PLATE 15Aerial photograph of Damm Farm (July, 1954).Numbers and letters on photograph denote the following:1. Main pasture with subdivisions a to c, respectively, northwest corner area, house pond area, and southern ravine area;2. Wooded area; and,3. Cultivated area.PLATE 16Fig. 1.A water-filled ravine in the northern part of the pasture at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). The subdivision of the pasture referred to in text as "northwest corner area" can be seen sloping into the ravine from the west (left background).Fig. 2.A cow path leading southward away from a ravine, at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). Ornate box turtles used such paths as routes of travel in the course of their daily activities.PLATE 17Fig. 1.Grassland on crest of hill at Damm Farm with northeastern corner of main pasture in background (June 29, 1958).Fig. 2.A bare area along the rock fence at northern edge of pasture at Damm Farm. Ornate box turtles could nearly always be found foraging in cow dung here and in similar areas along other fences (June 28, 1958).PLATE 18Fig. 1.A ravine in the southern part of the pasture at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). Small springs at the heads of such ravines produced marshy conditions at their bottoms and provided drinking water, in the form of shallow pools, for box turtles for at least part of the year. Banks of ravines provided suitable sites for the construction of nests and forms.Fig. 2.A mulberry tree on the bank of a ravine near northern edge of Damm pasture (June 28, 1958). Box turtles frequented the area beneath the tree when fruit fell to the ground in June and July. The ravine shown here filled with water after being dammed in June, 1956.PLATE 19Representative stages in the spermatogenic cycle ofT. o. ornata(all specimens obtained in Douglas County, Kansas, 1955).Figs. 1 to 5, respectively, are sections of seminiferous tubules obtained on May 17, June 14, July 15, Aug. 31, and Oct. 4.Fig. 6: seminiferous tubule of immature male (plastral length, 88 mm.), six years old, obtained on June 30.Fig. 7: section of epididymis from mature male obtained on April 17, three days after turtle emerged from hibernation; mature sperm form a continuous dark mass in center of epididymis.Fig. 8: sperm in uterine portion of oviduct of female obtained on April 18, 1954.Figs. 1 to 6 and 8 were photographed × 430, and were enlarged 1.4 times.Fig. 7 was photographed × 35, and was enlarged 1.4 times.PLATE 20Fig. 1.Left ovary of mature female, prior to ovulation, May 15, 1956 (× 1).Fig. 2.Fresh corpus luteum, June 2, 1956 (× 4½).Fig. 3.Testes of mature male, August 31, 1955 (× 1).Fig. 4.Testes of mature male, April 14, 1956 (× 2).Fig. 5.Left ovary of subadult female (seven years old, plastral length, 114 mm.) that would have matured in approximately one year (× 1½).Fig. 6.Left ovary of juvenal female (11 years old, plastral length, 95 mm., × 1½).PLATE 21Fig. 1.A trial nest cavity excavated by a gravidT. o. ornataat the Damm Farm on June 8, 1956. The cavity was situated at the edge of a grassy area on the upper rim of a ravine embankment. Twelve-inch ruler shows scale.Fig. 2.A depression, resulting from an old post-hole, showing the openings made by three box turtles as they left their hibernacula in April, 1956 (photographed May 15, 1956). Twelve-inch ruler shows scale.PLATE 22Fig. 1.Right abdominal lamina (× 2½) of a four-year-old juvenal male showing method of measuring growth-rings. The last growth-ring (4) was formed at the end of the 1954 growing season. The first growth-ring (H) marks the end of the season of hatching (1950). The umbilical scar (U) is faintly visible. The growth-zone for 1955 (specimen captured June 23) is just beginning to show in interlaminal seam.Fig. 2.Left—Right abdominal lamina (× 2) of subadult female, eight years old. The last growth-zone was formed in 1954. Note the relatively small growth increments in 1952 and 1953. The growth-zone for 1955 (date of capture, May 8) is not yet visible. This specimen grew more in the season of hatching (1946) than the specimen shown above in Fig. 1. Right—Interpectoral seam (× 3) of adult male showing slowness of growth in later life. The widest growth-zone seen here was formed in the tenth year and is followed by four zones too narrow to measure accurately. It is uncertain whether this specimen was still growing in the year it was captured (1923).PLATE 23Ontogenetic change in color and markings of carapace. Radial markings begin to develop at the onset of epidermal growth. Markings are sharply defined in juveniles and young adults but may be obscured in later life by the encroachment of dark ground color or by wear on the shell.Figures are as follows:Upper left—Hatchling (× 1½);Upper right—Juvenile (× 1), one year old; Lower left—Juvenile (× 1), one year old;Lower left—Female (×7∕16) showing typical adult markings;Lower right—Adult male (× ½) showing blotched pattern resulting from wear on shell.PLATE 24Ontogenetic change in color and markings of plastron. Dark markings on plastra of hatchlings are unbroken. Dark radiations appear when epidermal growth begins.Figures are as follows:Upper left—Hatchling (× 1½);Upper right—Juvenile (× 1);Lower left—Female (×7∕16) showing typical adult markings;Lower right—Adult male (× ½) showing the effect of wear on markings. Plastra of old individuals are sometimes solid yellow. Note the break in the plastron that has healed and filled with ligamentous tissue.PLATE 25Ontogenetic change and sexual dimorphism in shape, color, and markings of head and neck. Females retain much of the juvenal pattern of spots and blotches. In males, the top and sides of the head become greenish or bluish and markings are obscured.Figs. 1 and 3. Lateral and dorsal views of hatchling (× 3½);Figs. 2 and 4. Lateral and dorsal views of juvenile (× 2);Figs. 5 and 6. Adult female (× 1);Figs. 7 and 8. Adult male (× 1) showing relatively wider and more truncated snout in this sex.PLATE 26Fig. 1.A foraging station next to a rock fence at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). The box turtle in foreground was in the act of tearing apart a pile of partially dried cow dung to obtain dung insects.Fig. 2.A depression (× ½) made by a foraging box turtle in a pile of partially dried cow dung (June 28, 1958). Similar "sign" of box turtles was found in cow dung everywhere on the pasture at the Damm Farm.PLATE 27Fig. 1.Thread-laying device ("trailer") taped to the carapace of an adult femaleT. o. ornata. The squares of tape on the sides are to keep the bent-over ends of the wire axle from catching on vegetation (× ½).Fig. 2.A dermal pocket ("cyst") removed from an adultT. ornataand cut open to show two larval bot flies (Sarcophaga cistudinis) (× 2, May 15, 1956).PLATE 28Figs. 1-3.Stages in courtship ofT. o. ornata: male pursuing female and biting her shell; male lunging at female in attempt to mount; and, male just after mounting female (× ¼).Fig. 4.T. o. ornatasmelling food (× 1).Fig. 5.T. o. ornatain attitude of alertness after detecting intruder (×3∕8).Fig. 6.Tracks ofT. o. ornatain muddy ravine (×1∕8) (June 5, 1956).PLATE 29Fig. 1.A small, nearly-healed, injury on the carapace of an adultT. o. ornata(× 2). Note regenerated epidermis at bottom of depression and two pieces of dead bone ("splinter scars") at upper right margin of depression.Fig. 2.Injured area on the carapace of a juvenalT. o. ornata(× 3) with dead bone removed and laid to the right, exposing regenerating epidermis in its early stages.Fig. 3.Anterior edge of carapace (held away with forceps) of specimen ofT. carolina(KU 51461, Gulf Co., Florida) that had been badly burned (×8∕9). Nearly all the scutes of the shell had fallen off and large pieces of dead bone could be pulled away, exposing a gnarled mass of regenerating bone and epidermis.Fig. 4.A fracture that has healed and joined the tibia (upper bone) to the fibula in a specimen