“There was crying in Granada when the sun was going down,Some calling on the Trinity—some calling on Mahoun.”
“There was crying in Granada when the sun was going down,Some calling on the Trinity—some calling on Mahoun.”
“There was crying in Granada when the sun was going down,Some calling on the Trinity—some calling on Mahoun.”
To quell the Moorish malcontents, Cardinal Ximenes was sent to Granada, with the royal permission to enforce baptism or to compel exile. The Cardinal carried terror into the city. There was no more clemency for the heretics and “heathen”; their temples were desecrated, and they were coerced into acceptance of the Catholic religion. “The Knights of Granada, gentlemen, though Moors,” as the Spanish poets had written of them, were treated with callous cruelty. Some fled to the fortresses of the Alpujarras; others remained in ignominy in the city of their birth, exposed to harsh exactions.
It was the humane Archbishop Talavera of Granada who opposed, with all his courage and energy, the importation of the Inquisition into Spain. Let it be clearly remembered that thistyrannous institution was resisted by all the enlightened Spaniards, and that the mass of the people regarded its introduction with horror. Many of the chief Inquisitors went in fear of their lives through the hatred which they aroused in the people.
Ximenes was of a very different cast from Talavera. He was sufficiently powerful to have contested the establishment of the tribunal, but he was, on the contrary, responsible for many of its worst excesses of persecution.
The Moors in Granada, after the reconquest by Fernando, were commanded to wear the garb of Christians, to speak the Castilian language, and to abandon their ritual of cleanliness. Philip II. even destroyed the baths of the Alhambra, to prevent the ablutions of the “infidels.” The beautiful Morisco painting and decorative work were plastered over with whitewash. Christian vandalism ran riot in the fair city of the art-loving sultans.
The Moors who sought refuge in the glens of the mountains soon began to till the land, and to transform the wilderness into a garden. After a spell of peace, and a recovery of some measure of wealth, the community of refugees rebelled. Terrible is the tale of reprisal.Christians were driven to bay and slaughtered ruthlessly. The Moors gained sway over the district until their leader was slain by one of his own race. Then came the final routing by the Christian soldiery by means of the sword and firebrand, and Moorish might was for ever crushed in Andalusia.
For what counted all this bloodshed? The answer is written in the history of Spain after the expulsion of the intelligent, industrious Moriscoes. The lesson is plain. The fall of Granada was the beginning of the decline of Spain, and not, as the Spaniards thought, the dawn of a golden epoch. With the Moors went their culture, the arts and industry; and only traditions in craftsmanship remained among the Spanish artisans. The half million inhabitants at the time of the surrender of Granada very quickly dwindled under the Catholic kings. To-day there is scarcely a sign of industrial and commercial energy in this city of the past. The population seem to subsist principally upon providing for the continual influx of visitors, while there are hundreds of beggars in the place.
The Alhambra was considerably marred by Charles V., who used it as a residence. Philip V.and his consort were the last of the sovereigns of Spain who sojourned in Granada. In the wars of 1810-1812, the French troops were quartered in the Alhambra, and they are responsible for the destruction of the mosque built in the fourteenth century.
The architecture of the Alhambra is of a late Morisco order. If we enter by the Puerta de Judiciaria we shall see the inscription of Yusuf I., who built the gateways and the towers. There are two arches to this entrance, the inner one is smaller than the outer, and both are of horseshoe design, with decorations above the curves. The inner side of this portal is an extremely beautiful example of Moorish art.
The several buildings enclosed within the walls form the Alhambra, the palace itself being only a comparatively small part of the whole. Towers guard the walls, and starting from the eastern side of the puerta, before which we now stand, we come to the Prisoner’s Tower. The next tower is known as Siete Suelos, and the others, in their order, are Agua, Las Infantas, Cantivá, Candil, Picos, Comares, Puñales, Homenage, De-las Armas, Vela Guardia, and Polvora.
The Palace of Charles V. was reared in themidst of these Morisco surroundings, and to the injury of the Alhambra. It is, however, a fine quadrangular building, with richly decorated puertas. Around the centre court are a number of apartments. At the back of the palace is the fish pond, overshadowed by the imposing Comares Tower, and from here we enter the Court of the Lions, so called from the twelve lions supporting the fountain in the centre. This beautiful court dates from the time of Mohammed V. It is surrounded by an arcade with very delicate columns and horseshoe arches.
Writing of the lions, in “The Soul of Spain,” my friend Havelock Ellis says: “I delight in the Byzantine lions who stand in a ring in the midst of the court which bears their name. No photograph does justice to these delicious beasts. They are models of a deliberately conventional art, which yet never becomes extravagant or grotesque. They are quite unreal, and yet have a real life of their own.”
The Sala de los Mocarabes is approached from this court. Its walls are decorated in the vivid colours used by the Moors, and it has a ceiling of later Gothic style.
The Hall of the Abencerrages has fine stalactite arches, and a bewildering wealth ofdecoration. The wooden doors are beautifully ornamented, and the whole effect is fairylike and enchanting. A fountain plays in the centre of the chamber.
The Hall of Justice has been likened to a grotto. It is one of the most wonderful of these apartments, approached by a range of exquisite arches from the Court of the Lions. The pictures on the walls are said to be portraits of the sovereigns of Granada. There is a brilliant centre painting on the ceiling, with quaint Moorish figures, and the gilding and colouring of the arches and alcoves are gorgeous. The Apartment of the Two Sisters has a marvellous roof of honeycomb pattern, the walls are decorated with blue tiles, and the floor is of marble. This was the room occupied by the brides of the kings of Granada.
