Pl. IV. MANUFACTURED WIND.Pl. IV. MANUFACTURED WIND.
If a metallic rod terminating in a point be attached to the conductor of an electrical machine, electricity escapes in large quantities from the point. A continuous current is thus kept up and the flame of a taper, if placed in front of the current, is blown in a horizontal direction. Wind is thusmanufacturedon a small scale. Pl. IV.
At a recent meeting of a Meteorological Society in England, a paper was read by theRev. Joseph Crompton, M.A., F.M.S. "The author, when walking close to the Cathedral of Norwich, was struck with the unusual fluttering of the flags on the top ofthe spire, which was 300 feet high. They were streaming with a strained, quivering motion perpendicularly upwards. A heavy cloud was passing overhead at the moment and as it passed, the flags followed the cloud and then gradually dropped into comparative quietness. The same phenomenon was noticed several times. As the cloud approached, the upper banner began to feel its influence and streamed towards it,against the direction of the wind, which still blew as before, steadily on all below. As the cloud came nearer, the vehement quivering and streaming motion of the flags increased; they began to take an upward perpendicular direction into the cloud and seemed almost tearing themselves from the staves to which they were fastened. Again as the cloud passed, they followed it as they had previously streamed to meet its approach, and then dropped away as before, one or two actually folding over their staves. All the other flags at the lower elevation did not show the least symptom of disturbance." In this phenomenon we observe the operation of two of the wind-producing causes just mentioned, viz.:—a wind arising from purely local causes, and of limited extent, occurringwithin the boundaries of a wind produced by the action of more general, and widespread causes—A wind within a wind.
The above instances plainly carry a suggestion of magnetic origin and power.
If winds are due to such a simple mechanical causation as the production by the sun, of a rarefied atmosphere, the colder air rushing in from all sides into the empty spaces, we should hardly expect to find any definite currents bounded by well-defined limits; much less should we look for transverse and opposite currents going like messengers at varying rates of speed, some slow, and others exceedingly swift. Nor may stronger gales suddenly cease, as though stopped by some mighty invisible wall. And in no wise can they, from mere calorific agencies, leap out of perfect calmness into hurricane velocity, or subside into silence as by magic. On no such principle can they shift back upon their own track, going either way with terrific velocity.
We have seen the marks of electrical action in the cases cited, and since we know something of the subtlety of the agent; that it may be "amassed, condensed and rarefied," that it is not loose and wandering, and the mere plaything of fortuitous forces, as the atmosphere is supposed to be; but, on the contrary, has close and most sympathetic adjustment with the earth-force; and thatitis the invisible hand that holds and manages the grosser atmospheric matter; since we know this, we are now brought to the study of a great cosmical system.
[13]Appendix, p. 105.
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Herbert Spencersays: "At present none of the interpretations of the sun-spots can be regarded as established."
How numerous and how strange have been the theories promulgated as to the character of the manifestations called sun-spots. The dark spots in the sun have been supposed to be "solid bodies revolving very near its surface," "Smoke of volcanoes;" "Scum floating upon an ocean of fluid matter;" "Clouds;" "Opaque masses floating in the fluid matter of the sun, dipping down occasionally," "Fiery liquid surrounding the sun which, by its ebbing and flowing, the highest parts of it were occasionally uncovered, and appeared under the shape of dark spots, and by the return of the fiery liquid, they were again covered, and in a manner successively assumed different phases;""Interruptions of continuity in the bright envelopes immediately surrounding the sun," "Cavities" etc.
Public sentiment in regard to the degree of darkness which is disclosed in sun-spots is exceedingly erroneous. It is believed that the spots are really dark.Zöllner, however, states that "The black umbra of a spot emits four thousand times as much light as that derived from an equal area of the moon." "The blackest part of the spot is intrinsically bright."
These phenomena may not arise from disruptions taking place on the sun's surface, neither from violent agitations near that surface. The essential and intimate character of the so-called sun-spots may be found in the interruptions of continuity in the fluid occupying the solar cone-space. This fluid which we call sunlight intercommunicates between the entire opposing surface of sun and earth, unless interrupted by some temporary cause. Any cause which is capable ofproducing results of such character and magnitude can only act by more or less completely interrupting the development or transmission of this fluid.
The result of such action would be disclosed to us by a decreased brilliancy in the direction of the sun. The so-called sun-spot would be in character, magnitude, form, and shade proportionate to the extent and character of the disturbing force. The permanence or evanescence of the spot would indicate the sun or earth as being the locality of such derangement. The more permanent form being developed at the sun, and the more ephemeral at the earth.