ofT. o. ornata(KU 1877, × 3½).PLATE 30Top:A shell ofT. o. ornata(× ½) as it was found at the Damm Farm June 1, 1956. A serious injury (probably resulting from burns) had exposed a large area of dead bone on the carapace.Center:Same shell with some of scutes removed.Bottom:Same shell with dead bone removed to expose regenerating epidermis and bone. Note that the injury involved several of the neural bones; the turtle probably died as a result of this injury but not before regeneration was approximately one-half completed.Terrapene ornataseems to concentrate its breeding season (laying, incubation, and hatching of eggs) more nearly in the middle of the warm season than doesT. c. carolina. This concentration probably is an adaptation for breeding in open habitats where, under environmental temperatures less equable than in forest, eggs would develop more rapidly and hatch sooner but would be less able to survive winter temperatures.Males ofT. o. ornatabecome sexually mature when younger and smaller than females and rarely grow as large as females. Nichols (1939a:20) indicated the reverse to be true ofT. c. carolina; Nichols further indicated that growth continued some six to eight years after puberty. Most individuals ofT. o. ornataattain maximum size within two to three years after puberty.Although it is difficult to be certain about the adaptive value of color and pattern, it seems that in box turtles, as in many other kinds of animals, patterns and colors most nearly blending with those of the habitat have some selective value in providing concealment from enemies. The pattern of linear radiations inT. o. ornataclosely resembles the patterns formed by light passing through grasses and associated vegetation and camouflages the turtle. In a similar manner, partial or complete loss of radial markings inT. o. luteolaseems to provide concealment in habitats where vegetation is sparse and where blending with the substrate is of survival value. The patterns of blotches and broken radiations in most of the subspecies ofT. carolinalikewise provide camouflage by tending to match patterns formed by the light passing through a leafy canopy.Although ornate box turtles are omnivorous, they probably depend on insects as a dietary staple. In years when preferred kinds of insects were unusually abundant, the turtles grew more than in other years. A large proportion of the insects eaten is obtained by foraging in or near dung. Alteration of the dung community—at least in a physical sense, but presumably also by influencing the successional stages of the dung biota—is one of the few evident effects of box turtles on the environment. Although certain kinosternids (Carr, 1952:93), emyids (Deraniyagala, 1939:257; Loveridge and Williams, 1957:198), and testudinids (Loveridge and Williams,op. cit.:247) eat mammalian feces,T. ornatais seemingly the only chelonian that habitually seeks its staple diet in dung. The habit seems to be yet another specialization for terrestrial existence. The carnivorous habits ofT. ornatareverse the general trend toward omnivorous and herbivorous habits in other turtlesthat have become partly (emyids) or wholly (testudinids) terrestrial.It seems remarkable that none of the species of true tortoises occurring in the grasslands of the world has developed insectivorous habits or utilized the unique food niche (in regard to dung-foraging) filled by ornate box turtles in the Great Plains; tortoises are, as far as is known, strictly herbivorous. The ranges ofGopherusandTerrapeneare now almost mutually exclusive and the two kinds do not compete with each other for food in the few places where they occur together. It is known, however, that box turtles (T. longinsulae,ornata-like, earliest known box turtle) and true tortoises (generaTestudoandGopherus, see Williams, 1950:25-26, Fig. 2) occurred together in what is now the Great Plains in early Pliocene times and probably for some time before and after this. Assuming that food habits of fossil representatives of these genera were somewhat like the habits of recent representatives, ornate box turtles may have developed insectivorous habits at a time when other food niches were filled by herbivorous tortoises. Box turtles possibly survived subsequent changes in habitat that made it impossible for populations of large tortoises to exist in the Great Plains.SUMMARYBox turtles of the genusTerrapeneare emyid turtles that are specialized for terrestrial existence. Two of the seven species now recognized—T. ornataandT. carolina—occur in the United States.Terrapene carolinainhabits forested areas in the east whereasT. ornatais characteristic of open grassy areas in the west; the ranges of the two species overlap in the broad belt of prairie-forest ecotone in the central United States.Terrapene ornatais considered to be the most specialized of living box turtles.The natural history ofT. o. ornataAgassiz was studied in the period, 1953 to 1957. Intensive field studies were made in Douglas County, northeastern Kansas, on a small area of prairie and on the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation. Field observations were made also in a number of other places in eastern Kansas. Laboratory studies supplemented field studies.Habitats occupied are chiefly open areas; they vary in regard to food supply, temperature, moisture, and kind of soil. The grassy prairies of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and northern Texas seem to provide optimum habitat for ornate box turtles; in these areas box turtles are active on a majority of days from April toOctober. The subspeciesluteolais adapted to the more rigorous and arid environment of the southwestern United States, where activity may be possible for only a few weeks in the year. The remainder of the year is spent in a state of quiescence. Factors limiting the distribution ofT. ornataare: 1) the presence of a substrate too hard to permit digging of nests and forms (altitudinal distribution in southwestern United States and distribution at western edge of the range); 2) temperatures causing the ground to freeze deep enough (approximately 30 inches) to kill turtles in hibernacula (northern edge of range); and, 3) the lack of one or more relatively wet periods in the course of the warm season, preventing at least temporary emergence from quiescence (southwestern part of range). The activities of man probably have affected population density in local areas but limit the geographic range only in the north (Blanchard, 1923:19-20, 24) where intensive cultivation probably has excluded the species.Preferred habitat in northeastern Kansas is open rolling grassland grazed by cattle; populations are most dense near natural breaks in the grassy vegetation such as fences, scattered rocks on hillsides, ravines, and stream-beds.Mating occurs most commonly in spring and autumn; courtship behavior includes pushing and biting on the part of the male. In coitus the hind legs of the male are held tightly by the female; the male falls backward after coitus, still clasped by the female. A few sperm are stored in the oviducts; fertilization without reinsemination can occur. The spermatogenic cycle begins in May and reaches its peak in September, when large numbers of sperm and spermatids are present in the testes; the cycle is completed in October, when sperm pass into the epididymides. The testes are smallest in spring and largest in September. Females are inseminated with sperm produced in the preceding year. The ovarian cycle begins in midsummer, soon after ovulation, and continues up to the time of the next ovulation. Follicular growth is rapid in the period from spring emergence to ovulation. Large follicles remaining after ovulation represent, in many instances, eggs that will be laid later in the same season. Follicular atresia is never great enough to account for the destruction of all large follicles remaining after ovulation. All mature