The inscriptions in this chamber are numerous, and I quote two specimens:
“Look upon this wonderful cupola, at sight of whose perfection all other domes must pale and disappear.”
“How many delightful prospects I enfold! Prospects, in the contemplation of which a mind enlightened finds the gratification of its desire.”
The Hall of the Ambassadors was built by Yusuf. It is domed, and the roof is exquisitelycarved, while the decorations here surpass those of any apartment in the Alhambra, and are of an infinite variety of design. From the windows there are fine views of Granada. Many of the patterns on the walls of the palace are really inscriptions ingeniously employed as decorations. The reproduction of animal forms in the adornment of buildings was prohibited by Mohammedan law.
The Council Chamber (the Mexuar) has been restored. The palace proper contains, besides the apartments described, the Bath Court, the Court of the Reja, and the Court of Daxara, a very charming patio, shaded by trees, with apartments surrounding it.
The mosque was reconsecrated by Charles V. and used as a Christian chapel. There is a fine carved roof, and superb colouring on the walls, with an inscription, extolling the power of Allah.
An oratory adjoins the chapel. The court of the mosque is elaborately embellished, and has graceful columns and arches.
Several of the towers are provided with chambers, and those of Las Infantas were occupied by the princesses of the Moorish rulers. This tower was erected in the time ofMohammed VII. Within, Las Infantas Tower is delightfully decorated. The interior of the Torre de la Cautiva is even more brilliantly adorned.
The Generalife, the “Palace of Recreation,” or, as other authorities have it, “the Garden of the Architects,” was originally an observation tower, and was used afterwards by the sultans as a villa. This summer residence is separated from the Alhambra by a gorge, and approached by a path through a garden. The Acequia Court is one of the most beautiful of the patios in the buildings comprising the Alhambra. A gallery surrounds it, supported by tall pillars and arches, most richly ornamented. We look between the slender columns upon a lovely Oriental garden, with a series of fountains playing in jets. The gardens of the Generalife are delightful; the trees are luxuriant from the moisture of the soil, and the flowers grow in riotous profusion. Here the very trees are aged, for the cypresses were planted in the days of the sultans. There is an expansive and impressive view from the belvedere adjoining.
Unfortunately most of the internal beauties of the Generalife have suffered decay, and the brush of the whitewasher has coated the walls.But the cypress court, the curious gardens, the fountains, and the beautiful arches and pillars must be seen.
The Darro that flows beneath the hill of the Alhambra contains gold, and it is said that when Charles V. came with his empress, the inhabitants presented him with a crown made from the precious grains collected from the bed of the stream. A little silver has been found in the Genil into which the Darro flows.
Looking back at the magnificent Alhambra on its proud summit, we can imagine the distress of the Moors when their city was captured by the army of Fernando. We leave this monument behind, and, as we descend to the Cathedral, our thought turns to the period of Christian domination, and of the triumph of the old faith of Spain.
The first architect was Diego de Siloe, and the work was continued by his pupils, and by the renowned Alonso Cano, who designed the west front. As a specimen of Renaissance work, the Cathedral of Granada is one of the most splendid churches of Spain. The dome is vast and magnificent, there are five naves and many side chapels, all containing splendid works of art. Over the principal doorway are reliefcarvings, dating from the eighteenth century. But a finer portal is that of Del Perdon, where we shall see some of Siloe’s characteristic decoration.
Alonso Cano, painter and sculptor, was buried in the choir. This artist was a native of the city, and the only great painter that Granada produced. Before his day, the artists of Spain painted with an intensity of religious seriousness, to the end of leading men to worship God and the Virgin. Their work was sombre and dramatic. Alonso Cano struck a secular note; he had a relish of the life of this world, and his fervent temperament found expression in depicting love episodes, and portraying the women of his day in the guise of saints and madonnas. His “Virgin and Child,” in the Saville Cathedral, expresses his emotional art. Cano has been called “the least Spanish of all the painters of Spain.”
He was born in 1601, and the register of the Church of St Ildefonso records his baptism. In his sixty-sixth year he died. As a lad he studied painting in Seville, in the studio of Pacheco, at the time when Velazquez was a student, and afterwards he learned the methods of Juan del Castillo. He was patronised by Philip IV., andhe painted many pictures for the cathedrals of his country, among others at Madrid, Toledo, and Granada. Alonso Cano was made a priest, and afterwards a prebendary of Granada, where an apartment was assigned to him in the cathedral.
In the Capella Mayor the frescoes of the cupola are by Cano, depicting episodes in the life of the Virgin. The paintings are joyous in temper, and brilliant in colouring. “The Purisima,” one of his most finished statues, is in the sacristy, and among other examples of his carving are the wooden painted figures of “Adam and Eve”; and “The Virgin and Child with St Anna” is most probably the work of Cano. “St Paul,” in the Chapel of our Lady of Carmen, is also one of his pieces. The pictures in Granada from Cano’s brush are in the Capella Mayor, the Church of the Trinity, the altar of San Miguel, and in the Chapel of Jesus Nazareno. His carved work is seen in the lectern of the choir, the west façade, and the doors of the sacristy.
El Greco, whose work we have seen in Toledo, is represented by a picture over the altar of St Jesus Nazareno, “St Francis.” The other pictures are by Ribera. Montañez designed the crucifix in the sacristy.
In the Chapel Royal we trace late Gothic work. There is a beautiful reja here (lattice or grating) by Bartolomé, and the altar is adorned with statues of Ferdinand and Isabella. The ornate memorial of these sovereigns is by an Italian, Fancelli.
