OUR NEW NAVY.
Illustrated capital S
Since the last of the naval battles recorded in preceding chapters was fought, the advance in ships, engines, and guns has been such that warships of the past are considered obsolete; while the introduction of smokeless powder and projectiles containing heavy charges of dynamite or gun-cotton has increased the efficacy of modern ordnance.
The use of armor for ships is so recent, only dating from the time of our civil war, that modern war-ships have been little in action. In fact the war between England and the United States, in 1812-15, was the last important naval war previous to the introduction of steam. The revolution in naval tactics caused by steam was very great, but our civil war afforded little experience in fleet actions, the important naval affairs being for the most part attacks of fleets upon land fortifications. The only fairly well-matched, stand-up fight of that war between vessels was that of the Kearsarge and Alabama.
Steel has come into use for the hulls of vessels—and the invention, by our own citizens, of nickel-steel, and of the Harvey process for plates, has caused a revolution in the application of defensive armor.
We may instance the armor for the battle-shipMaine,which vessel carried on her sides alone four hundred and seventy-five tons of metal—Harveyized nickel steel. The plate which was tried at the Naval Proving Ground, at Indian Head, on the Potomac, and upon the proof of which depended the receiving of the whole quantity from the contracting company, was thirteen feet seven inches long, seven feet wide, and twelve inches in thickness at the top, tapering to six inches. These measurements may give some idea of the tremendous power of the implements employed in forging and tempering such a mass of metal.
It successfully resisted four shots from an eight-inch rifled gun, firing, at only a few yards’ distance, the best armor-piercing shot, breaking the latter to fragments. Then a ten-inch gun was tried upon the same plate. Again the shot was broken up, and the plate, already hit four times before, was cracked, but remained still capable of affording perfect protection. It is not at all probable that any one plate would be hit five times in the course of an action—and so this armor is considered as near perfection as it is possible for metallurgists to come, in the present state of knowledge. TheMaineandTexas, and the battle-ships of theIowaclass, as well as the great monitors,PuritanandMonadnock, all of which vessels are of the latest construction, have these plates, thereby saving much weight, and allowing of additional armor protection to the upper works. The heavy armor extends from one barbette to the other, in theIowabeing about 180 feet, and from four and a half feet below the water line to three feet above it. At the level of the belt is a curving steel deck, three inches thick, to deflect plunging shot; while the mass of coal is so arranged in the bunkers as to protect the boilers and machinery.
TheIowacarries four 12-inch rifles, mounted in pairs in two turrets, eight 8-inch rifles, also mounted in pairs in turrets, six rapid-fire 4-inch rifles, and an ample secondary battery of twenty 6-pounder and six 1-pounder rapid-fire guns, and two gatlings—all high powered breech-loading guns of the best American manufacture.
In the last few years there have also been great changes and improvements in different forms of explosives, the development of torpedo boats and torpedo-catchers, and modes of defence against such attacks. Almost all the large vessels have double bottoms, divided in many separate cells like honeycombs—and packed with a preparation of cocoa-nut fibre, which swells when in contact with water, thus effectually stopping shot holes. There are also many transverse bulkheads, making many compartments of the vessel’s hull; while the engines are so cut off by them that one is independent of any injury to the other. There are also many small engines, for various purposes, and electric light makes the deepest part of the interior of the great ship’s hull as plain as the upper deck, in full sunlight. Lastly, the great increase in speed and power of engines tend to make the war-ship a very different thing from what she was at the time spoken of in the previous chapter.
There are, of course, limitations to the range and efficiency of the new Navy, owing to the necessity of replenishing supplies of fuel,—a most difficult and extremely costly process in many parts of the world. Such modern cruisers as theColumbiacarry, to be sure, an immense quantity of coal—and there are others, such as theNew Yorkand theOlympia, which not only possess great speed, but also carry more fuel than mostvessels of their class. They need to do so, for our coaling stations abroad are very few.
Some nations, especially the Italians, who have a very formidable navy, and one far above their means, have experimented extensively with petroleum, in its crude form, as a fuel, and, it is stated, with a certain degree of success. But this for the most part is a consideration for those nations which have no mines of coal under their own control, and we must remember that, in time of war, the supply of petroleum might be cut off even more effectually than that of coal. But to return:—The use of steel for the hulls of vessels, the armor, protective decks, and other purposes of construction, has greatly multiplied the strength of those parts, while it has made the whole much lighter, so that the same expenditure of steam will carry the structure much farther and much faster. We have already stated that nickel-steel is able to resist very effectually the most modern projectiles from the latest guns. When, a few years ago, such qualities were claimed for it by us, the English experts in such matters rather sneered at the idea, and said that more extensive trials should be had before they could believe in its value. The experiments were so triumphantly successful that not only was all opposition withdrawn, but the object then was to get hold of the process as soon as possible. Nickel-steel is what may be called agreat fact, and subsequent discoveries in metallurgy will never destroy its value for certain purposes.