females lay at least one clutch of eggs per year. It is estimated that one-third of the females produces two clutches of eggs in a single season. Second clutches contain fewer eggs than first clutches. An alternationof ovarian activity occurs, whereby one ovary is more active than its partner in one season and less active in the next season. Alternating activity of ovaries accounts in part for the reduced number of eggs in young females, breeding for the first time, and in older, nearly senile females. Extrauterine migration of ova results usually in a more even distribution of eggs in the oviducts. Corpora lutea constitute an accurate record of the number of eggs produced by the ovary as well as the number of eggs laid.Nesting occurs from May through July but is most common in mid-June; some of the females nesting early in the season lay a second clutch of eggs in July. Nests are dug in the earth by the female using her hind legs. Preferred nesting sites are open, well-drained places with a soft substrate. The nesting site is selected after a period of wandering, in which the female tests the substrate at a number of places; some females search for a nest site for more than a week. Nest digging begins in the evening and is usually completed after dark. Captive females dug a preliminary cavity in which the body rested during the digging of the main nest cavity. The entire clutch of eggs is laid in one nest. The average number of eggs in 23 clutches was 4.7 (range, 2 to 8). The average size of eggs tends to be inversely proportional to the number of eggs in a clutch. Eggs increase in bulk by absorption of water in the course of incubation. Immersion in water for short periods does not harm eggs. The incubation period under favorable environmental conditions is approximately 65 days; cool, damp conditions prolong the incubation period and probably constitute an important factor of prenatal mortality in certain years. Eggs that do not hatch before winter probably do not survive. Emergence of hatchlings from the nest may, however, be delayed until spring if the soil is dry in autumn. Hatchlings can probably escape freezing by burrowing into the walls of the nest. Infertility and prenatal mortality account for at least 40 per cent of the eggs laid, according to laboratory findings. Progeny of a single adult female (considering factors of mortality, multiple layings, and average age of puberty) would number approximately 300 after 20 years. Reproductive processes probably continue throughout life, although possibly at a somewhat reduced rate in later life.Young box turtles are active soon after hatching but become quiescent if allowed to burrow in soil or if they are covered with damp cotton. Some captive hatchlings take live food in the first days of life but others do not eat until the following spring; initiationof growth is coincident with initiation of regular feeding. The yolk sac retracts mainly during hatching; it sometimes ruptures after hatching. The caruncle remains on the beak for a variable length of time, but never is present in the spring following hatching.Major growth-rings on the epidermal laminae are formed regularly, one after each season of growth, in the first 10 to 14 years of life. Minor growth-rings occur between major rings and are shallower. Growth of epidermal laminae results from the formation, in spring, of a new layer of epidermis beneath the existing scute. The peripheral projection of the new layer is distinct in texture and color from the older part of the scute and is separated from it by a major growth-ring. Minor growth-rings form when growth slows or temporarily stops during periods of quiescence; no new layer of epidermis is formed. Growth-rings constitute an accurate record of growth that can be studied at any time in the life of the turtle; they are accurate indicators of age only as long as regular annual growth persists.Growth in the season of hatching depends on early hatching and early emergence from the nest. Turtles that remain in the nest until spring probably do not grow. Slightly less than half of the free-living individuals studied grew in the season of hatching. Precociousness in early life often results in the attainment of sexual maturity at an earlier than average age.Growth is rapid at first (increments in plastral length average 68, 29, and 18 per cent, respectively, in the first three years) and then slows gradually until puberty. Attainment of sexual maturity is more closely correlated with size than with age. Males mature when smaller (76 per cent were mature when plastron 100 to 109 mm. long) and younger (average age, eight to nine years) than females (66 per cent were mature when plastron 110 to 119 mm. long, average age at maturity, ten to eleven years) but females grow larger than males. A few individuals of each sex reach puberty three to four years sooner than average.The average number of growing days per season is approximately 160. Amount of growth in any season depends on climatic factors that influence food supply and foraging conditions. Growth rate is directly correlated with precipitation, being highest when large populations of grasshoppers and long periods of favorable weather occur in the same year. Zones of epidermis formed in years when growth was especially slow or especially fast constituted landmarksthat were helpful in interpreting growth-histories. Growth stops two to three years after puberty. The total growing period is estimated to be not more than 15 to 20 years. Longevity is estimated to be approximately 50 years.A number of changes in structure and appearance occur in the period from hatching to puberty. Fontanelles of the bony shell close at or before puberty. Movable parts of the plastron are not functional until the fourth year. Markings on the carapace change from a series of dots to distinct, straight-sided radiations, and a similar pattern develops on the plastron. Markings on the heads of females resemble those of juveniles but males have greenish heads. Males further differ from females in having a red iris, more brightly colored antebrachial scales, and a turned in first toe.Analysis of some 500 body temperatures (Centigrade) obtained under natural conditions revealed the following: the optimum temperature for activity is near 30 degrees; box turtles emerge from cover usually when body temperature is 24 degrees or higher, and almost never when the body temperature is below 15 degrees; body temperature is raised to optimum by basking in open areas although activity begins at suboptimum temperatures if basking is impossible; cover of dens, burrows, or forms is sought when the body temperature rises above 30 degrees; and, maximum and minimum body temperatures that would be lethal to box turtles (for prolonged periods) are approximately 40 and zero degrees, respectively. Laboratory experiments showed speed of response to environmental temperature to be inversely proportional to bulk; hatchlings could be chilled or warmed more than twice as fast as adults and were active within a narrower range of temperature. Ornate box turtles in general are subject to a narrower range of thermal activity than are aquatic turtles that occur in the same areas.Box turtles are dormant approximately five and one-half months of the year—from late October to mid-April. Warm weather in November and late March sometimes stimulates temporary activity but dormancy is uninterrupted from mid-November to early March. Forms, dens, and burrows are used as hibernacula. Depth of hibernacula is dependent on severity of temperatures and amount of vegetational cover; hibernacula in open grassland were seven to 18 inches deep whereas those in wooded areas were six inches or shallower. Box turtles are ordinarily solitary when hibernating. Injuries and deaths due to freezing probably occur in the coldest part of the winter. The lowest body temperature of a turtle thatsurvived a winter