These are but a few of the objects of art in the cathedral. There are still many churches and historic places to visit in the city, and I must perforce hurry in my descriptions. Siloe’s architecture is seen in the Church of Santa Ana, and other churches should be inspected, though few of them are important. The Charterhouse or Cartuja stands on the site of a monastery, and the church is a very resplendent example of later Gothic decoration, the effects being gained within by a lavish use of pearl, ebony, tortoise-shell, and marble. The Audencia is a handsome building with a gorgeous façade. In the Church of San Geronimo is the burial-place of El Gran Capitan, whose effigy and that of his wife are at the altar.
If we wish to see the types of Andalusian character among the poorer class—such as Murillo painted—we must stroll in the Albaicin Quarter. This is a district of picturesque squalor, and not over-sweet are the odours thatmay assail sensitive nostrils. But the Albaicin must be seen. It was the resort of the Moors who remained after the taking of Granada by Fernando, and it is now largely populated by gypsies such as George Borrow describes in “The Bible in Spain.” The city has been a haunt of Gitanos for about three hundred years, and many of the swarthy tribe live in caves, which they have delved in the hillsides. For a “consideration,” the gypsies will perform one of their curious symbolic dances.
“One of the most enchanting prospects I ever beheld,” writes the Chevalier de Bourgoanne, in the eighteenth century, after his visit to Granada. Travellers of all nationalities since that time have praised the wonderful spell of the city. Washington Irving, Ford, O’Shea, and many others have depicted its beauties with the pen, while a large gallery could be filled with the pictures painted here by artists from all parts of Europe.
There are quaint Moorish-looking towns and villages within reach of Granada, some within walking distance. “In Granada God gives all the necessaries of life to those by whom He is beloved.” So runs a local proverb, and it seems a justifiable statement from the evidence ofplenty that delights the gaze of the traveller through the richly fertile province. The vega that lies betwixt the city and Cadiz is screened by mountains, and thoroughly irrigated by hundreds of rivulets. Here the cactas is grown for the sake of the cochineal insect. The vegetation is marvellous; the earth is so generous that lucerne can be cut from ten to twelve times in the year. No wonder that Romans and Moors craved this sunny land of plenty.
WHENBacchus and Lusus came to the Peninsula, sundered from Italy by the Mediterranean Sea, they discovered a delightful region of mountains and glens, well-watered and fertile, which they called Lusitania. Between the rivers Minho and Douro is a glowing tract of country, not unlike the finest parts of North Wales, with a varied sea coast, bright little villages nestling among the hills, and well-tilled fields, vineyards, and gay gardens. Mountains screen this district on the north and east, and the vast Atlantic washes it on the west. Here is the chief wine-growing quarter of Portugal, a land appropriately colonised by Bacchus; and in the centre of the wine-making and exporting industry is Porto, the capital of the province of Entre-Douro-e-Minho.
OPORTO, 1832. FROM THE QUAY OF VILLA NOVA.OPORTO, 1832.FROM THE QUAY OF VILLA NOVA.
“Oporto the Proud” is a very old city and seaport on the right bank of the impetuous Douro, and within a few miles of the coast. The river is tidal and broad, and big ships come to the busy quays below the greatsuspension bridge. At the mouth of the Douro is a bar, much dreaded by sailors, for it is rocky at this point, and generally a rough sea breaks and foams at the outlet.
Oporto is one of the most beautiful cities in Europe. I visited it in June, when the terraces and gardens were aglow with flowers, the streets steeped in perpetual sunshine, the sky a deep blue, and the sunsets gorgeous. It is a bright city, seen from the opposite bank, with houses rising one above the other on slopes that are almost precipitous. Here and there the rock juts out among the villas that overhang the river, while verdure shows on the high banks. In parts of the gorge the cliffs rise to three hundred feet.
Oporto is a city of squares. There are several of these open spaces, all planted with trees, well-paved, and surrounded by tall buildings which lend a Moorish atmosphere to the towns. It is a centre of craftsmen. In one thoroughfare you will find harness-makers and hatters busily employed; in another goldsmiths and jewellers ply their trade. The markets are thronged with peasants from the vineyards, the women dressed in the gaudiest garments, with huge earrings and great gold brooches.Perhaps nowhere in Europe can so many prosperous and cheerful country-folk be seen assembled as in the streets of Oporto on a market day. Ox carts come laden with barrels; the river is dotted with the curiously shapedbarcosthat bring the wine from the rustic presses far up the valley; and up the steep alleys clamber the pannier-donkeys, with fruit heaped in the baskets.
The yoked oxen, led by sedate men—with large sallow faces, their loose limbs clothed in short jackets, and wearing the ancient hats of the district—the mule carts and the pack-donkeys appear mediæval and strangely out of accord with the modern motor cars of the fashionable citizens. Oporto is both old and new. Paris and London fashions in dress may be seen in the shopping quarters. There is a large colony of English people in the city, and many French and German merchants. Here you will see a native of the hills in his national garb; there a lady clad in the newest Parisian apparel; here an English sailor, and there a Spaniard. All is movement, animation, colour, when the streets are gay and crowded on a holiday.
The climate of Oporto is pleasant and healthy.In the height of summer the heat is tempered by breezes from the Atlantic, and from the mountains on the east. There is a high average of sunshine. During the winter there is a considerable rainfall, and occasional snow. Around the city is a delightfully varied country of hills and valleys, watered by clear streams, and highly cultivated in the straths. On the slopes are roads of oak, chestnut, and birch. In the sheltered vales oranges, figs, lemons, and many other fruits thrive excellently. Strawberries are large in size and abundant. Vegetables grow with but little culture in this fertile land, and there are flower gardens with an opulence of colour.