Any forces in operation at the earth which might interfere with the intercommunication of light, would lessen the brilliancy of the light, at the earth-extremity of the cone-space; and the deficiency thus produced would disclose to an observer at the earth all the appearances of a spot upon the surface of the sun. The so-called spot, thus produced, might therefore not be regarded as a veritable spot upon the sun's disc, but rather as an optical illusion.
What may be the forces in operation on the part of the sun, and earth alike, which may so interfere with the development or transmission of light through the solar cone-space?
The condition of the contents contained within the enclosure of the sun-crust and earth-crust, is presumably one of unrest; its actions varying from repose to the most violent agitation, with a tendency to the cyclonic in its motions. Although the earth-core may not be presumed to be an entire moving mass, yet it is known to be in a measure incandescent, and molten. Magnetic storms occur within our earth-crust which sway the needle without, and almost instantaneously manifest their presence over areas of more than half the globe. The same phenomena are undoubtedly present in increased development at the sun.
We may therefore with reason suppose that perturbations, however produced, occur within those spheres, of such an extent and character as might be a sufficient cause ofthe interruption of development, or of transmission of that fluid.
The ephemeral or evanescent character of many of the so-called sun-spots, removes them from the domain of sun-phenomena, otherwise than in appearance.
Some of these spots even of large dimensions come into the field of view almost instantaneously; and as suddenly disappear. ThusKrone"observed a spot of no inconsiderable dimensions which sprang into existence in less than a minute of time."Dr. Wollastonsays:—"I once saw with a two-inch reflector a spot which burst in pieces as I was looking at it."Bielaalso notes that "spots disappear sometimes in a single moment."Sir William Herschel"turned away his eyes from a group of spots he was observing, and when he looked again the group had vanished."
Of those who attempt to make an estimate of these phenomena by mathematical formulæ,we would ask, What velocities must these sudden and apparently widespread outbursts represent, if they take place at the sun?
That this phenomenon is a result of an interruption of the solar current is rational to suppose. It is indisputable that the interruptions which produce these manifestations have an important bearing upon terrestrial phenomena. Winds, storms, vegetation, healthfulness, are manifestly influenced, and in a measure controlled by these perturbations.
The claim of many scientists that spot periods may be calculated, and classified, possesses no element even of probability, much less of fact, to sustain the supposition. The evanescent character of many of these spots places them beyond the sphere of statistical calculation.
Not even concerted and systematic investigation can insure reliable conclusions, forpersons separated by even inconsiderable distances would not always observe precisely the same spot manifestations. Moreover, the spots appear and vanish so quickly that no correct estimate can be made at any single locality. As well attempt to map and chart the aurora borealis.
Scheinerwas one of the first who ever observed these spots through a telescope, and was therefore uncontrolled by theories in his estimate of their character and location. He held it "impossible that they could be on the sun itself," and imagined some of them to be "as far from the sun, as the moon, Venus, or Mercury."
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Sounds are products of vito-magnetic conditions and changes. They result from action or force expended upon the vito-magnetic element of the atmosphere. If such action or force be directly expended upon the air, or, more accurately, upon this vito-magnetic constituent of the air, it is propagated in accordance with the laws that govern the transmission of the vito-magnetic or electrical fluid through the air. If it be expended upon a lengthened wire, then, as sound, it is transmitted according to the laws of magnetic transmission through wire.
The recent experiments in connection with the telephone have demonstrated the fact that sound may be communicated through hundreds of miles of space without occupying any appreciable length of time—in this respect being precisely like the ordinary action of the magnetic current. It is mostphilosophical therefore to conclude that it is the same element that is concerned in both instances. If we were to distinguish between the actions of the telephonic wire and the telegraphic wire we should say that there is no difference in the medium of communication, which is in either case the vito-magnetic fluid; but that in the former the normal fluid is affected simply, while in the latter an artificial and extraordinary amount of fluid is induced so as to produce strong magnetic effects. In the telephone wire we have anaffectionof the fluid; in the telegraphic wire apulsation, so to speak.
In the production of sound,vibrations(erroneously calledwaves), have an important agency, butthey have no act or part in its conveyance.
The varying intensities of sound, and the distance to which it reaches, are in direct ratio with the kind of force applied in its production, the character of the resistance offered and the medium of communication employed.
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The theories thus asserted may be regarded as exceedingly radical in their character. Their influence may not be fully estimated. Marvellous in extent are the ramifications which proceed from these sources, and few are the subjects of human thought and investigation which will not be, to a greater or less degree, affected by their influence.