was 2.7 degrees; an individual, the temperature of which was nearly zero for several days, subsequently died. Turtles burrow upward at the end of hibernation and remain just below the surface for a week or two before emerging. The primary stimulus for emergence seems to be a period of warm moist weather.Populations ofT. ornataobserved under natural conditions were chiefly carnivorous, although captives ate a variety of animal and vegetable matter. Insects, consisting chiefly of beetles, caterpillars, and one species of grasshopper, comprised approximately 89 per cent (by volume) of the food present in stomachs. Beetles (chiefly scarabaeids and carabids) are obtained in or near dung and seem to constitute the most important staple element of the diet. Piles of dung, disturbed by turtles in the course of their foragings, were characteristic "sign" ofT. ornatain the areas studied.Insects form the bulk of the diet for most of the year, although certain other foods, when especially abundant for short periods (mulberries for example), are eaten in large quantity or eaten to the exclusion of all other foods. Ornate box turtles occasionally eat the eggs and young of ground-nesting birds and slightly damage vegetables, but in no instance do these feeding habits significantly affect the economy of man. Box turtles probably benefit man by destroying large numbers of crop-damaging insects (locustids and noctuid caterpillars).Box turtles were more numerous than most kinds of reptiles at the Damm Farm and were the most conspicuous of any kind of reptile. One hundred and ninety-four turtles were marked; one-fourth of these were recaptured at least twice. Population density in certain areas of favorable habitat ranged from 2.6 to 6.3 turtles per acre. The total number of individuals on the study area was estimated to be 286. The marked population consisted of 53 per cent adult or subadult females, 31 per cent adult males, and 16 per cent juveniles of undetermined sex. Only six individuals had plastra shorter than 60 millimeters. Small box turtles are not so rare as these samples indicate; they are infrequently obtained because their smallness and ability to blend with the substrate make them difficult to see. More females than males were found in all months of the season of activity, excepting April and August when more males were found; the preponderance of females was greatest in the nesting season (June and July).Ornate box turtles walk with the shell held off the substrate. They are able to climb steep embankments or low barriers withsome facility. Swimming ability is sufficient to permit survival in water and traversal of water-barriers but ornate box turtles almost never swim voluntarily.Daily activity consists of periods of basking, foraging, and rest, the durations of which are influenced by temperature and humidity. There is no activity after dark except that of nesting females. After several days of activity there is a period of rest; rest periods seemed not to be correlated with climatic conditions. The average distance traveled per day in summer is 200 to 300 feet. Movements of gravid females are more extensive (average, 363 feet per day) than those of other members of the population; one individual traveled approximately one-fourth of a mile in a single day. Turtles removed from their normal home ranges traveled farther per day than any other group. Movements in autumn are less extensive (average, 152 feet per day) than at other times in the season of activity.Individual box turtles tended to remain in small areas for long periods; these areas were interpreted as home ranges. The estimated average radius of 44 home ranges was 278 feet (average area, 5.6 acres). The average area of eight home ranges that were actually measured was five acres. General suitability of habitat and certain physical features of terrain (rock fences, ravines, barren fields) that acted as barriers were thought to be the most important factors governing size of home range. Of two turtles removed more than one-fourth of a mile from their home ranges, one homed and one did not. Home ranges of turtles of all ages and sexes overlap broadly. There was no indication that territoriality or social hierarchy existed in the population studied.Box turtles are subject to injury from natural causes that include fire, cold, molestation by predators, and trampling by cattle. Automobiles and farm machinery now constitute major causes of mortality and serious injury. Capacity to recover after serious injury is great but there is increased chance for secondary injury, infection, and predation in the period of recovery. Pits on the shell from unknown causes ("shell pitting") are less common in ornate box turtles than in other kinds of turtles.Ectoparasites infestingT. ornataare larvae of chigger mites (genusTrombicula) and larvae of bot flies (Sarcophaga cistudinis). Ectoparasites usually have little adverse effect on the turtles, although heavy infestations cause occasional injury or death.Few natural enemies other than man are known; however mostwild carnivores as well as opossums, large birds, and domestic dogs and cats are suspect as predators. The incidence of predation on eggs and small juveniles is far greater than on older juveniles and adults. Adults ofT. ornataoccasionally attack smaller individuals.Ornate box turtles are able to detect the presence of intruders, by sight, from a distance of several hundred feet in open country; apparently, intruders are not detected until seen. Defensive behavior is passive; the shell is closed tightly in response to painful stimuli and, in some instances, at the sight of an intruder. Juveniles usually void odoriferous fluid from the musk glands when handled but adults do so only in response to pain or injury. The function of the musk glands is unknown; possibly the odor of musk is a means of sexual identification or stimulation. Although the musk is probably distasteful to predators, repellent odor alone seems to be of doubtful value as a defense mechanism.LITERATURE CITEDAgassiz, L.1857. Embryology of the turtle. Contributions to the natural history of the United States, 2(3):451-643, 27 pls., 12 wood-cuts in text, tables. Little, Brown and Co., Boston.Allard, H. A.1935. The natural history of the box turtle. Sci. Monthly, 41:325-338.1939. Mating of the box-turtle ending in death of the male. Copeia, 1939(2):109.Altland, P. D.1951. Observations on the structure of the reproductive organs of the box turtle. Journ. Morph., 89:599-621, 16 figs.Auffenberg, W.1958. Fossil turtles of the genusTerrapenein Florida. Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci., 3(2):53-92, 15 figs., 5 tables.Bailey, R. M.1948. Winter mortality in the snakeStoreria dekayi. Copeia, 1948 (3):215.Belding, D. L.1952. Textbook of clinical parasitology. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., New York, viii + 1139 pp., 283 figs.Blanchard, F. N.1923. The amphibians and reptiles of Dickinson County, Iowa. Univ. Iowa, Studies Nat. Hist., 10:19-26.Bogert, C. M.1937. Note on the growth rate of the desert tortoise,Gopherus agassizi. Copeia, 1937(3):191-192.Booth, K.1958. Development of eggs and young of desert tortoise. Herpetologica, 13(4):261-263.Breder, R. B.1927. Turtle trailing: a new technique for studying the life habits of certain Testudinata. Zoologica, 9(4):231-243.Brennan, L. A.1937. A study of the habitat of the reptiles and amphibians of Ellis County, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 40:341-347, 1 table.Brumwell, M. J.1940. Notes on the courtship of the turtle,Terrapene ornata. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 43:391-392.Cagle, F. R.1939. A system of marking turtles for future identification. Copeia, 1939(3):170-173, 5 figs.1944. Home range, homing behavior, and migration in turtles. Misc. Publ., Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, No. 61, 34 pp., 2 pls., 4 figs., 5 tables.