On the south bank of the Douro there was probably an early Roman settlement. The Vandals swept down upon Lusitania when the power of the Romans waned, and after them came other Teuton hordes—the Suevi and the fierce Visigoths. About the middle of the eighth century the Moors conquered Portugal, and held it for three centuries. The Asturians of northern Spain appear to have reconquered this part of Portugal in the time of Ferdinand I. of Castile. After the subduing of the Moors, Alfonso I. was proclaimed kingof Portugal. Until about 1380 the House of Burgundy held the throne, and from that date the country rose in power, and became commercially prosperous. John I. of Portugal married the daughter of John of Gaunt, and became a staunch ally of England, receiving the Order of the Garter.
This was a stirring period in the history of the country, a time of strenuous warfare with Castile, and the last remnant of the Moors.
In the reign of Juan of Castile, Portugal became one of the chief exploring nations of Europe. Henry, third son of the king, was studious, and learned in astronomy and geography. He obtained royal subsidies, and gathered about him travellers and seamen whom he inspired to set forth on voyages of discovery. Two vessels were sent by the prince to round the southernmost point of Africa, with the object of reaching the East Indies. In 1418 the voyagers discovered Madeira, which was made a Portuguese settlement; but they dreaded the rounding of the south Cape of Africa, a point greatly dreaded by all mariners in those days. The Canary Islands passed at this time into the hands of a French adventurer, De Bethancourt, whose heirsafterwards sold the colony to Henry of Portugal.
Vasco de Gama’s famous expedition to India was undertaken in 1497, and this bold explorer, unlike his predecessors, doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and travelled as far as Mozambique, where he found pilots who offered to direct his course to India. The pilots, however, proved treacherous. Eventually, after many delays, a trustworthy pilot was found at Melinda, and De Gama reached India, where he opened trading relations with the natives. At the end of two years the discoverer returned to Portugal and was received with great honour.
The prosperity of Oporto was largely due to the maritime enterprises of this period. Cabral discovered Brazil in 1500, and De Cortereal is said to have reached Greenland. The sea-rovers were the makers of modern Portugal. The great empire of Brazil was colonised by Juan III. in 1531; and the Portuguese claimed great territories in the East, which yielded splendid revenues. This was the most illustrious epoch in the history of Portugal. Parts of India and China were colonised. Art and learning flourished in the time of Manuel I., and the architectural style known as the ArteManoelina was developed. This style is a flamboyant Gothic, with Indian and Morisco influence, full of fantasy and often extravagant.
The colonisers attempted to convert the people of India to Christianity, and the zealous St Francis Xavier conducted a mission to that country in the reign of Juan III. Trade with Japan was opened at this time.
After a long spell of fortune, disaster fell upon Portugal. Philip II. of Spain envied the western strip of the Peninsula, and in 1580 he seized Portugal and annexed it to Spain. It was not until 1640 that the Portuguese regained their territory, and placed the Duke of Braganza on the throne.
During the Peninsular War, the city of Oporto was the scene of severe fighting, when the troops of Marshal Soult were surprised and routed by the force of Wellington. In 1832 the Miguelites besieged the city, and were defeated, with much loss, by the Pedroites. Civil disturbances have frequently shaken the town.
In 1838 the powerful Oporto Wine Company was re-established. The port wine, for which Oporto is famed throughout the globe, is the staple product of the district. There is littledoubt that the port of our grandfathers was a light wine without much “body,” and this kind of port is consumed in the country districts of Portugal. The tipplers who could consume three or four bottles of port, in the days of the Georges, probably drank this light wine, which was imported new, and was not a keeping wine. The prowess of our ancestors, “the six-bottle men,” has been overrated. Old port cannot be drunk in such quantities. The export trade in wine is enormous, and the chief trade is with England and the United States. Besides port, Oporto sends to foreign markets cattle, mineral ores, fruits, and olive oil. The population of the city in 1900 was 167,950.
In his account of his travels in Portugal and Galicia, the Earl of Carnarvon writes of the city, in 1848: “At length I reached Oporto, an ancient and very picturesque town; the streets with a few noble exceptions, are narrow, and the houses high and ornamented with handsome balconies. That part of the city which overhangs the Douro is strikingly beautiful; the river itself is fine and clear, and the banks bold and partially wooded.”
Since this was written new and wider thoroughfares have been made in Oporto.The city has been modernised in many respects, but it still retains a savour of the eastern influence. Many of the houses are faced with striped tiles, painted blue. These tiles, or ajuléjos, are one of the staple manufactures of Portugal, and are Moorish in origin.
The cathedral, or the Sé, stands in a dominating position on the crest of a hill. It is in the pointed Gothic style, built of granite. There is an imposing tower, and a fine rose window. In the cloisters there are interesting specimens of ajuléjo work, and highly ornamented pillars. The mosaics represent “The Song of Solomon,” and are well worth attention.
The cathedral is in the form of a cross, with a wide nave, and several chapels. There is a marble floor. The interior is without any impressive objects of art, and much of it is modern. Close to the Cathedral is the Bishop’s Palace, with an interesting staircase.
Some of the churches of Oporto are notable for their lavish internal decoration. San Francisco dates from the early fifteenth century, and has a rose window of great beauty. The wood carving within is very interesting, and there is a gorgeous memorial to Pereira. The Bolsa is a striking building close to thischurch. São Pedro is another old church which should be seen. The Renaissance Church of the Convent of Nossa Senhora de Serra do Pilar has beautiful cloisters, and a remarkable dome.