The Harvey process was another thing upon which the Europeans looked with great doubt until the perfect success of armor made in that way, in trials against very powerful guns at short range, opened their eyes. This process consists in the hardening of the outside surface of a thick plate to a certain depth, leaving theback part of the plate with the toughness of the untempered metal, so that the shot which strikes it has to encounter obstacles of two kinds—the hardness which breaks it up, and the toughness which prevents serious entry.
As it is, the contest between gun and armor is continually going on. When armor is found which resists very powerful guns and the newest explosive, a more powerful gun is built, which makes another increase in armor necessary. At the present time there is no predicting how long this contest may go on, for the improvements in guns and armor keep equal pace.
New explosives have the same story to tell. They vary in name and in effect, but most of them are based upon the same chemical principles. Some keep better than others, and are thus best suited for preservation in the magazines of ships, where, especially in case of faulty construction, or of prolonged stay in hot climates, the delicate chemical combination of which the modern explosive consists is very much more likely to undergo change than the old-fashioned “black power”—especially when the latter was well made.
There is, therefore, constant experimenting, and constant change in opinion in regard to explosives.
Torpedoes are another source of trouble to experts in naval warfare; the fact being that they have never been sufficiently tried in actual service to settle completely their respective values. Of the mobile torpedoes one was used with destructive effect during the Chilean War, and some spar-torpedoes were effective during our Civil War, and during the Russo-Turkish War, where mobile torpedoes were also used, but it is still a matter of doubt with many naval officers of experience as to what part the mobile torpedo is to play in any future contest.
As regards torpedo-boats, which launch their torpedoes one at a time, and directly in the line in which the boat is pointed, the opinion is that they will prove very useful for coast and harbor defence, but unfit for severe weather or heavy seas, very wearing upon their crews, liable to accidents of a serious nature, and only able to carry fuel for short runs. Many of the accidents to this class of boats have involved loss of life, and, while the French and English have increased their number, other nations, such as the Italians and the Germans, have rather decided against their increase. At one time within recent years the Italians encouraged torpedo-boats, and in Germany one of the most successful of all builders is the Shichau Company, which has built boats for all the world but France, America, and England.
The “torpedo catchers,” so called, are quite different affairs from the ordinary torpedo-boat. They are quite large and swift vessels compared with the ordinary torpedo-boat, and are intended as “counter-miners,” and, by speed, and ability to keep the sea better, to prevent the swarm of ordinary torpedo-boats from doing serious damage. Sufficient experience has not been gained in the experimental trials to know just how much these vessels will do in case of actual warfare, but much is expected of them. Very lately a well-known English builder of torpedo boats and other small craft has launched a boat which is said to have made twenty-seven knots, or about the average speed of a passenger train on a good railroad.
Submarine torpedo-boats have received much attention of late years, when improvements and inventions, especially in electricity, have rendered them comparatively easy to handle. In France and Spain, especially, verysuccessful boats have been experimented with. In our own country, where the idea originated early in the century, there have been several submarine boats built which have remained for a long time under water, being directed by the crew in any wished-for course. Not long ago Congress appropriated a large sum for building a sub-marine torpedo boat; but experiments conducted to show whether an explosion effected by such means would not be also fatal to the boat herself, led to hesitation on the part of the authorities as to expending the money in that way, and to a proposal to build surface torpedo boats instead.
Speedis becoming more and more a factor in naval problems. Speed, fuel capacity, a powerful battery, and protection, especially to the vital parts and to the crew, are now recognized as the requisites which go to make a fine, or capable ship, and one most likely to be generally useful in war. Among such vessels may be mentioned theNew York,Olympia, and theColumbia, of our own navy. Thebattle-ships, so called, come under a different category—being heavily armored, and supposed to be able to resist heavy projectiles at close quarters. We have a few of these under construction, but none of the great size which we see in some foreign navies, principally for the reason that many of our ports will not admit vessels of such great draught of water—and that our authorities consider smaller vessels capable of being more readily manœuvered. The largest battle-ships we are building will only measure 10,200 tons, while in foreign navies they have them of 15,000 tons. But the best naval opinion is that the latter are too large; and experts are advocating a return to smaller size and greater number—just as a reaction has taken place against 110-ton guns.