PLATE 15
Aerial photograph of Damm Farm (July, 1954).
Numbers and letters on photograph denote the following:
1. Main pasture with subdivisions a to c, respectively, northwest corner area, house pond area, and southern ravine area;
2. Wooded area; and,
3. Cultivated area.
PLATE 16
Fig. 1.A water-filled ravine in the northern part of the pasture at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). The subdivision of the pasture referred to in text as "northwest corner area" can be seen sloping into the ravine from the west (left background).
Fig. 2.A cow path leading southward away from a ravine, at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). Ornate box turtles used such paths as routes of travel in the course of their daily activities.
PLATE 17
Fig. 1.Grassland on crest of hill at Damm Farm with northeastern corner of main pasture in background (June 29, 1958).
Fig. 2.A bare area along the rock fence at northern edge of pasture at Damm Farm. Ornate box turtles could nearly always be found foraging in cow dung here and in similar areas along other fences (June 28, 1958).
PLATE 18
Fig. 1.A ravine in the southern part of the pasture at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). Small springs at the heads of such ravines produced marshy conditions at their bottoms and provided drinking water, in the form of shallow pools, for box turtles for at least part of the year. Banks of ravines provided suitable sites for the construction of nests and forms.
Fig. 2.A mulberry tree on the bank of a ravine near northern edge of Damm pasture (June 28, 1958). Box turtles frequented the area beneath the tree when fruit fell to the ground in June and July. The ravine shown here filled with water after being dammed in June, 1956.
PLATE 19
Representative stages in the spermatogenic cycle ofT. o. ornata(all specimens obtained in Douglas County, Kansas, 1955).
Figs. 1 to 5, respectively, are sections of seminiferous tubules obtained on May 17, June 14, July 15, Aug. 31, and Oct. 4.
Fig. 6: seminiferous tubule of immature male (plastral length, 88 mm.), six years old, obtained on June 30.
Fig. 7: section of epididymis from mature male obtained on April 17, three days after turtle emerged from hibernation; mature sperm form a continuous dark mass in center of epididymis.
Fig. 8: sperm in uterine portion of oviduct of female obtained on April 18, 1954.
Figs. 1 to 6 and 8 were photographed × 430, and were enlarged 1.4 times.
Fig. 7 was photographed × 35, and was enlarged 1.4 times.
PLATE 20
Fig. 1.Left ovary of mature female, prior to ovulation, May 15, 1956 (× 1).
Fig. 2.Fresh corpus luteum, June 2, 1956 (× 4½).
Fig. 3.Testes of mature male, August 31, 1955 (× 1).Fig. 4.Testes of mature male, April 14, 1956 (× 2).
Fig. 5.Left ovary of subadult female (seven years old, plastral length, 114 mm.) that would have matured in approximately one year (× 1½).
Fig. 6.Left ovary of juvenal female (11 years old, plastral length, 95 mm., × 1½).
PLATE 21
Fig. 1.A trial nest cavity excavated by a gravidT. o. ornataat the Damm Farm on June 8, 1956. The cavity was situated at the edge of a grassy area on the upper rim of a ravine embankment. Twelve-inch ruler shows scale.
Fig. 2.A depression, resulting from an old post-hole, showing the openings made by three box turtles as they left their hibernacula in April, 1956 (photographed May 15, 1956). Twelve-inch ruler shows scale.
PLATE 22
Fig. 1.Right abdominal lamina (× 2½) of a four-year-old juvenal male showing method of measuring growth-rings. The last growth-ring (4) was formed at the end of the 1954 growing season. The first growth-ring (H) marks the end of the season of hatching (1950). The umbilical scar (U) is faintly visible. The growth-zone for 1955 (specimen captured June 23) is just beginning to show in interlaminal seam.
Fig. 2.Left—Right abdominal lamina (× 2) of subadult female, eight years old. The last growth-zone was formed in 1954. Note the relatively small growth increments in 1952 and 1953. The growth-zone for 1955 (date of capture, May 8) is not yet visible. This specimen grew more in the season of hatching (1946) than the specimen shown above in Fig. 1. Right—Interpectoral seam (× 3) of adult male showing slowness of growth in later life. The widest growth-zone seen here was formed in the tenth year and is followed by four zones too narrow to measure accurately. It is uncertain whether this specimen was still growing in the year it was captured (1923).
PLATE 23
Ontogenetic change in color and markings of carapace. Radial markings begin to develop at the onset of epidermal growth. Markings are sharply defined in juveniles and young adults but may be obscured in later life by the encroachment of dark ground color or by wear on the shell.
Figures are as follows:
Upper left—Hatchling (× 1½);
Upper right—Juvenile (× 1), one year old; Lower left—Juvenile (× 1), one year old;
Lower left—Female (×7∕16) showing typical adult markings;Lower right—Adult male (× ½) showing blotched pattern resulting from wear on shell.
PLATE 24
Ontogenetic change in color and markings of plastron. Dark markings on plastra of hatchlings are unbroken. Dark radiations appear when epidermal growth begins.
Figures are as follows:
Upper left—Hatchling (× 1½);
Upper right—Juvenile (× 1);
Lower left—Female (×7∕16) showing typical adult markings;
Lower right—Adult male (× ½) showing the effect of wear on markings. Plastra of old individuals are sometimes solid yellow. Note the break in the plastron that has healed and filled with ligamentous tissue.
PLATE 25
Ontogenetic change and sexual dimorphism in shape, color, and markings of head and neck. Females retain much of the juvenal pattern of spots and blotches. In males, the top and sides of the head become greenish or bluish and markings are obscured.
Figs. 1 and 3. Lateral and dorsal views of hatchling (× 3½);
Figs. 2 and 4. Lateral and dorsal views of juvenile (× 2);
Figs. 5 and 6. Adult female (× 1);
Figs. 7 and 8. Adult male (× 1) showing relatively wider and more truncated snout in this sex.
PLATE 26
Fig. 1.A foraging station next to a rock fence at the Damm Farm (June 28, 1958). The box turtle in foreground was in the act of tearing apart a pile of partially dried cow dung to obtain dung insects.
Fig. 2.A depression (× ½) made by a foraging box turtle in a pile of partially dried cow dung (June 28, 1958). Similar "sign" of box turtles was found in cow dung everywhere on the pasture at the Damm Farm.
PLATE 27
Fig. 1.Thread-laying device ("trailer") taped to the carapace of an adult femaleT. o. ornata. The squares of tape on the sides are to keep the bent-over ends of the wire axle from catching on vegetation (× ½).
Fig. 2.A dermal pocket ("cyst") removed from an adultT. ornataand cut open to show two larval bot flies (Sarcophaga cistudinis) (× 2, May 15, 1956).