The bridge is one of the wonders of Oporto. It connects the banks of the Douro with a single arch, over five hundred feet in length, and is nearly as long as the Cernavoda Bridge across the Danube. At both ends are towers. The bridge is immensely strong, and though of iron, elegant in design. It is crossed by an upper and a lower roadway, and from the higher road there is a magnificent view up and down the swirling river.
In the busiest part of the city is the space known as the Praça de Dom Pedro from which several streets radiate. A modern city hall is on one side. In the middle of the square is a bronze statue of Pedro IV. on horseback, the work of Calmels. The Torre dos Clerigos, close to the Praça, is a splendid outlook point, with a bird’s-eye view of the city, the gorge of the Douro, and the shimmering Atlantic in the distance.
For a riotous wealth of flowers the visitor should see the Jardim da Cordoaria. Thegrounds of the Crystal Palace are also very lovely. The gardens are on the slopes descending to the Douro, and the mingling of natural beauty with cultivation is charming. Nowhere have I seen such splendid roses. The winding paths afford many delightful glimpses of the river and the ocean.
One of the quaintest parts of Oporto, where there are still many ancient houses, is the Rua Cima do Muro. But in all the old quarters of the city there are interesting streets and corners. The markets should be visited by travellers interested in the customs of the people. They are bright and animated on market days.
The Picture Gallery will disappoint the student who expects to see a representative collection of Portuguese art. In the Largo de Viriato is the Museum, endowed by Allen, an Englishman, and given to the city. The pictures preserved here are not of much interest, except the few works ascribed to Rubens and Van Dyck. There is a collection of natural history specimens in the museum.
The public library has a large collection of volumes, numbering many thousands, and is an excellent institution. It was founded byPedro IV. and stands on the site of a convent near the Garden of São Lázaro.
For art-work in gold, visit the Rua das Flores, the street of goldsmiths. The windows contain highly interesting gold ornaments of infinite variety of design, in filigree, and enamelled. Huge earrings, worn by the women of the vineyards, are displayed here in lavish array.
A pleasant excursion may be made to São João da Foz, a favourite Sunday and holiday resort of the Oporto people in summer time. The road runs by the Douro, and upon approaching the mouth of the river, the dangerous bar will be seen. The seaside village, with the difficult name, has fine sands and an interesting coast stretching northwards. The Atlantic thunders along this shore in stormy weather, but the bathing is safe.
At Mattosinhos, to the north of Foz, there is a wonderful crucifix, said to have been picked up from the sea after floating from the Holy Land. It is an object of great veneration among the peasantry and working-class.
Another excursion may be made to Villa de Feira, where there is an ancient castle.
ASTUDYin grey and green is the impression left upon my mind by a first view of the old town of Poitiers. There is a sternness in the aspect of the place as you approach it by rail through the pastures of Vienne. But peace now rests upon Poitiers; the town dreams in this quiet French landscape, and the chronicles of arms are old and faded memories.
Crécy and Poitiers! Every English school-boy remembers the names of these great battlefields, and thrills at the story of the Black Prince and his encounters with King John of France. Poitiers sets the reflective visitor musing upon martial valour, and the vast futile exercise of the bellicose instincts of the French and British nations in the time of the Hundred Years’ War. Fighting was then the proper and exclusive occupation of gentlemen. The age that gave birth to Chaucer was the age of vainglorious warfare with Scotland and France, followed by intellectual stagnation, and all the bitter fruitage of battle.
POITIERS. THE CHURCH OF NOTRE DAME, 1845.POITIERS.THE CHURCH OF NOTRE DAME, 1845.
In 1355 the Black Prince, at the head of an army, advanced from Bordeaux towards Poitiers, laying waste the fertile regions of the south, where no war had ever been waged until this aggression. Aided by the turbulent Gascons, the English prince came on 19th September 1356 to some vineyards and fields about four miles from Poitiers. The French host, sixty thousand strong, awaited him. Hedgerows and vines formed cover for the English bowmen; the warriors in armour held a point where a narrow lane led to the encampment. Up this lane the French soldiers, in their heavy mail, charged to the attack, meeting a terrific rain of arrows from men in ambush.
Very soon the narrow roadway was choked with the wounded and the dying. The French were arrayed in three strong divisions, and probably outnumbered the troops of the Black Prince by seven to one. But their position was open and exposed, whereas the English had entrenched themselves and made a barricade of waggons. Moreover, the French were worn with long marches.
A sally of English archers, under Captal de Buch, wrought havoc among the French on theleft flank of their force, and from that moment the enemy wavered.
A great and final charge was led by the Black Prince and Sir Denis de Morbecque, a knight of Artois. The French drew back, routed, and in disorder, to the gates of Poitiers. After a valiant stand, King John was taken captive. The victory was complete for England; the vanquished king was a prisoner, his troops lay in thousands on the field. Eleven thousand of the flower of French chivalry perished in this fierce carnage.
Petrarch gives us a picture of the harvest of this strife: “I could not believe that this was the same France which I had seen so rich and flourishing. Nothing presented itself to my eyes but a fearful solitude, an utter poverty, land uncultivated, houses in ruin.”
The Black Prince treated his royal captive with courtesy, entertaining him at his own table, and praising his bravery. In May 1357 the French king was brought to England, and, seated on a charger, he rode side by side with his victor through the streets of London. As a first residence, King John was given the Savoy Palace, and afterwards he and his son spent some time in Windsor Castle.
Watered on three sides by the Rivers Boivre and Clain, and standing on rising ground, Poitiers was chosen as the site of a Roman settlement. Not far from the town are the ruins of a Roman burial-place, and antiquities that have been discovered may be seen in the interesting Museum of Antiquaries de l’Ouest.