The latest completed battle-ships are theIowa,Indiana,MassachusettsandOregon, all of 10,200 tons, with twin screws, and carrying sixteen guns in the main battery, beside smaller ones of the most modern type.
TheMaineandTexasare battle-ships of the second class—of about 9000 tons, with twin screws, and carrying about ten guns in the main battery, and a proportion of rapid-fire smaller guns.
Such great battle-ships as these have never been tried in a close general engagement, and, though viewed with some distrust—especially since the accidental sinking by collision of the Victoria—nations go on building them in rivalry, and the end is not yet. In case of a grand battle between fleets of these giant ships, the force being anywhere near equal, the chances would be in favor of the fleet which is best handled. That is all that anyone can say at present. It may give the reader some idea of these great armaments to say that, in 1894, England had in her Mediterranean fleet twenty-four vessels of the first class, none less than 7350, and most of them above 10,000 tons. Thirteen of these were battle-ships, and eleven protected cruisers.
France and Russia, combined, had at the same period in those parts thirty-three ships, none of which were below 4000 tons, and most of which were of 10,000 tons or more.
In addition to this we must count numerous torpedo-boats, despatch vessels and gunboats in such fleets.
The Italian navy is now a very powerful one, and contains in its list some of the largest men-of-war afloat; and the German navy has made great strides in advance. The Spaniards have some fine ships, but mostly of the fast cruiser class, armed with powerful guns.
We have heard very much of late regarding theChinese and Japanese navies. The vessels which compose these forces have mostly been constructed in France and England—and a few, of moderate size, have been built at home. The Chinese have a very fine gun-factory, as well as shops for repairs, but many of their vessels, especially in what has been called their Southern fleet, are in very bad condition as to hulls, engines—and especially as to the discipline of the crews. This has become much worse since they dispensed with the services of European officers. Their Northern fleet is in much better condition, but time alone can prove what it is worth. Neither China nor Japan have any vessels above 8000 tons displacement, and many are much smaller. Their important fighting craft consist of what are called cruisers—protected and unprotected—but armed with excellent modern high-powered guns, and torpedoes of the latest model.
The vessels of the Japanese navy are kept in exceptionally good condition in every respect, and their officers are considered the more able, and their men, with a natural aptitude for the sea, are in excellent training and discipline. Thus Japan should prove superior to China, if only on account of the betterpersonnel. Many of the Japanese officers have passed through our own naval school with credit, and others have been educated in the German service. Some of them, thus educated, have already attained high command—and all show great enthusiasm and military ardor.
The battle of the Yalu, between these two fleets and treated in a subsequent chapter, was a most instructive lesson to the navies of the world at large.
While we do not pretend to say that we need such a navy as England (the national life of which country depends upon her ability to furnish food and clothingfrom abroad for her population), it is evident to anyone who thinks for a moment that a country like ours, with the most extensive coast-line of any, should have a moderately large and very effective navy, if only as a matter of sea-police for our own shores, while the protection of our vessels and of citizens living and doing business abroad comes under another head.
Persons, especially those living in the interior of our great country, are apt to think, and to say, that there is little chance of our becoming embroiled with any of the nations of whose great navies we have just been speaking. But we have to go back a very few years to show in what danger we have been of having our coasts invested by hostile fleets for want of proper force to resist them. Spain was very threatening in the troubles about Cuba in 1873. The attitude of Italy, with her powerful vessels, at the time of the difficulty about the New Orleans riots, was disquieting for a time, and, had her financial condition been better, that country would have certainly made a naval demonstration here. Then there was the still more threatening attitude of Chili, which might have been very serious. However sure we might be of eventually putting down that warlike little country, immense damage might have been done by her in a naval raid on our west coast. There is constant need for ships in China; not only for the protection of Americans, but to assist in keeping down piracy, a very present danger in that part of the world. Few months pass that it is not necessary to send ships to Hayti, always on the verge of revolution, or actually in the throes of civil war; and the same may be said of the countries comprising Central America. Then Brazil may be added to the list of unsettled countries, and we have a large and important trade there. Of the troubles in Hawaii, and of thecruising against the seal robbers in the North Pacific, the whole country has heard more than enough, and everyone knows that without a navy we should be perfectly helpless in such emergencies. The very establishment and maintenance of great dock-yards and naval stations at Vancouver, Halifax and Bermuda by England admonishes us to at least partially prepare to resist the threats of naval coercion which was that nation’s favorite mode of treating with us not so many years ago.