PLATE 28
Figs. 1-3.Stages in courtship ofT. o. ornata: male pursuing female and biting her shell; male lunging at female in attempt to mount; and, male just after mounting female (× ¼).
Fig. 4.T. o. ornatasmelling food (× 1).
Fig. 5.T. o. ornatain attitude of alertness after detecting intruder (×3∕8).
Fig. 6.Tracks ofT. o. ornatain muddy ravine (×1∕8) (June 5, 1956).
PLATE 29
Fig. 1.A small, nearly-healed, injury on the carapace of an adultT. o. ornata(× 2). Note regenerated epidermis at bottom of depression and two pieces of dead bone ("splinter scars") at upper right margin of depression.
Fig. 2.Injured area on the carapace of a juvenalT. o. ornata(× 3) with dead bone removed and laid to the right, exposing regenerating epidermis in its early stages.
Fig. 3.Anterior edge of carapace (held away with forceps) of specimen ofT. carolina(KU 51461, Gulf Co., Florida) that had been badly burned (×8∕9). Nearly all the scutes of the shell had fallen off and large pieces of dead bone could be pulled away, exposing a gnarled mass of regenerating bone and epidermis.
Fig. 4.A fracture that has healed and joined the tibia (upper bone) to the fibula in a specimen ofT. o. ornata(KU 1877, × 3½).
PLATE 30
Top:A shell ofT. o. ornata(× ½) as it was found at the Damm Farm June 1, 1956. A serious injury (probably resulting from burns) had exposed a large area of dead bone on the carapace.
Center:Same shell with some of scutes removed.
Bottom:Same shell with dead bone removed to expose regenerating epidermis and bone. Note that the injury involved several of the neural bones; the turtle probably died as a result of this injury but not before regeneration was approximately one-half completed.
Terrapene ornataseems to concentrate its breeding season (laying, incubation, and hatching of eggs) more nearly in the middle of the warm season than doesT. c. carolina. This concentration probably is an adaptation for breeding in open habitats where, under environmental temperatures less equable than in forest, eggs would develop more rapidly and hatch sooner but would be less able to survive winter temperatures.
Males ofT. o. ornatabecome sexually mature when younger and smaller than females and rarely grow as large as females. Nichols (1939a:20) indicated the reverse to be true ofT. c. carolina; Nichols further indicated that growth continued some six to eight years after puberty. Most individuals ofT. o. ornataattain maximum size within two to three years after puberty.
Although it is difficult to be certain about the adaptive value of color and pattern, it seems that in box turtles, as in many other kinds of animals, patterns and colors most nearly blending with those of the habitat have some selective value in providing concealment from enemies. The pattern of linear radiations inT. o. ornataclosely resembles the patterns formed by light passing through grasses and associated vegetation and camouflages the turtle. In a similar manner, partial or complete loss of radial markings inT. o. luteolaseems to provide concealment in habitats where vegetation is sparse and where blending with the substrate is of survival value. The patterns of blotches and broken radiations in most of the subspecies ofT. carolinalikewise provide camouflage by tending to match patterns formed by the light passing through a leafy canopy.
Although ornate box turtles are omnivorous, they probably depend on insects as a dietary staple. In years when preferred kinds of insects were unusually abundant, the turtles grew more than in other years. A large proportion of the insects eaten is obtained by foraging in or near dung. Alteration of the dung community—at least in a physical sense, but presumably also by influencing the successional stages of the dung biota—is one of the few evident effects of box turtles on the environment. Although certain kinosternids (Carr, 1952:93), emyids (Deraniyagala, 1939:257; Loveridge and Williams, 1957:198), and testudinids (Loveridge and Williams,op. cit.:247) eat mammalian feces,T. ornatais seemingly the only chelonian that habitually seeks its staple diet in dung. The habit seems to be yet another specialization for terrestrial existence. The carnivorous habits ofT. ornatareverse the general trend toward omnivorous and herbivorous habits in other turtlesthat have become partly (emyids) or wholly (testudinids) terrestrial.
It seems remarkable that none of the species of true tortoises occurring in the grasslands of the world has developed insectivorous habits or utilized the unique food niche (in regard to dung-foraging) filled by ornate box turtles in the Great Plains; tortoises are, as far as is known, strictly herbivorous. The ranges ofGopherusandTerrapeneare now almost mutually exclusive and the two kinds do not compete with each other for food in the few places where they occur together. It is known, however, that box turtles (T. longinsulae,ornata-like, earliest known box turtle) and true tortoises (generaTestudoandGopherus, see Williams, 1950:25-26, Fig. 2) occurred together in what is now the Great Plains in early Pliocene times and probably for some time before and after this. Assuming that food habits of fossil representatives of these genera were somewhat like the habits of recent representatives, ornate box turtles may have developed insectivorous habits at a time when other food niches were filled by herbivorous tortoises. Box turtles possibly survived subsequent changes in habitat that made it impossible for populations of large tortoises to exist in the Great Plains.
SUMMARY
Box turtles of the genusTerrapeneare emyid turtles that are specialized for terrestrial existence. Two of the seven species now recognized—T. ornataandT. carolina—occur in the United States.Terrapene carolinainhabits forested areas in the east whereasT. ornatais characteristic of open grassy areas in the west; the ranges of the two species overlap in the broad belt of prairie-forest ecotone in the central United States.Terrapene ornatais considered to be the most specialized of living box turtles.
The natural history ofT. o. ornataAgassiz was studied in the period, 1953 to 1957. Intensive field studies were made in Douglas County, northeastern Kansas, on a small area of prairie and on the University of Kansas Natural History Reservation. Field observations were made also in a number of other places in eastern Kansas. Laboratory studies supplemented field studies.
Habitats occupied are chiefly open areas; they vary in regard to food supply, temperature, moisture, and kind of soil. The grassy prairies of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and northern Texas seem to provide optimum habitat for ornate box turtles; in these areas box turtles are active on a majority of days from April toOctober. The subspeciesluteolais adapted to the more rigorous and arid environment of the southwestern United States, where activity may be possible for only a few weeks in the year. The remainder of the year is spent in a state of quiescence. Factors limiting the distribution ofT. ornataare: 1) the presence of a substrate too hard to permit digging of nests and forms (altitudinal distribution in southwestern United States and distribution at western edge of the range); 2) temperatures causing the ground to freeze deep enough (approximately 30 inches) to kill turtles in hibernacula (northern edge of range); and, 3) the lack of one or more relatively wet periods in the course of the warm season, preventing at least temporary emergence from quiescence (southwestern part of range). The activities of man probably have affected population density in local areas but limit the geographic range only in the north (Blanchard, 1923:19-20, 24) where intensive cultivation probably has excluded the species.
Preferred habitat in northeastern Kansas is open rolling grassland grazed by cattle; populations are most dense near natural breaks in the grassy vegetation such as fences, scattered rocks on hillsides, ravines, and stream-beds.