In 1569 the Count du Lude valiantly defended Poitiers against the seven weeks’ siege of troops led by Coligny, finally repulsing the enemy, and retaining the town.
Protestantism seems to have gained ground in Poitiers, for we read that in the days of Calvin there were many “conversions” among the inhabitants.
In September 1559 the justices of the city published a proscription of religious gatherings, and bade all strangers to quit the place in twenty-four hours. No preaching was permitted, the inhabitants were enjoined not to give necessities of life to the pastors under penalty of punishment for sedition. This persecution, directed against the Lutherans, was the result of the edict of Villars-Cotteret, and of an order made in Blois, which decreed that all the attenders at religious assemblies should be putto death, “without hope of pardon or mitigation.” France was at this time the scene of the fierce religious intolerance which led to the Massacre of St Bartholomew.
Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France, who led the siege of Poitiers, was a convert to the teaching of Calvin, and the leader of the reformed party. Touched with fanaticism, he was a valorous soldier, and was never daunted by his reverses. After a long conflict with the Church, the admiral was murdered brutally, and his body mutilated, and dragged through the streets of Paris by a rabble.
The oldest church in the town is St Jean. A basilica once stood where St Peter’s massive bulk overshadows the houses around. The towers of this church date from the thirteenth century. There are some very old stained-glass windows; in one of them are portraits of Henry II. and Eleanor of England.
Portions of the Church of St Radegonde are probably of the eleventh century. St Porchaine is another ancient church worth visiting.
The Dukes of Aquitaine lived in the city, and their palace is now a court of law. One of the halls has a fine vaulted wooden roof.
Poitiers has many winding, narrow lanes of curious old houses. It is not a busy commercial city, but it does not lack an air of comfort and prosperity. The town has to-day a population of over thirty thousand souls.
THEfascination of this ancient city of Normandy consists not only in its historical associations and its splendid cathedral, but in the fine setting, colour, and aspect of the place. Rouen should be approached, if possible, by boat on the Seine. The steamboat journey from the mouth of the river is very delightful, and there is no better way of gaining an impression of one of the most beautiful of the provinces of France. Hills, with frowning rocks, begirt the Seine in its tortuous course. Woods and tilled fields alternate with primitive, untamed ravines, watered by rivulets, and old sombre-hued houses and churches peer among woods. Parts of the valley recall Wales or Scotland in their ruggedness; while here and there we are reminded of the softer scenes of southern England.
The Rouen of obscure days of antiquity was probably a colony of the tribe of the Roths-magi. Many place-names in Normandy suggest that the Danes held this district, and they,rather than Norwegians, were the early conquerors. From Rouen we derive our word “roan” for a horse of a reddish colour, for the first imported Norman horses were known as “Rouens.”
In the eighth century this was a city of ecclesiastics, who erected many churches and convents. A long line of celebrated bishops ruled here, and the first church of St Ouen was probably built at this period. The Normans harried the country in 912, under the valiant Rollo, and Rouen was then made the capital of Normandy.
In the days of Duke William of Normandy, our gallant conqueror, Caen was of greater importance than Rouen, and at the first city the sovereigns built their palaces. William the Conqueror died in Rouen, but his body was taken to Caen for burial. Rufus invaded the territory in 1091, and obtained possession of all the chief forts on the Seine, up to Rouen.
The attempt to recover Normandy, under Henry of England, is a stirring chronicle of battle. The city of Rouen was at this time stoutly fortified, while it was famed for its wealth and power. Led by the brave AlanBlanchard, the people of Rouen made a fierce defence. But Henry had cut off approach from the sea; he held, too, the roads to Paris. He encompassed the walls of Rouen with his army; he brought boats up the river, constructed a floating bridge, and dug trenches for his troops.
The soldiers and citizens within the city resisted for six terrible months. Many were the victims of famine, and those who strove to escape were at once struck down by the besiegers. “Fire, blood and famine” were Henry’s handmaids of war, and he declared that he had chosen “the meekest maid of the three” to subdue Rouen.
At length the starving and desperate citizens resolved to burn the city, and to fling themselves on the English. This threat caused Henry to offer terms of pacification. Blanchard, the valorous defender of Rouen, was, however, killed by order of the English monarch.
The immortal Joan of Arc appears later on the scene. We cannot follow the strange and inspiring page of her career. Betrayed at length, and given into the hands of the English, she was imprisoned in Rouen, where a charge of heresy was made against her. Toescape from the military to the ecclesiastic prison Joan pleaded guilty to the accusation of heresy. The story of her martyrdom is not a theme upon which one cares to dwell. The English cause was lost, though Joan of Arc was burned. “Oh, Rouen, Rouen, I have great fear lest you suffer for my death. Yes! my voices were of God; they have never deceived me.” And as the maid dropped in the writhing flames, the soldiers cried: “We are lost! We have burned a saint!”
“No longer on St Denis will we cry,But Joan la Pucelle shall be France’s saint.”
“No longer on St Denis will we cry,But Joan la Pucelle shall be France’s saint.”
“No longer on St Denis will we cry,But Joan la Pucelle shall be France’s saint.”
The French recaptured Rouen in 1499. There is now no trace of the proud castle built by Henry V. of England. The prophetic cry of the soldiers had been fulfilled.
Before the end of the thirteenth century a cathedral was built in the city, and by the sixteenth century the stupendous edifice was finished. Notre Dame has a splendid west front, and very ornamental entrances to the transepts. The decorated rose windows are exceedingly fine. The choir has thirteenth-century stained windows, which must be seen in the sunlight. Here, too, are the monumentsof Henry II. and Richard I. Unfortunately, much of the external decoration of Notre Dame has been disfigured by weathering, and some of the images have disappeared. But the rose windows are very celebrated, and the tower of the sixteenth century is richly ornamented.