Copyright,W. H. Rau.U. S. S. Indiana.Battleship. Twin screw. Main battery, four 13-inch, eight 8-inch and four 6-inch breech loading rifles. Secondary battery, twenty 6-pounder and six 1-pounder rapid fire guns and four Gatlings. Thickness of armor 18 inches. 36 officers, 434 men.
Copyright,W. H. Rau.
U. S. S. Indiana.
Battleship. Twin screw. Main battery, four 13-inch, eight 8-inch and four 6-inch breech loading rifles. Secondary battery, twenty 6-pounder and six 1-pounder rapid fire guns and four Gatlings. Thickness of armor 18 inches. 36 officers, 434 men.
The necessary police of the seas is recognized by all nations, and all who can afford to do so should take a part in it. Frequent visits to foreign ports by men-of-war increase the influence and materially assist the business consideration of citizens who may reside abroad for business purposes, and thus directly increase the national revenue; while there is damage to our national pride when men-of-war of other nations have to protect our citizens abroad, as has frequently happened in times of trouble, from want of a sufficient number of ships in our navy to permit of wide distribution. There are many persons in our large country who would be mortified and shocked at such a thing as the bombardment of New York or of San Francisco with long-range guns—either of which events has been possible within the last ten years. Such a proceeding would not only be humiliating to us as a nation, but would probably cause more damage than a powerful fleet of defensive ironclads would cost to build and maintain—not to speak of such a thing as ransom-money demanded.
There is no fear of any nation making an effectual landing upon our shores: the only danger is that some swift and sudden blow, when we are unprepared, might cause immense damage to our great seaboard and lake cities, which would not only cost untold millions in damage,and in the subsequent expenditure necessary to repay the blow, but in the injury to our national pride andprestigeamong nations.
The decay of merchant shipping in our country from the proud position it held before the great Civil War is due to many causes, chief among which is the substitution of iron for wood, and steam for sails. There are very many people living, and still active, who remember the time when the whole of the passenger traffic between Europe and the United States was in the hands of Americans—for the reason that their ships were more staunch, more comfortable, and very much faster, while their seamen were more enterprising. The same was the case with the China trade; the American clippers carried all before them: while, in the race to the Pacific, in the early days of California, none could compare with our vessels in rapidity and the comfort of passage.
For some years those interested in such matters almost despaired; but there is a brighter outlook ahead now. The great lake fleet of steamers and sailing vessels has vastly increased. The tonnage passing through the Sault de Ste. Marie is really greater than our whole ocean tonnage of forty years ago: and the improvement in the quantity and size of merchant vessels built during the last few years for ocean service, while not keeping pace with the lake traffic, on account of foreign competition, is still very gratifying.
We have already spoken of the ability shown by Americans, during the last few years, to produce the best armor in the world, guns equal to any, and war-ships of the very first class, in hull and machinery.
This is all a preparation and education for taking our proper place as builders of the very best merchant vessels. Builders could not afford the extensive apparatus and machinery necessary for such construction unless they had been encouraged by government orders in the beginning. Such works as those at Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania, would never have constructed the largest steam-hammer in the world, if it had not been for the encouragement afforded by government orders. Now they are prepared to forge shafts, and other great pieces, for the largest merchant steamers, for the obtaining of which we formerly had to send abroad.
As for plants for iron or steel ship-building, we now have many. Cramps’ establishment, in Philadelphia, is said to be the third largest in the world—and will soon rank higher; there are other great works for merchant vessels on the Lakes and the Mississippi, and at Newport’s News, near Hampton Roads. After these come the works at South Boston and the different establishments at New York. The purely naval building-yards and plants at the New York navy yard, and at Norfolk, are well known; while the Union Iron Works at San Francisco have turned out some of the finest vessels afloat, both men of war and merchantmen. There are also such works in Bath, Maine.
But the least effect of these great plants is shown in their production up to this time. They are not only educational to ship and engine builders, but they foster a number of most valuable trades—such as ship-carpenters, plumbers, copper-smiths, joiners, and many others. Above all come the naval designers or architects. Men so trained are well paid, and are required to turn out the very highest grade of work; and thus we are forming a force, at many points of our greatcountry, fitted, when the time comes (and it must soon come), to build up our sea-going mercantile marine to an equality with the sister service on the Great Lakes, so as to enable it to carry our products abroad, and bring back the returns, without depending upon foreign bottoms for that service. A few years ago there was no place in this country where a young man could go to learn the business of designing and building iron vessels—now there are many such places—and they are constantly increasing in number.
Not the least wonder of our day is the improvement in the machinery of steam-vessels of all kinds.