Mating occurs most commonly in spring and autumn; courtship behavior includes pushing and biting on the part of the male. In coitus the hind legs of the male are held tightly by the female; the male falls backward after coitus, still clasped by the female. A few sperm are stored in the oviducts; fertilization without reinsemination can occur. The spermatogenic cycle begins in May and reaches its peak in September, when large numbers of sperm and spermatids are present in the testes; the cycle is completed in October, when sperm pass into the epididymides. The testes are smallest in spring and largest in September. Females are inseminated with sperm produced in the preceding year. The ovarian cycle begins in midsummer, soon after ovulation, and continues up to the time of the next ovulation. Follicular growth is rapid in the period from spring emergence to ovulation. Large follicles remaining after ovulation represent, in many instances, eggs that will be laid later in the same season. Follicular atresia is never great enough to account for the destruction of all large follicles remaining after ovulation. All mature females lay at least one clutch of eggs per year. It is estimated that one-third of the females produces two clutches of eggs in a single season. Second clutches contain fewer eggs than first clutches. An alternationof ovarian activity occurs, whereby one ovary is more active than its partner in one season and less active in the next season. Alternating activity of ovaries accounts in part for the reduced number of eggs in young females, breeding for the first time, and in older, nearly senile females. Extrauterine migration of ova results usually in a more even distribution of eggs in the oviducts. Corpora lutea constitute an accurate record of the number of eggs produced by the ovary as well as the number of eggs laid.
Nesting occurs from May through July but is most common in mid-June; some of the females nesting early in the season lay a second clutch of eggs in July. Nests are dug in the earth by the female using her hind legs. Preferred nesting sites are open, well-drained places with a soft substrate. The nesting site is selected after a period of wandering, in which the female tests the substrate at a number of places; some females search for a nest site for more than a week. Nest digging begins in the evening and is usually completed after dark. Captive females dug a preliminary cavity in which the body rested during the digging of the main nest cavity. The entire clutch of eggs is laid in one nest. The average number of eggs in 23 clutches was 4.7 (range, 2 to 8). The average size of eggs tends to be inversely proportional to the number of eggs in a clutch. Eggs increase in bulk by absorption of water in the course of incubation. Immersion in water for short periods does not harm eggs. The incubation period under favorable environmental conditions is approximately 65 days; cool, damp conditions prolong the incubation period and probably constitute an important factor of prenatal mortality in certain years. Eggs that do not hatch before winter probably do not survive. Emergence of hatchlings from the nest may, however, be delayed until spring if the soil is dry in autumn. Hatchlings can probably escape freezing by burrowing into the walls of the nest. Infertility and prenatal mortality account for at least 40 per cent of the eggs laid, according to laboratory findings. Progeny of a single adult female (considering factors of mortality, multiple layings, and average age of puberty) would number approximately 300 after 20 years. Reproductive processes probably continue throughout life, although possibly at a somewhat reduced rate in later life.
Young box turtles are active soon after hatching but become quiescent if allowed to burrow in soil or if they are covered with damp cotton. Some captive hatchlings take live food in the first days of life but others do not eat until the following spring; initiationof growth is coincident with initiation of regular feeding. The yolk sac retracts mainly during hatching; it sometimes ruptures after hatching. The caruncle remains on the beak for a variable length of time, but never is present in the spring following hatching.
Major growth-rings on the epidermal laminae are formed regularly, one after each season of growth, in the first 10 to 14 years of life. Minor growth-rings occur between major rings and are shallower. Growth of epidermal laminae results from the formation, in spring, of a new layer of epidermis beneath the existing scute. The peripheral projection of the new layer is distinct in texture and color from the older part of the scute and is separated from it by a major growth-ring. Minor growth-rings form when growth slows or temporarily stops during periods of quiescence; no new layer of epidermis is formed. Growth-rings constitute an accurate record of growth that can be studied at any time in the life of the turtle; they are accurate indicators of age only as long as regular annual growth persists.
Growth in the season of hatching depends on early hatching and early emergence from the nest. Turtles that remain in the nest until spring probably do not grow. Slightly less than half of the free-living individuals studied grew in the season of hatching. Precociousness in early life often results in the attainment of sexual maturity at an earlier than average age.
Growth is rapid at first (increments in plastral length average 68, 29, and 18 per cent, respectively, in the first three years) and then slows gradually until puberty. Attainment of sexual maturity is more closely correlated with size than with age. Males mature when smaller (76 per cent were mature when plastron 100 to 109 mm. long) and younger (average age, eight to nine years) than females (66 per cent were mature when plastron 110 to 119 mm. long, average age at maturity, ten to eleven years) but females grow larger than males. A few individuals of each sex reach puberty three to four years sooner than average.
The average number of growing days per season is approximately 160. Amount of growth in any season depends on climatic factors that influence food supply and foraging conditions. Growth rate is directly correlated with precipitation, being highest when large populations of grasshoppers and long periods of favorable weather occur in the same year. Zones of epidermis formed in years when growth was especially slow or especially fast constituted landmarksthat were helpful in interpreting growth-histories. Growth stops two to three years after puberty. The total growing period is estimated to be not more than 15 to 20 years. Longevity is estimated to be approximately 50 years.
A number of changes in structure and appearance occur in the period from hatching to puberty. Fontanelles of the bony shell close at or before puberty. Movable parts of the plastron are not functional until the fourth year. Markings on the carapace change from a series of dots to distinct, straight-sided radiations, and a similar pattern develops on the plastron. Markings on the heads of females resemble those of juveniles but males have greenish heads. Males further differ from females in having a red iris, more brightly colored antebrachial scales, and a turned in first toe.
Analysis of some 500 body temperatures (Centigrade) obtained under natural conditions revealed the following: the optimum temperature for activity is near 30 degrees; box turtles emerge from cover usually when body temperature is 24 degrees or higher, and almost never when the body temperature is below 15 degrees; body temperature is raised to optimum by basking in open areas although activity begins at suboptimum temperatures if basking is impossible; cover of dens, burrows, or forms is sought when the body temperature rises above 30 degrees; and, maximum and minimum body temperatures that would be lethal to box turtles (for prolonged periods) are approximately 40 and zero degrees, respectively. Laboratory experiments showed speed of response to environmental temperature to be inversely proportional to bulk; hatchlings could be chilled or warmed more than twice as fast as adults and were active within a narrower range of temperature. Ornate box turtles in general are subject to a narrower range of thermal activity than are aquatic turtles that occur in the same areas.