The Lady Chapel contains the tomb of two cardinals, with beautifully sculptured figures, and carvings of exquisite craftsmanship. The tomb of the Duke of Brézé is attributed to Jean Goujon, and the images are true works of genius.
Saint-Owen is perhaps more interesting than the cathedral. It is an immense building, and though so huge, finely proportioned. The south portal is rich and exquisite in its decoration.
For an example of Goujon’s work, you must inspect the remarkably decorated door of the Church of St Madou. There are other notable churches in Rouen; and the fine stained-glass windows of St Godard must not be overlooked.
Among other buildings of interest is the Palace of Justice, with a stately frontage.
In Rouen was born Corneille, and upon a bridge over the Seine you will find his statue.Fontenelle was also one of the illustrious natives of the city.
Readers of Gustave Flaubert will remember his pictures of the country around Rouen, in “Madame Bovary.” Charles Bovary was sent to school in the city. “His mother selected a room for him, on a fourth floor, overlooking the Eau-de-Robec, in the house of a dyer she was acquainted with.” It was in Yonville-L’Abbage, “a large village about twenty miles from Rouen,” that Charles and Emma Bovary settled after their marriage.
“The river which runs through it,” writes Flaubert, “seems to have imparted to it two distinct characters. On the right bank it is all grass-land, whilst on the left it is all arable. The meadow-land spreads at the foot of some high-lying ground until it meets the pastures of Bray on the other side; on the east the gently rising ground loses itself in the distance in fields of golden wheat. The water running through the grass-land divides the colours of the meadows and of the furrows by a white streak, and so the landscape looks like a great unfolded cloak, with a green velvet collar bordered with silver.”
Such is the country that the genius ofFlaubert has peopled with his types of provincial character.
Municipal enterprise has “improved and beautified” Rouen in modern times. The new, broad thoroughfares are undoubtedly admirable, according to the standard of to-day; but the reconstruction of many streets has meant the destruction of a large number of those old gabled houses that delighted the travellers of sixty years ago. Fortunately, a few charming ancient corners remain, and the authorities of the city have preserved some of these weather-worn buildings as monuments of mediæval Rouen.
Jean Goujon, the most notable sculptor of his period, is associated with Rouen, but it has not been proved that he was a native of the city. Mystery surrounds the life of this genius. We do not even know the date of his birth. His sculpture is imaginative and powerful art, and he is very successful in presenting nude figures. It is supposed that Goujon was one of the victims of the Massacre of St Bartholomew.
A picture of the monastic life of Normandy, in the thirteenth century, has been drawn in the remarkableRegestrum Visitationumof Eude Rigaud, Archbishop of Rouen. This wonderfuldiary has over five hundred pages, and covers a period of about twenty years. In 1248, Rigaud was appointed Archbishop of Rouen by Innocent IV. He proved a zealot for reforms in the Church; he undertook periodic inspection of the monasteries and nunneries, and his journals contain much “sensational” reading. The archbishop records that the rule in many of the convents was exceedingly lax, and that fasts and penances were not duly observed. He found that a number of the clergy were addicted to tippling, and he made clerical drunkenness an offence punishable by the deprivation of a living. Incontinence was very common among the monks. In the convents, Rigaud discovered “great disorders.” But the archbishop relates that the offenders were so numerous that had he expelled them all, no priests would have been left in the diocese.
When wandering in the streets of Rouen, we remember that Saint-Amant was born here in 1594. The life of this wine-loving poet is full of rare adventure and colour. He was a scholar, wit, soldier, statesman, and man of business by turn. Saint-Amant visited England, went to Rome with the fleet, and afterwards to Spain. He also started a glass factory, and wasfor a period a diplomat in Poland. His career is a long romance.
Saint-Amant’s name in full was Marc Antoine de Gérard, Sieur de Saint Amant. The name by which he is best known was taken from the abbey of Saint-Amant. He was one of the greatest of good livers, with an unquenchable thirst, and an infinite capacity for absorbing liquor. It is said that he and his boon companions often sat for twenty-four hours over their bottles. In those days of tavern revelry, the poet was respected as a master of deep-drinking and a model for the bibulous.
Théophile Gautier wrote of the poet of Rouen: “Saint-Amant is assuredly a very great and very original poet, worthy to be named among the best of whom France can boast.” This exquisite singer and devoted worshipper of Bacchus died in Paris in 1661.
THEcity of Chartres stands on a bold hill, rising from a wide plain on the south-west of Paris, watered by the River Eure, a tributary of the Seine. This commanding position was favourable for a fortified town, and long before the Romans came to Gaul, kings had a stronghold here of great importance.
Chartres is dominated by its ancient cathedral towers, that rise grey and massive, forming an outstanding landmark for leagues around. The old low-built houses of the city are dwarfed by this mighty church, which overshadows a number of twisting, narrow alleys of mediæval aspect. Many of the houses in Chartres are weather-worn, and give an impression of extreme age, and sometimes of decay. Parts of the town, it is true, have been rebuilt and made modern; but one’s recollection is of an aged, somnolent place, dreaming of its past, though it strives to advance in line with progressive ideas of municipal improvement.
According to Mr Henry James, it is not so longago that sedan-chairs were used in Chartres; and during his visit in 1876, he saw only two vehicles—the omnibuses of the rival hotels.