The engineer’s department of a first-class cruiser or battle-ship is a bewildering and wonderful sight to one not accustomed to it. The complicated engines, with their numerous cylinders, which use the steam over and over, seem almost too delicate, and too like a fancy creation, to be capable of driving the propellers at such a rate as they do. Instead of the rude levers of former days, these giant machines are managed by the turning of wheels which look like playthings as compared with the forces which they control so easily.
The boilers not only serve to drive the main engines, but there are others devoted to different uses; among which the principal are the distilling of salt into fresh water, and thus giving an abundant supply of one of the very first necessaries of life, and rendering the vessel and the crew independent of the shore in that respect. It is also most conducive to health; for much of the disease found on ship-board, within even recent times, was due to the character of the water obtained from the shore. Then there are the electric dynamos, and their boilerswhich must run when the ship is at anchor, as well as when she is under weigh; while her steam steering-gear, when in motion, renders her guidance very easy in the hands of one man, when four or six would be required at the wheels of vessels in the old days.
U. S. S. Baltimore.Protected cruiser. Twin screw. Main battery, four 8-inch and six 6-inch breech loading rifles. Secondary battery, four 6-pounder, two 3-pounder and two 1-pounder rapid fire guns, four Hotchkiss revolving cannons and two Gatlings. Thickness of protective deck, 4 inches on slope, 2¹⁄₂ on the flat. 36 officers, 350 men.
U. S. S. Baltimore.
Protected cruiser. Twin screw. Main battery, four 8-inch and six 6-inch breech loading rifles. Secondary battery, four 6-pounder, two 3-pounder and two 1-pounder rapid fire guns, four Hotchkiss revolving cannons and two Gatlings. Thickness of protective deck, 4 inches on slope, 2¹⁄₂ on the flat. 36 officers, 350 men.
As for war-ships, the vessel is under complete control of one man, the Captain, who, with the helmsmen, occupies the fighting-tower. He is informed by indicators of what is going on all over the great craft below him, and his orders to the engineers, to the gun divisions, and to all other parts, are transmitted in the same way. But ordinary speaking-tubes and such matters are not forgotten, in case hostile shot should destroy the other means of communication; while, far below the water-line, is the old-fashioned steering-wheel, secure from shot or shell, to be used in case the more delicate and more exposed steering-gear should be shot away. The number of trained and experienced men which such a complicated machine as a modern war-ship or first-class passenger vessel requires, is very great. There is less need for old-fashioned sailors—who could go aloft in any weather to reef and furl—but there is seamanship still required to navigate, to heave the lead, to man and manage boats, and many other things, beside the mere drilling and working of artillery and small arms. It requires some training even to be able to take care of one’s self in bad weather, especially in a large ship, where places to hold on are far apart. Of course, in a modern ship the engineer’s force, as well as those immediately in charge of dynamos, of electric lights, and of search-lights, comprise a much larger proportion of the whole ship’s company than in former times; and the vigilance, experience, and foresight which have to be displayed in the depthsof the vessel is equal to that required upon the spar-deck and bridge.
Now that our administrations, of both political parties, have for some years committed themselves to a gradual increase of our navy, to consist of the very newest ships and guns, it may be safely supposed that in a few years we shall have arespectablenavy, in point of numbers, as it is now in point of quality.
After all, the best ships are of no use without the presence of men trained to manage them, and to conduct successfully the well-being and discipline of a large number of people. In a first-class man-of-war, the elements may be compared to a civil organization in this way: the Captain is the Mayor, except that he has much more power and authority than most mayors; the Lieutenants are the executive and police officers, as well as leaders in battle; the Junior officers are in training for such positions. The Marine officer and his men represent the militia, adding police duties; and the medical staff looks out for the general health. Then there is the Paymaster and his clerk, who attend to financial matters of all kinds; the engineer corps, which keeps the whole thing going, and lights as well as propels the great machine. Lastly, there is a Chaplain, who not only attends to divine service (as required by the Articles of War), but in many ways makes his influence known. The subdivision of duties on board a man-of-war often makes landsmen wonder whether such a course is necessary; but the experience of many generations teaches that it is.
