 to 200 miles parallel with the coast, and to keep increasing his distance even against contrary winds, so as to permit of his rounding Terra del Fuego, running free before the S.W. winds, prevalent at that season off the Horn.
The weather was from time to time heavy and unfavourable, besides being cold and rainy, but on the whole it was a very fair passage for the winter season. But few observations could be got, though there were enough to admit of keeping the ship on her course. Only once did it happen that no observations could be got for several days, till, during thenight of 23rd May the sky suddenly cleared. No sooner, however, had the officer of the watch selected a star by which to calculate his position, than he found himself involved in no small perplexity. The Southern Cross and Centaur were close to the zenith, and when the seamen directed their wondering gaze to the magnificent aspect presented by the southern stellar hemisphere, they could with difficulty recognize the old familiar European constellations as they now shone forth along the northern horizon, with sadly diminished brilliancy.
The further south theNovararan, the more melancholy grew the aspect both of the sun and the moon. Fog, clouds, and rain obscured a great proportion of the feeble light left, and although the clearness of the night occasionally made some compensation, yet to sailors long accustomed to the warm, smiling tropical skies, they seemed doubly cold and gloomy.
The frigate rolled heavily, her oscillations increasing the general discomfort, although the fetch of ocean was less than off the Cape of Good Hope. Impelled by favourable winds, the good ship rapidly neared the southernmost point of her voyage, and every one on board watched with ever-increasing interest the alterations in the natural phenomena of these inhospitable latitudes.
Several days were lost in calms and easterly winds, and partly to catch the southerly breezes which might drive her N.E. into the zone of constant winds, partly for the purposeof scientific investigation, the vessel was carried as far south as the parallel of 60°.
On 28th May, the thermometer was observed to indicate a strongly-marked and speedy decline in the temperature of the water, whence it was conjectured that polar winds would be found following the course of the cold current, or else that icebergs were near. The ship's head was now laid for Terra del Fuego, the wind blowing very gently from the N.E., but a S. wind springing up later, she began to work merrily along. Of several ships which for some days had been in sight, steering the same course as the frigate, none had ventured so far south; they now were all left behind, having lost way by over-caution. Among these was the French corvetteEurydice, which left Valparaiso Roads two days before theNovara, and was overhauled on the 29th May.
With the polar wind snow fell during the night; and when day broke, about 9A.M., the singular spectacle was presented of a ship all in white,—white masts, white yards, white cannon. This appearance was repeated the two following days only, but the weather remained for a much longer period cold and disagreeable. The lowest reading, however, of the thermometer only indicated 3° Celsius below freezing (26°.6 Fahr.).
On 29th May, about noon, theNovaracrossed the meridian of Cape Horn, and was once more in the Atlantic Ocean. Notwithstanding the uncertain conditions of wind and weather,a variety of interesting observations were made during the passage of the ship round Cape Horn, and numbers of valuable results obtained for the benefit of navigators in those high latitudes. Thus, for example, the fallacy was established of the assertion of certain navigators that "the fluctuations of the barometer off Cape Horn did not depend on the state of wind and weather." In like manner by ascertaining the mean of a variety of collated data, it was found that the temperature of the surface of the ocean demands the most careful attention, inasmuch as the alterations in it from hour to hour may be relied on to indicate corresponding changes in the wind and weather.
The low reading of the barometer off the Horn seems to be a sort of compensation for the great pressure of the air in what are known to seamen as "the Horse latitudes," and, in point of fact, the barometrical readings at 56° S. betray a drooping tendency, which corresponds with the movements of the sun, as the latter also does with that of the zone of greatest atmospheric pressure. Hence it is obvious that from this parallel the atmospheric pressure will increase as we advance to the Pole, and this law is farther confirmed by the prevailing winds further south. Hence, while we find north-west or strong west winds blowing off Cape Horn, at the South Shetland Islands, still further south, the prevailing winds are N.E. or E., thus producing contrary atmospheric currents, almost resembling chronic whirlwinds, and consequently that both north and south of the central zone, thebarometer will be found to indicate a greater atmospheric pressure.
For this reason vessels intending to round the Horn from E. to W. usually keep further to the south than those sailing in the opposite direction. On the other hand, during the winter season of the southern hemisphere, the east wind must blow more frequently at the Cape itself, in consequence of the influence exercised by the zone of least atmospheric pressure, and the weather be less likely to prove stormy. And such is found in fact to be the case.
Hitherto, with the exception of Cape Horn, so few observations have been made in high southern latitudes, that it is impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion, important as the subject is to science as well as in the interests of commerce, and which must exercise so much influence upon the whole system of atmospheric changes over the entire surface of the earth. To attain this object, an expedition consisting of but one ship cannot suffice. It would be necessary to employ several, each provided with instruments carefully compared, and which should sail simultaneously to the southern waters at definite distances from each other, and at given times make precisely similar observations and devote their entire attention to investigating the laws which regulate this puzzle to the scientific student.