New channels of thought and investigation will be opened, and old theories which now have the confidence of great minds and great numbers, will quietly sink into oblivion.
The blank astonishment and incredulity with which these theories will be received, will soon be followed by acceptance, and the world will wonder why these things have been so long delayed.
If these theories be true, among the foremost and withal the most mischievous of theold theories which will fall, will be that figment of the imagination—theNebular Hypothesis.[14]How strangely, and how strongly, has that hypothesis maintained its ground,even after nebulous masses have been resolved into clusters of stars. If gravity be the result of retro-acting forces, there could be no element of attraction in the flimsy gaseous particles whereby they might be drawn together. If gravity be the result of retro-acting forces, then must those forces have their existence somewhere. But where could there be found in flimsy gases any such special centres of force—any nuclei—from which attraction might proceed in its work of forming the spheres? A starting-point is lacking.
If these theories be true, the sun is formed like unto the earth, and is cool, non-luminous, and habitable. Incandescence not being the condition of the sun or its surroundings; exhausted worlds, worn out asteroids, and stray comets and meteors are not required to keep up external fires.
If, therefore, incandescence benota condition of the sun's surroundings, then surelythere may benoglowing metallic vapors,nohydrogen,noiron,nosodium,nomagnesium,nooxygen; those constituents of the sun envelope, so graphically described by the spectroscopists of the present day.
The origin ofcelestialspectroscopy was as vague and unphilosophical as was that of the nebular hypothesis.FrauenhoferandKirchhoffimaginedcertain things, and straightway a great theory sprang into existence.[15]
Verily the "Scientific use of the Imagination" too often leads men into the grossest errors.
If these theories be true, we may hereafter ignore all undulatory processes. Time may no longer be estimated in noting the transmission of light and heat, since, like gravity, each acts instantaneously.If the most distant fixed star which is visible could be annihilated to-night, its light would be seen no more forever.
If these theories be true, the recent marvels of the age, the telephone, phonograph, and their fast-multiplying brood find a satisfactory and philosophical explanation.
If these theories be true, the boast of the Atheist, that God is wasteful and a bungler, in that he wastefully scatters his sunlight, and sun-heat, in all directions into space, is set at naught. Nature has been misinterpreted.No sunlight nor sun-heat is disclosed, except in the direction of other spheres.
These theories throw new light upon the character and extent of the atmosphere of the moon and planets, and the consequent availability of those and other spheres for sustaining life. The extent of the atmosphere of each celestial body may be presumed to be proportionate to our own. Analogy would therefore teach us that those bodies, also our sun, and other suns, are the abodes of intelligent beings.
If these theories be true, heat may no longer be regarded as actual motion among the particles of heated matter, neither may we longer imagine the existence of hypothetical upper trade winds.
If these theories be true, the part which has ever been attributed to the sun as originator and dispenser of light and heat, has been overestimated. Every sphere contains within its enclosure the source from which its own supply is derived;—a veritable storehouse,which at one and the same time yields and governs its requisite supply.The earth receives what is due to it, in the interchange constantly taking place; and not an amount which the sun may fitfully dole out.
In the character of the winds, and atmosphere as disclosed, what revelations! What floods of light will thus be thrown upon subjects now mysterious!
[14]Appendix, p. 106.
[15]Appendix, p. 106.
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In its bearings upon the systemic conditions which we term health and disease, this mysterious vito-magnetic fluid is of the highest import. This great principle which fills the earth and all spheres, and governs and binds them together—this great principle which is the source of all life, animate and inanimate—this principle dominates in every vital system, from man down through and beyond the microscopic forms of existence.
The normal action of this principle in every part of the human system constituteshealth; its abnormal action,disease; its interruption,death.
The human system is thus a delicately organized and exceedingly sensitive vito-magnetic machine, and is virtually kept in actionthrough the operation of this principle. Any condition, therefore, which may directly or indirectly influence or disturb this principle, may influence or disturb the actions of every human organization.
In the search for causes of disease throughout the ages, this field, so fruitful in material, has been left almost unexplored. The disclosures of the early future will wonderfully change the sentiments entertained in regard to the cause of a large proportion of our diseases. Meteorological influence, although now comparatively ignored as a disease-producing power, will ere long be recognized not only asapower, but asthepower, far overshadowing all other influences combined.