It may be of interest to our readers to know something about the way in which the officers of the navy aretrained for their important duties. For many years after the foundation of the navy, boys of tender years were appointed midshipmen through the influence of friends of the President or the Secretary of the Navy. They then were sent to sea at once, in a cruising man-of-war, and, after five or six years, went to a naval school, as it was called, for a few months. At the end of six years they became passed-midshipmen, if found able to pass a simple examination; after which they had to wait for vacancies in the list above them to become lieutenants, commanders, and captains. The latter was, up to the time of the late civil war, the highest grade in the navy, and corresponded in rank with colonel in the army. Those officers who commanded squadrons or stations were, by courtesy, termed commodores. The manner of education of the young officers who were destined to high command in the navy had long been felt to be faulty, although under it such officers had been reared as Farragut and Rowan, Porter, and John Rodgers; and it was thought that a school something on the lines of West Point, which had long existed for the army, would be of benefit to the service and to the country. About this time a change took place in the manner of appointment of naval cadets, and the Congressmen of the various States had them put in their hands, with a limited number left in the hands of the President, who was apt to bestow them on the sons of worthy officers of the army or navy who had died in the service. This is the usual practice at present. Representatives are notified when an appointment falls due in their district, and some Congressmen put such appointments up for public competition among the lads of proper age and health, who, on going to the Naval Academy to enter, have to pass a close physical examination, as well as one in elementary branches oflearning. Many are rejected, from one cause or another, and the custom has arisen of appointing an alternate, who may be examined for the position if the first one fails, either physically or mentally. Those who are successful in the examination receive $500 a year, during their academic course, which is an ample sum for their support at the school. During the course many drop out; some from ill conduct; some from inability to follow the course; and some few from failure of health; although the healthy regimen and good hours often improve boys who are a little delicate or backward. But it must be remembered that it is useless for any lad who is thoroughly lazy and unambitious to enter there, as he is sure to be weeded out. Many classes do not graduate more than half of their original members.
The Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Maryland, was founded in 1845, through the enlightened policy of Mr. Bancroft, the celebrated historian, who was then the Secretary of the Navy, under President Polk. Commander Buchanan (who was afterwards Admiral Buchanan of the Confederate Navy) was the first officer in charge.
The site of the Academy was secured by the transfer from the War to the Navy Department of Fort Severn and its surroundings, one of the defences of Annapolis, at the mouth of the Severn river, near its entrance into Chesapeake bay, and with plenty of water for naval work. In 1849 a Board was organized to make regulations which were to conform, as much as possible, to those of the Military Academy at West Point. In 1851 the course of study was fixed at four years, with annual examinations, and summer cruises in practice ships to familiarize the lads with sea duties. There was also a board of visitors, to be appointed by the President, who reported, annually, upon the annual examinations andthe general condition and requirements of the school. This board consisted of Senators and citizens distinguished for their acquirements in science, as well as officers of different corps of the Navy.
Owing to the Civil War the school was transferred, in 1861, to Newport, Rhode Island, where it remained until 1865, when it was returned to Annapolis. The grounds have been greatly enlarged and improvements of every kind made, until now it is one of the most beautiful and perfect establishments in the world. There is no place in Europe, devoted to naval training, which has anything like the space, the buildings and material, and the equable climate which the Annapolis school possesses. Although the country is flat, the fine expanses of water, and the wealth of foliage, give the situation great attractions, while the old and historic town of Annapolis, so connected with the Colonial period and the Revolution, retains its curious plan, and its old church, court-house, and residences, much as they were when Washington resigned his commission.
When the school was re-established at Annapolis the course of studies was rearranged to suit the advance in such matters as steam, gunnery, and mathematics—and has remained much the same ever since—only adopting improved methods as the occasion arose.
The course of instruction is a long one—too long to be given here, but we may mention some of the studies pursued. There are seamanship and naval construction, naval tactics, practical exercises, signals, swimming, gymnastics, etc., ordnance and gunnery, including infantry tactics, field-artillery and boat-howitzer exercise, great guns, mortar practice, and fencing; mathematics up to the calculus; steam engineering, with practical exercise, and the theory, fabrication, and designing ofsteam engines; astronomy, navigation, and surveying; physics and chemistry; mechanics, and applied mathematics, and theoretical naval architecture; English studies, and history and law; French and Spanish; drawing and chart-making; and other kindred studies.
Any one who shows great aptitude is put into the engineering branch, and enters the Engineer Corps; others enter the Marine Corps, as second lieutenants; and sometimes, when there are no vacancies, those who graduate honorably, although at the foot of their class, are enabled, by Act of Congress, to take an “honorable discharge” from the service, with a year’s pay.
When a lad succeeds in passing the examination and entering the Naval Academy, he is required to sign articles which bind him to serve in the Navy eight years, including his time at the Academy, unless sooner discharged. The system of examination comprises monthly, semi-annual, and annual examinations, which are conducted in writing, the members of a class all receiving the same questions. If a cadet fails to pass the semi-annual or annual examinations he is dropped.