Under more favourable political auspices, a joint expedition by the various naval powers would be the best means of solving the problem, and a fleet of some ten or twelve shipscommencing upon a definite plan, might obtain results such as might hand down the scientific renown of our age and century to all future generations.
While sailing in these southern latitudes, the Commodore hit upon the idea of ascertaining the increase of gravity as the poles were approached, by the comparison of simultaneous observations taken with the mercurial and Aneroid barometers. Both instruments, in fact, gave a regular rule for calculating the weight of the atmosphere at the points of observation, with this single difference, that the ordinary barometer gives the weight by the pressure of the air upon a column of mercury, representing the weight of a similar column of air; while in the Aneroid barometer, the weight of the atmosphere is measured by an exhausted receiver, which, in resisting this pressure, indicates the amount by the tension of a spring.
The indications of the Aneroid are moreover independent of the influence of universal gravity and the disturbing conditions it introduces into the instrument, to which the column of mercury is of course subject. Assuming, for example, that the ordinary barometer and the Aneroid gave the same readings, the similarity will no longer exist at a given distance from the Equator—the Aneroid, owing to the elimination of the disturbing element of gravity, indicating an increased pressure of the column of air, whereas the ordinary barometer will continue to indicate the same pressure as at the Equator. The difference between the two readings will, however, bedirectly proportionate to the amount of gravity thus got rid of, and is consequently susceptible of calculation. Although the data collected during the voyage for widely different purposes, and those now collected by means of the Aneroid, do not realize the anticipations that had been formed, to the length of utmost precision, the result has shown that much may be achieved in this direction by observations easily made in the course of a voyage even by ordinary navigators, such as would greatly benefit science; and captains of all grades, who in the course of their voyages have occasion to traverse these special latitudes, and are able to use good, reliable, thoroughly-tested instruments, might by a series of such observations add materially to our acquaintance with physical phenomena.[118]
TheNovarasailed into the Atlantic with fair strong winds, and on 1st June was about the latitude of the Falklands,[119]that interesting group of islands, which have belonged to England since 1842. The few colonists at present resident there, not exceeding some hundreds in all, are maintained here at the expense of the British Government, and trade in skins and salt provisions. However, the annual cost of keeping up the colony does not amount to above £5000. Should the project of cutting a canal across the Isthmus of Central America, which has been the dream of centuries, ever be realized, the Falklands will become one of the most solitary spots on the face of the globe, owing to the entire abandonment of the route round Cape Horn, and as such would become admirably adapted for a penal colony. Judging, however, from the information respecting the southern parts of South America furnished by Admiral Fitzroy, so well known in connection with meteorological science, the eastern side of Terra del Fuego presents much greater advantages for such a project, and we cannot but feel surprised that England has not already founded an establishment there, where so many advantages are obvious at a glance, especially those relating to navigation.
From the Falkland latitude, theNovarasteered nearly a great circle course, or, in other words, followed the shortest line of distance, to the point where she must pass through the "Horse latitudes," about 25° W. of Greenwich, and with favourable west winds, sometimes rather stormy, sped along at from 200 to 250 knots per diem on her homeward voyage. On 5th June, about 9P.M., a sudden squall from W.N.W.struck the ship about the latitude of the most northerly part of Patagonia, so violent that had not the sails been taken in with all despatch, the very masts must have been blown out of the vessel, or at all events have sustained serious injury. Notwithstanding her being short of upper sails, the frigate heeled over more at this time than at any other period throughout the voyage.
On 7th and 8th June, theNovaraencountered a severe tornado, about the latitude of the mouth of the La Plata. A violent wind, which blew from the N.N.E., on the 7th, hauled round by N. and N.N.W. to W.S.W., and reached its greatest power on the 8th, about 9A.M., the wind being N.W. At this moment the motion of the ship was so great, and she laboured so heavily in the high short waves, that the boats on her lee quarter were in imminent danger of being swept overboard. By observations made it was found that she heeled over 38° to starboard and 12° to port, so that the entire amount of oscillation was 50°.
Unfortunately one of the barometers got broke on this occasion; the officer, while observing it, being precipitated against it by a sudden roll of the ship. It was the most trustworthy instrument on board, and, albeit near the end of the voyage, it was not the less vexatious to have the series of admirable observations made with this instrument suddenly interrupted.
The 11th June possessed an interest of its own for those on board theNovara, as on that day she crossed the coursewhich she had followed two years before, in sailing from Rio to the Cape of Good Hope. Thus the actual circumnavigation had been successfully completed, and at least the material portion of the undertaking happily achieved.
Meanwhile the wind, though still always favourable, had abated greatly from its first strength, and each day saw the barometer steadily rising. Even the sea-birds, those constant attendants of vessels, so long as they are in the extra-tropical latitudes of the Southern Ocean, now gradually began to cease flitting around the ship, as she approached the hot zones.