The character and extent of these influences are scarcely imagined. In estimating them the attention of the profession is now mainly directed to thermometric and hygrometric changes and conditions. These form not the largest proportion of the perturbing influences constantly in operation around us.
With the verification of the meteorological theory of causation, more positive and rational ideas will prevail;—obscurity will, in ameasure, give place to clearer and more exact perceptions of the character and relations of diseases, and a corresponding efficiency in treatment may be expected.
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The practical procurement of necessary light and heat for our dwellings, as well as of necessary mechanical power for the world's work in mills and factories,in some less expensive and laborious mannerthan through vast consumption of wood, coal, and oil, is believed to be now so close upon realization that we may even call itun fait accompli.
The conversion of the momentum of rivers, and of the power of cataracts, tides, and winds, into vito-magnetic or electrical fluid; the transportation of this fluid to any locality through wire or cable; and its final transmutation into light, heat, or mechanical force sufficient for all work, are already demonstrated as practicable.
There is no reason then why the Mississippi should not be made to roll, and Niagara to fall through our workshops, or even to impel our street-cars. They may as well work as to be idle as they go.
But in all this, startling as it seems, man is only imitating Nature in her every-day operations through sun and earth. Even the order is similar. The sun is therivergiving its constant impulse through the vito-magnetic cable of the solar cone. Theearthend of the cable is adjusted by means of the atmosphere, for the production of light and heat for this earthly habitation.
It indues the globe with magnetic influence which we have called gravity. And in its workshop, its mechanical and vital forces are keeping up all motions in animal and plant, earth, ocean, and air.
And thus light, heat, gravity, mechanical power, electricity, magnetism, vital force and universal motion, are but one principle variously expressed. This principle we have designated vito-magnetic fluid. But have we reached a climax and an end? No. This vito-magnetic river or current flows on. Its flood is never stayed. But yet we find no accumulation. Light and heat have neither been piled up to the sky, nor have they become annihilated. Their essential element has only changed form, and proceeded on itsbusy way, turning earth into a magnet, vivifying and operating all organisms, travelling upon all currents, gathering up and utilizing all the fragments and waste of its workshop, transmitting and conserving its energyen routeto the poles. And finally,the same element that signalized its entrance at the earth's more central regionsas heat,now signalizes its departure along earth's polar extremitiesas cold.[D]
Nothing is lost. Such a mighty flowing current cannot be stopped. If it rollsinwe may be assured thatsomewhereit will rollout. And this is butthe Grand Cosmical Circuit, already made mention of.
[D]We would not define cold as "absence of heat." Cold is rather the opposite electrical condition to heat.
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It may be asked, why should the discovery of this great source of all the forces, vital and physical, have been delayed to the present time? Master minds have been engaged for ages in efforts to solve the wonderful problem.
Herschel,Newton,Humboldt,Faraday,Mossotti, and many others have held thekeyalmost within their control, and the consummation has only failed of being realized at an earlier day by reason of the tenacity with which the minds of men are held by preconceived and pre-existing opinions.
Sir William Herschelregarded solar and stellar light as the effects of anelectro-magneticprocess.
Newtonrecognized all movements of the cosmical bodies to be the result of one and the same force; "of some higherandstill unknown power," but luminiferous ethershaded his mental vision, and he failed to discern that power. In his investigations of those great subjects he is led to ask, "Are not the sun, and fixed stars, great earths, vehemently hot?"
Humboldtsaid: "It is indeed a brilliant effort, worthy of the human mind, to comprise in one organic whole, the entire science of nature, from the laws of gravity to the formative impulse in animated bodies;" but the preoccupation of his vast mind, and the hold of pre-existing ideas, offered difficulties to the solution of the problem. But, note the approximation of his ideas to those herein expressed, he said: "The sun, as the main source of light and heat, must be able to call forth and animate magnetic forces on our planet." Unfortunately, however, he continues thus: "and more especially in the gaseous strata of our atmosphere."
Faraday, perhaps the most distinguished man, in the whole of his own field, which the world has ever produced, recognizing the power of this great obstacle to true advancement (i. e., preconceived and pre-existing ideas), once said: "When such a one as myself gets out of the way, then new conditions, new men, new views, new opportunities, mayallow of the development of other lines of active operation than those heretofore in service." He believed in the existence of one great universal principle, from which gravity, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, even life itself might come. He spent many of his latest years in efforts to solve this great problem, and on his failure he asked: "Is it all a dream?" He never, however, wavered in his faith, and his last efforts were directed to that end.