With the theoretical studies there are the sail, spar, boat, gun, and small-arm drills, all of which, with good conduct, go to make up the total of “marks” of the cadet. Misconduct or insubordination leads to the receipt of “demerits,” which may become so numerous as to prevent a cadet from continuing at the Academy, even when distinguished in his studies. Some of the same officers who have charge of the cadets during the scholastic year are detailed for the practice ships during the summer cruise, so that they have complete knowledge of the acquirements of their pupils. The summer cruise of the cadets at Annapolis corresponds to the encampment of the West Point cadets; being almostentirely practical in its nature. The cadet engineer class, instead of a long voyage, go on board a practice steamer, and visit navy-yards, and ship-yards, rolling-mills, foundries, machine-shops, etc., where practical illustration may be had of a part of their studies. The academic grounds, inside the walls, consist of fifty acres, while outside there are one hundred acres more. On this fine property there are a great number of buildings, for quarters, mess-halls, class rooms, armory, steam-building, etc., beside an observatory, all of which are amply provided with models and apparatus. There is a fine library, contained in a lovely old house formerly inhabited by the governor of Maryland; a chapel; and numbers of houses for officers’ quarters. There is also a hospital, and, on the outlaying land one of greater size, which is used in epidemics, and for the seamen of the practice-ships, and the marines of the guard. At large and convenient docks upon the Severn are moored the practice ships, steamers, steam and sailing launches, and cutters, for the use and instruction of the cadets. The average number of these is about two hundred, and they are, as a rule, exceedingly well-trained in battalion drill, so that a dress-parade during the evenings of the spring and fall months, with the faultless drill and evolutions, and the music afforded by the fine band, never fails to attract crowds of strangers, as well as the town’s people and officers’ families.
It is proper, at this point, to give some account of the United States Marine Corps, of which many persons not familiar with naval affairs have a very vague idea.
They are sea-soldiers, or soldiers enlisted for service either on shore or on board ships-of-war, and who areknown asMarines, although all sea-going persons are really marines.
Most powers which possess navies have also marines, France being an exception. They constitute a separate military body from the seamen and other enlisted men of a war-ship, and are trained to fight either as infantry or as artillerists, and especially for participation in naval engagements. They are organized, clothed and equipped very much like soldiers of the army, and their preliminary instruction is the same. In fact, some of their very best service has been on shore; while their being accustomed to the sea makes them doubly valuable for expeditions by water. Their headquarters, barracks and depots are on shore, and from them details are made when required for service on shipboard. These detachments vary in size with the ship, from a dozen men under a sergeant to a hundred under one or more commissioned officers.
The history of sea-soldiers is very ancient, dating back to at least five centuries before the Christian Era, when there was a class of soldiers which constituted the fighting men of a war-ship, while an entirely different class navigated, managing the oars and sails. Some of the most gallant acts which have distinguished our own navy have been performed by the marines, who have served without blemish in every quarter of the world, and in all the wars in which we have been engaged. The marines have generally manned some of the broadside guns whenever hard fighting was going on, and have always been relied upon under the most desperate circumstances; nor have they failed to justify that reliance.
U. S. S. Texas.Battleship. Twin screw. Main battery, two 12-inch and six 6-inch breech loading rifles. Secondary battery, twelve 6-pounder and six 1-pounder rapid fire guns, one Hotchkiss revolving cannon and two Gatlings. Thickness of armor 12 inches. 30 officers, 362 men.
U. S. S. Texas.
Battleship. Twin screw. Main battery, two 12-inch and six 6-inch breech loading rifles. Secondary battery, twelve 6-pounder and six 1-pounder rapid fire guns, one Hotchkiss revolving cannon and two Gatlings. Thickness of armor 12 inches. 30 officers, 362 men.
Our own Congress has nineteen times, by joint resolution, tendered thanks to the marines for their gallant behavior, and some of the greatest generals have added their tributes to those of naval commanders. Napoleon Bonaparte, when viewing the marines of the English ship Bellerophon, where he took refuge after his downfall, exclaimed: “What might not be done with a hundred thousand such men?” General Winfield Scott, when commanding in the Mexican War, said of our marines that he “put them where the heaviest work was to be accomplished, and had never found his confidence misplaced.” General Grant, on the quarter-deck of theVandalia, which man-of-war was taking him to Egypt, on his voyage round the world, remarked of the marines at their exercise, that they were “as fine soldiers as he had ever seen.”
In our own service the marine corps is as ancient as the navy. In Revolutionary days they wore green coats with white facings, but their uniform has from time to time become more and more assimilated with that of the infantry of the army.