Box turtles are dormant approximately five and one-half months of the year—from late October to mid-April. Warm weather in November and late March sometimes stimulates temporary activity but dormancy is uninterrupted from mid-November to early March. Forms, dens, and burrows are used as hibernacula. Depth of hibernacula is dependent on severity of temperatures and amount of vegetational cover; hibernacula in open grassland were seven to 18 inches deep whereas those in wooded areas were six inches or shallower. Box turtles are ordinarily solitary when hibernating. Injuries and deaths due to freezing probably occur in the coldest part of the winter. The lowest body temperature of a turtle thatsurvived a winter was 2.7 degrees; an individual, the temperature of which was nearly zero for several days, subsequently died. Turtles burrow upward at the end of hibernation and remain just below the surface for a week or two before emerging. The primary stimulus for emergence seems to be a period of warm moist weather.
Populations ofT. ornataobserved under natural conditions were chiefly carnivorous, although captives ate a variety of animal and vegetable matter. Insects, consisting chiefly of beetles, caterpillars, and one species of grasshopper, comprised approximately 89 per cent (by volume) of the food present in stomachs. Beetles (chiefly scarabaeids and carabids) are obtained in or near dung and seem to constitute the most important staple element of the diet. Piles of dung, disturbed by turtles in the course of their foragings, were characteristic "sign" ofT. ornatain the areas studied.
Insects form the bulk of the diet for most of the year, although certain other foods, when especially abundant for short periods (mulberries for example), are eaten in large quantity or eaten to the exclusion of all other foods. Ornate box turtles occasionally eat the eggs and young of ground-nesting birds and slightly damage vegetables, but in no instance do these feeding habits significantly affect the economy of man. Box turtles probably benefit man by destroying large numbers of crop-damaging insects (locustids and noctuid caterpillars).
Box turtles were more numerous than most kinds of reptiles at the Damm Farm and were the most conspicuous of any kind of reptile. One hundred and ninety-four turtles were marked; one-fourth of these were recaptured at least twice. Population density in certain areas of favorable habitat ranged from 2.6 to 6.3 turtles per acre. The total number of individuals on the study area was estimated to be 286. The marked population consisted of 53 per cent adult or subadult females, 31 per cent adult males, and 16 per cent juveniles of undetermined sex. Only six individuals had plastra shorter than 60 millimeters. Small box turtles are not so rare as these samples indicate; they are infrequently obtained because their smallness and ability to blend with the substrate make them difficult to see. More females than males were found in all months of the season of activity, excepting April and August when more males were found; the preponderance of females was greatest in the nesting season (June and July).
Ornate box turtles walk with the shell held off the substrate. They are able to climb steep embankments or low barriers withsome facility. Swimming ability is sufficient to permit survival in water and traversal of water-barriers but ornate box turtles almost never swim voluntarily.
Daily activity consists of periods of basking, foraging, and rest, the durations of which are influenced by temperature and humidity. There is no activity after dark except that of nesting females. After several days of activity there is a period of rest; rest periods seemed not to be correlated with climatic conditions. The average distance traveled per day in summer is 200 to 300 feet. Movements of gravid females are more extensive (average, 363 feet per day) than those of other members of the population; one individual traveled approximately one-fourth of a mile in a single day. Turtles removed from their normal home ranges traveled farther per day than any other group. Movements in autumn are less extensive (average, 152 feet per day) than at other times in the season of activity.
Individual box turtles tended to remain in small areas for long periods; these areas were interpreted as home ranges. The estimated average radius of 44 home ranges was 278 feet (average area, 5.6 acres). The average area of eight home ranges that were actually measured was five acres. General suitability of habitat and certain physical features of terrain (rock fences, ravines, barren fields) that acted as barriers were thought to be the most important factors governing size of home range. Of two turtles removed more than one-fourth of a mile from their home ranges, one homed and one did not. Home ranges of turtles of all ages and sexes overlap broadly. There was no indication that territoriality or social hierarchy existed in the population studied.
Box turtles are subject to injury from natural causes that include fire, cold, molestation by predators, and trampling by cattle. Automobiles and farm machinery now constitute major causes of mortality and serious injury. Capacity to recover after serious injury is great but there is increased chance for secondary injury, infection, and predation in the period of recovery. Pits on the shell from unknown causes ("shell pitting") are less common in ornate box turtles than in other kinds of turtles.
Ectoparasites infestingT. ornataare larvae of chigger mites (genusTrombicula) and larvae of bot flies (Sarcophaga cistudinis). Ectoparasites usually have little adverse effect on the turtles, although heavy infestations cause occasional injury or death.
Few natural enemies other than man are known; however mostwild carnivores as well as opossums, large birds, and domestic dogs and cats are suspect as predators. The incidence of predation on eggs and small juveniles is far greater than on older juveniles and adults. Adults ofT. ornataoccasionally attack smaller individuals.
Ornate box turtles are able to detect the presence of intruders, by sight, from a distance of several hundred feet in open country; apparently, intruders are not detected until seen. Defensive behavior is passive; the shell is closed tightly in response to painful stimuli and, in some instances, at the sight of an intruder. Juveniles usually void odoriferous fluid from the musk glands when handled but adults do so only in response to pain or injury. The function of the musk glands is unknown; possibly the odor of musk is a means of sexual identification or stimulation. Although the musk is probably distasteful to predators, repellent odor alone seems to be of doubtful value as a defense mechanism.
LITERATURE CITED
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1935. The natural history of the box turtle. Sci. Monthly, 41:325-338.
1939. Mating of the box-turtle ending in death of the male. Copeia, 1939(2):109.
Altland, P. D.
1951. Observations on the structure of the reproductive organs of the box turtle. Journ. Morph., 89:599-621, 16 figs.
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1958. Fossil turtles of the genusTerrapenein Florida. Bull. Florida State Mus., Biol. Sci., 3(2):53-92, 15 figs., 5 tables.
Bailey, R. M.
1948. Winter mortality in the snakeStoreria dekayi. Copeia, 1948 (3):215.
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1952. Textbook of clinical parasitology. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., New York, viii + 1139 pp., 283 figs.
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Bogert, C. M.
1937. Note on the growth rate of the desert tortoise,Gopherus agassizi. Copeia, 1937(3):191-192.
Booth, K.
1958. Development of eggs and young of desert tortoise. Herpetologica, 13(4):261-263.
Breder, R. B.
1927. Turtle trailing: a new technique for studying the life habits of certain Testudinata. Zoologica, 9(4):231-243.
Brennan, L. A.
1937. A study of the habitat of the reptiles and amphibians of Ellis County, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 40:341-347, 1 table.
Brumwell, M. J.
1940. Notes on the courtship of the turtle,Terrapene ornata. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 43:391-392.
Cagle, F. R.
1939. A system of marking turtles for future identification. Copeia, 1939(3):170-173, 5 figs.
1944. Home range, homing behavior, and migration in turtles. Misc. Publ., Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, No. 61, 34 pp., 2 pls., 4 figs., 5 tables.