With prophetic vision, almost amounting to prescience, he, in speaking of magnetism, said: "When we remember that the earth itself is a magnet, pervaded in every part by this mighty power, universal and strong as gravity itself, we cannot doubt that it is exerting an appointed and essential influence over every particle of matter, and in every place where it is present.
"What its great purpose is, seems to be looming up in the distance before us:—the clouds which obscure our mental sight are daily thinning, and I cannot doubt that a glorious discovery in natural knowledge and in the wisdom and power of God in the creation is awaiting our age."
Thus did those great philosophers so nearly attain to the goal of their highest earthly aspirations, and only failed in the consummation by reason of clinging to the existing opinions of their age.
1. (Page 22.) "Bruno, about the close of the last century,guessedthe fundamental fact of the Nebular Hypothesis, andKant reasoned outits foundation idea, andLaplacedeveloped it."—Correlation and Conservation of Forces.
We have learned to recognize on how very doubtful a basis many of the received axioms of physical science are founded. This hypothesis has been received with much unanimity and has firmly held its sway. Yet, "Brunoguessedthe fundamental fact," and thisfigment of the imaginationhas, for nearly a century, controlled the scientific mind. Its paralyzing influences have affected other departments of physical science, and true progress has been obstructed. The attempt to describe minutely how the spheres were formed millions of years ago is but presumption.
This hypothesis, from such an origin, unverified and unverifiable, is too weak to support the superstructure which has been erected upon it. This hypothesis discarded, it may be presumed that the earth was never in a fluid orwholly incandescent state.
"It may be shown that all nebulæ are crowded stellar masses."—Humboldt.
2. (Page 25.) "Considering the continued activity of the sun through countless centuries, we may assume, with mathematical certainty, the existence of some compensating influence to make good its enormous loss."—Cor. and Con. of Forces.
If the earth receives the benefits of this activity, surely the "compensating influence" must, in a like degree, go forth from the earth to the sun. And, furthermore, if this influence (whatever its character) may pass in theonedirection through space without known or visible means of communication,retro-actionmay be affected through the same channel.
3. (Page 26.) "The earth belongs to a system of planets analogous to itself, having the same origin, the same destiny, situated around the same centre and governed by the same motive power."—Flammarian.
4. (Page 27.) "A mysterious chain links together the celestial and terrestrial forces. According to the ancient signification of the Titanic myth, the powers of organic life, that is to say, the great order of nature, depend upon the combined action of heaven and earth."—Humboldt.
5. (Page 30.) "Herschel'sfixed idea was that the darkness of a spot was an indication of a cool habitable globe."
6. (Page 36.)M. Maiche, inLes Mondes, propounds the theory, reached after numerous experiments, that water is simply hydrogenpluselectricity, or oxygenminuselectricity,or, in other words, that normal electrified hydrogen constitutes water, and that normal diselectrified oxygen produces the same; or that hydrogen, oxygen, and water are precisely the same, differing only in degree of electrification.
7. (Page 41.) "The sun, as the main source of heat and light, must be able to call forth and animate magnetic forces on our planet."—Humboldt.
"It is an incontestable fact that the sun exercises an action upon the magnetic phenomena which are manifested upon our globe."—Secchi.
"What is certain is, that there ought to be, between the sun and planets, a means of communication of force, and the transmission of movement."—Ibid.
"The central body may, as a powerful source of heat, excite magnetic activity on our planet."—Humboldt.
8. (Page 42.) "It cannot be doubted that electro-magnetic currents exist in the interior of the globe."—Ampère.
"The internal heat of our planet isconnected with the generation of electro-magnetic currents."—Humboldt.
"A large proportion of winter heat of the poles comes through the equatorial current."—Youmans.
9. (Page 44.) "Hoodheard a noise as of quickly moved musket-balls, and a slight crackling sound during an aurora. He also noticed the same noise on the following day."
"Father Perryof the Stonyhurst Observatory remarked that the green spectroscopic line characteristic of the aurora, could be detected even where the unassisted eye failed to notice any trace of light."
"The fleecy clouds seen in Iceland byThienemann, and which he considered to be the northern light, have been seen in recent times byFranklinandRichardson, near the American north pole, and byAdmiral Wrangelon the Siberian coast. All remarked that the aurora flashed forth in the most vivid beams when masses of cirrus strata were hovering in the upper regions of the air, and when these were so thin that their presence could only be recognized by the formation of a halo around the moon."
"These clouds sometimes range themselveseven by dayin a similar manner to the beams of the aurora and then disturb the course of the magnetic needle in the same manner as the latter. On the morning after every distinct nocturnal aurora the same superimposed strata of clouds have still been observed, that had previously been luminous."