Another branch of the public service connected with the sea is the Revenue Marine, of which very little is known outside of maritime States, although it is one of the most important and hard-working branches.
This sea force was organized in 1790, more than a century ago, for the protection of the revenues of the General Government from duties upon imports. The Act of Congress provided for the building and equipping of the revenue cutters, “to be officered and manned by one master and not more than three mates, who should be appointed by the President, and be deemed officers of the customs.”
This was done under the administration of AlexanderHamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, and one of the shining lights of our early days as a nation. He suggested giving the officers military or naval rank, “which,” he added, “will not only induce fit men to engage, but attach them to their duties by a nicer sense of honor.”
The first vessels built for this service were brigs or schooners, and they were commanded by excellent officers and sailors, who were proud of their position. They had not only to look after the collection of the revenue from imports, but to preserve order in ports, and had many other onerous duties. They had to make returns of all vessels boarded, as well as any special duties which the Secretary of the Treasury might direct. They were to succor vessels in distress—and, to this day, the Revenue vessels cruise on our coasts during the very worst winter weather to succor vessels, and many a cargo, as well as many lives, have been saved by their exertions.
Any one, even those who are not familiar with ships, can tell a revenue vessel by the flag she carries—because, while the union is the same as in other flags of the United States, the stripes run vertically instead of horizontally.
Formerly the revenue cutters were almost always of schooner rig, and generally very neat and trim, and very beautiful and picturesque vessels, especially under sail, but at present and for many years past, the “Cutters” are able sea-going steamers. In former days the revenue cutters, in addition to the protection afforded to commerce, had to attend to the placing of buoys, and the supply of lighthouses, under the direction of Collectors of Customs of districts. But in 1852 the present Light House Board was established—and special vessels devoted to that service, than which there is none betterin the world. The Revenue Marine has often taken part with the Navy in operations of various kind, such as the War of 1812; the Florida War; the Mexican War; the Paraguay Expedition; the Civil War; the Seal Fishery patrol, and numerous other occasions, giving the best of service cheerfully and promptly.
As regards appointment of officers in the Revenue Marine, we may say that the service is entirely separate from the Navy, and controlled by the Treasury Department. This Department appoints cadets, not less than eighteen and not more than twenty-five years of age, who may be promoted to third lieutenants after two years’ service, and after having passed a satisfactory examination. This takes appointments out of the line of personal or political preference. The cadets are first sent on a practice cruise at sea in a revenue cutter, and then trained in practical seamanship and navigation, and during the winter study mathematics and other things necessary to fit them for their duties. If successful in passing as third lieutenants they have a reasonable chance of rising to Captain. Revenue cutters, beside their ordinary duty, are often called upon to make special cruises in search of missing vessels, or to enforce neutrality laws when expeditions may be fitting in our ports against neighboring and friendly governments. Since Alaska has been acquired some of the most remarkable cruises have been made in Arctic waters, not only for the succor of whalers, but for the protection of the natives from smugglers who would try to introduce poisonous spirits. Officers of the revenue service are also detailed as inspectors and assistant inspectors of life-saving stations, in which capacity they have done excellent service, and added much to the value of that noble branch of our public work.
The whole of the Revenue Marine Service is in charge of a chief, called the Chief of the Revenue Marine, in the Treasury Department, at Washington, forming a separate bureau. This chief must be a man of ability, for he has great responsibility, and must have legal and scholarly attainments in order to be able to meet all the calls upon him. In regard to nautical matters he is supposed to avail himself of the advice of competent senior officers of the service, and also as far as thepersonnelof the Revenue Marine is concerned.
It may be of interest to many persons in the interior of our country, who are not brought in contact with water transportation, or even with river boats of any kind, to know what is meant by the “Marine Hospital Service,” which has existed from our earliest days as a nation, and yet has nothing in common with the Revenue Marine, or with the Naval Service. The Naval Service has its own hospitals, and the Revenue Marine make arrangements for their sick and wounded at proper places. The Marine Hospital Service provides for all sick men who follow the water in the merchant service, whether they are salt water or fresh water men, whether they are on a Mississippi steamboat, or on a vessel just arrived from a China voyage. Its authority, under the law, dates from the year 1798, but it also provided that a tax of twenty cents a month should be exacted from every officer and seaman for the support of hospitals. In the following year the same provision of tax was made for the navy, and all officers and men have paid it for nearly a hundred years; so that the Marine Hospitals and the Naval Hospitals have never cost the nation anything, the money for their support having come purely fromthis personal tax. Every merchant sailor pays that; and every naval person, from an admiral to a messenger boy, has twenty cents a month deducted from his pay for hospital service.