On 15th June, in 25° 40′ S., by 25° 9′ W., the ship reached the S.E. trades. The weather was divine; the deep blue sky above, the exquisite tints of the atmosphere and the ocean, and the calm beauty of the long full-moon nights, exercised a most marked and beneficial influence upon the spirits and bodily health of the crew. Huge whales disported about, "blowing," as it is termed, immense masses of water into the air, like so many springs leaping from the bosom of the deep, or rushing upwards till half of their immense bodies emerged vertically from the water, into which they slowly plunged once more with a tremendous splash, the whole surface of the sea boiling and undulating as they fell back, athwart which might be seen dolphins gambolling about, or cleaving the blue depths with unmatched velocity. The S.E. trade blew with unbroken regularity, usually in its normal direction, but occasionally hauling up a little towards N.E., till, as weapproached the Equator, it gradually blew steadily from the S.E.
On 23rd June the Equator was reached and crossed for the sixth and last time in 26° 13′ W. In 25 days the frigate had run in a direct line 3800 nautical miles, or an average of 61⁄3knots an hour.
The very strongly-marked westerly current which prevails near the Equator materially lengthened the voyage, its strength in 2° 39′ N. and 26° 14′ W. being such that while the ship made 213 knots in the 24 hours upon her direct course, she was carried within the same period no fewer than 65 miles in a direction of W. by N.
The S.E. trade remained as such as far as 4° 36′ N., 25° 38′ W., when fresh N.E. breezes were encountered, and stayed by the ship till she reached 9° 54′ N. by 29° 42′ W. She now had to make her way slowly forward through a belt of calms, rain-squalls, and occasional puffs of wind from W. and S.W., till, at length, on 2nd July, the wind came on to blow from N.N.E., in 11° 47′ N., by 29° 29′ W.
The French corvetteEurydice, which had laid her course for St. Helena, had on that account kept more to the eastward, and had crossed the line in about 22° W., and had in consequence lost so much more way than theNovarathat she took three days longer than our frigate to get from St. Helena to lat. 20° N., to which this other circumstance contributed, that the N.E. trade does not blow so strongly or sosteadily in the vicinity of the Cape de Verd Islands as a little further out.
On 7th July, in 22° 58′ N., 36° 51′ W., theNovarareached the well-known Mar de Sargasso, a portion of the Atlantic Ocean, in which the current, setting from the coast of Africa, encounters a branch of the great gulf stream, and forms a basin of still water, in which is collected an immense mass of seaweed (sargassum bacciferum, etc.) which is propelled slowly forward in long ranks by the action of the wind.
The 9th July was a day of mourning on board. One of the sailors, who for a year past had been ailing and almost constantly in sick bay, died, and was committed to the deep, the last victim during the voyage.
Next day, in 37° 37′ N., 39° 1′ W., the N.E. trade began to draw to the eastward, and gradually became more favourable, but at the same time lost in strength, till on the 14th it failed entirely.
Several ships now hove in sight, and as one of these by her course must obviously approach the frigate pretty close, it seemed a good opportunity to get news from Europe, which the voyagers had for 54 days been speculating upon with anxious hearts. Accordingly a boat was lowered from the frigate and sent to board the merchantman, which proved to be the brigHero, Captain Williams. He had left Barcelona 50 days before, and was bound for New York. The captain accordingly was not in a position to satisfy the very natural curiosity of those on board theNovaraas to theturn affairs had taken in Europe, or to give them late intelligence of public events especially in Austria. A few half-torn newspaper leaves round some bottles of cognac was all that the most earnest wish to oblige could furbish up in the way of information. In the course of conversation with the captain, it was only casually elicited that war had broken out two months before. More than this the honest seaman did not know, feeling, in fact, much greater interest in securing a profitable freight for his ship than in the political state of Europe.
As soon as the frigate's boat had returned, the officer in charge was met with a storm of questions and inquiries. His reply was very unsatisfactory, and little consolatory. Among the fragments of papers there was little that was important, still less that could give satisfaction, and, as usually happens under such circumstances, precisely at the spot where some news of our own country had been printed, the leaf was torn across, and the rest missing. Thus the anticipations formed of obtaining intelligence from the merchantman which should allay the anxiety on board had not merely failed to do so, but had in fact increased it in intensity, and the excitement caused by this episode on the minds of all on board reached almost fever heat. One would far sooner have encountered a tempest than such uncertainty, especially if it could have driven the frigate more rapidly towards her goal!
On the 19th July, at midnight, with favourable west windsand a lovely moon, theNovarapassed between Flores and Corvo, through the narrow channel of the Azores Islands—the first land that had been sighted since the frigate left the west coast of South America, 71 days before! The fact that it was hit so accurately, also furnished satisfactory proof, in a scientific point of view, that the seven chronometers in use on board, despite 27 months of constant handling under the most varying and frequently unfavourable conditions, were still in perfect order, and indicated with admirable accuracy the longitude of the ship.
Unfortunately—a circumstance to be expected in such latitudes in the height of summer—the ship now lost entirely the favouring gales which hitherto had filled her sails, and sped her rapidly on her course. When not above a few hundred miles distant from Gibraltar, those on board had to toss about for a number of days in calms that seemed as though they would never cease. Anxiety was at its height.