Parryeven "saw the great arch of the northern lightcontinue throughout the day."
"Aragowas of the opinion that each observer saw his own aurora somewhat as each observer of a rainbow sees the luminous arc differently placed."
10. (Page 44.) If with a percussion cap and a tear we may develop sufficient power to deflect a magnetic needle 3,000 miles distant, what power may not be expected of the sun, 1,250,000 times larger than the earth; the sun exercising a force of the same character?
11. (Page 50.) "Prof. Mossottihas recently shown, by a very able analysis, thatthere are strong grounds for believing that not only the molecular forces which unite the particles of material bodies depend on the electric fluid, but that even gravitation itself, which binds world to world, and sun to sun, can no longer be regarded as an ultimate principle, but the residual portion of a far more powerful force, generated by that energetic agent which pervades creation."—Faraday.
"If gravitation is made to mean something allied to magnetism, some poorly explained phenomena become easily understood. But what are the circumstances affording proof of the identity of these forces? First, gravitation acts upon all kinds of matter;Faradayproved the same of magnetism. Second, gravitation is attractive; so is magnetism. Third, gravitation is proportionate to the mass; the force of magnets also depends upon the mass. Fourth, gravitation acts in an inverse ratio to the square of the distance; so does magnetism. Fifth, gravitation does not manifest polarity; magnetism is known not to do so. Sixth, gravitation acts independently of bodies affording a resistance to light and heat; so does magnetism."—Cartwell.
Faraday'sbiographer says:—"He is oppressed with the magnitude and importance of his subject, yet is stimulated by the fact that the discovery which he aims for (the relationship between gravity and electricity) would have a bearing in importance far beyond all conception in elucidating not only the facts connected with these subjects, but also others of a high importance. There being scarcely a limit to the subjects which would be illuminated by it."
"Gravity, surely this force must be capable of an experimental relation to electricity and magnetism and the other forces, so as to bind it up with them in reciprocal action and equivalent effect."—Faraday.
Keplerregarded gravity and heat "as being probably derived from one single principle."
"There is every reason for believing that the radiations which constitute heat and light are essentially the same."
"Gravity acts instantaneously."
12. (Page 52.) Speaking of static electricity,Faradayremarks: "What an ideaof the ever-present and ever-ready state of this power is given to us, when we consider that not only every substance, but almost every mode of dealing with substance manifests its presence. It is not accidental at these times, but active and essentially so, and we may, in our endeavors to comprehend it, usefully compare and contrast it with gravity which never changes. There we see that power which in undisturbed and solemn grandeur holds equally the world and the dust of which worlds are formed together, and carries them on in their course through illimitable space through illimitable ages; and in this other power, even in this our first glimpse we see probably the contrasted force which is destined to give all that vivacity and mutual activity to particles that shall fit them as far as matter alone is concerned, for their wonderful office in the phenomena of nature, and enable them to bring forth the ever varying and astonishing changes which earth, air, fire and water present to us; from the motion of the dust in the whirlwind up to the highest conditions of life."
13. (Page 61.) An illustration of this form of wind-production may be found in the following facts related byDr. Gisler, who fora long time dwelt in the north of Sweden: "The matter of the aurora borealis sometimes descends so low that it touches the ground. At the summit of high mountains it produces upon the face of the traveller an effect analogous to that of wind."
We should pronounce this effect to be the production of a true wind of a circumscribed or local character.
14. (Page 80.)Prof. Kirchhoffwas led to the study of a coincidence between the bright yellow line given in an incandescent sodium vapor, and the solar line "D," which coincidence had already been noticed byFrauenhofer. Upon applying a greater dispersive power he noticed that the line "D" was a double one; but so also was the sodium line under these conditions. Moreover, each line of the one coincided with each line of the other. Thesuspicionbecame strong that it was the sodium in thesunwhich caused the "D" line. He then extended the comparisons to other elements. He carefully measured sixty bright lines in the spectrum of iron; and found every one of these sixtylines to correspond with a dark in the solar spectrum.
"The overwhelmingprobabilityof a common cause for both was forced upon him, andby calculationhe ascertained that this probability was as one million million million to one, in its favor."—Lockyer.
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The great Solar Cone-space, in order to be clearly marked to the eye, was represented in Plate I, page 30, as white. This to some readers may be misleading; as this space when viewed transversely is not luminous,—it is not even visible. (Pl. V.)