For the student of early Gothic architecture in France, Chartres is a most profitable field. The older forms of the arch, the foliated window-circles, the boldly decorated doorways, the twelfth-century decorative details, and the massive, as well as the light, buttress can be seen here in perfection. Few, if any, cathedral portals in Europe can excel in richness those of Chartres. Here is to be seen the noblest examples of twelfth-century sculpture.
After the Romans, the city was ruled by Christian princes up to the day of Charlemagne. Before the tenth century, the first Christian church in Chartres was burned down, and very little of the pristine fabric was spared by the flames.
The pious Saint Bernard preached here, and many illustrious bishops presided over the see. Henry V. of England came to the city; and so did Mary of Scotland. There have been two or three notable sieges, and the city was a scene of slaughter during the great Revolution.
The legends surrounding the first building consecrated to the Christian faith in Chartresare numerous. Saint Aventin was probably the first bishop of the see. Fulbert, who received tribute from a number of monarchs, was the founder of the new cathedral, after the wreckage by fire about the year 1021. There were two or three attacks from fire, for Fulbert’s structure was seriously damaged in the twelfth century.
The crypt is part of a very early building. In the chapels are bare traces of the old mural paintings, and several remarkable remains of the more ancient edifice. The crypt forms a church in itself, for it contains no less than fourteen chapels.
There are several points of difference between the early Gothic styles of England and France, and height is a characteristic of the French cathedrals; the architects delighted in lofty vaultings, and seemed to vie with one another in attaining great height. Double aisles and double flying buttresses are other features of the French Gothic churches, distinguishing them from the churches of England of the same date.
The French pillars are heavy, and not so highly ornamented as those of England. In the windows we find chiefly in France thelancet; and the circle, with trefoils and quatre-foils, is a common form. Specimens of round windows may be studied to advantage in the Cathedral of Chartres.
The most beautiful examples of early French Gothic architecture, in detail, are the ornate portals, especially of the western façades, the spires, the imposing towers, the rose windows, and the high vaulting.
The west front at Chartres is early twelfth-century work. Few façades present such a bewildering wealth of decoration and of impressive height. The windows are enormous, and the central rose window is remarkably rich in design. Each of the three doorways is full of most interesting statuary, with luxuriant decorations.
The north portal was once gilded and coloured, but this embellishment has disappeared. Many figures adorn this doorway, and every one of them will repay close inspection. The central door on this side is exquisite. Another impressive front is on the south. Here are the statues of Christ trampling on the lion, and of Christ as Judge. Innumerable figures cluster on this porch. Every façade and doorway of the Cathedral of Chartres is a gallery of statuary.
Very noble are the two huge towers. The north tower is the more majestic of the two, and dates from the sixteenth century. It is literally covered with delicious ornament and mediæval statuary. The south tower is massive, but plainer, rising to a height of about three hundred and fifty feet. It is adorned with some quaint symbolic figures. There were once two immense bells within this tower.
The interior of the cathedral impresses by its vastness and height. A wider nave is not to be found among the cathedrals of France, and the aisles are proportionate in width. The eye ranges upwards to the wonderful roof, with its opulent decoration, to the beautiful triforium, and the tall, narrow windows of the clerestory.
The magnificent choir screen is finely sculptured. Among the host of figures are the Virgin, Saint Joachim, and the Adoration of Wise Men. Several groups, representing scenes from Scripture, deck the screen. The effigies are far too numerous to describe in detail. There is a monument within the choir, “The Assumption,” by Bridan. The pavement is of variegated marble.
In the south aisle of the choir is a tallstained-glass window of an early date. Several of the painted windows were executed before the fourteenth century, and these are to be seen in the nave, the clerestory, and the transcepts. The chapels have several interesting stained windows, fine roof decorations, and handsome portals. In the sacristy there is a notable window; and in the ambulatory will be seen the clothed figure of the Virgin Mary, one of the chief treasures of the cathedral.
The sixteenth-century Church of Saint Aignan ranks next to the cathedral in interest. It has a fine, but somewhat worn, front, still rich in examples of Renaissance art. More than once fire has ravaged this church, and during the Revolution the edifice was despoiled and damaged. Saint Aignan is the burial-place of the bishop whose name it bears. There are many stained windows in the church. The interior is in other respects somewhat plain.
There are some interesting old churches in Chartres. In the Church of San Pierre there are dazzling stained windows which should be seen by the visitor, as they are among the finest examples in Chartres. There is an old portal on the north side, and the great buttresses should be noted. Many of thedecorations of the interior were destroyed by the Revolution.
There are some old houses of historical and architectural interest in Chartres, and one will be seen near Saint Aignan’s.
The Museum is in the town hall. Among the objects of interest collected here are some examples of tapestry that were formerly in the cathedral. There are also many relics of the Roman days. In the library are several old missals.
Chartres is the birthplace of two poets, Desportes and Mathurin Regnier, his nephew. Desportes, born in 1546, travelled in Italy and Poland, and was court bard to Henri III. He died in 1606. Mathurin Regnier was a poet of a higher order. He composed a number of fine satires and many lyrical poems.
A general impression of Chartres is gained by following the tree-shaded walk which surrounds the old town, a promenade that gives many delightful glimpses of the plain and of narrow ancient streets, with here and there a trace of the crumbling walls.
BYthe side of the River Vesle, in the province of Marne, and on the verge of a famous champagne producing country, is one of the oldest towns of France. Rheims, with its ancient gates, its memorials of Roman times, and monuments of illustrious kings of Gaul, has a history of much interest. Its cathedral ranks with the finest ecclesiastic buildings of the world, and is celebrated as the scene of many great pageants of the coronations of French sovereigns. The Romans captured a city here, and called it Durocortorum, and in Cæsar’s day this was an important station. It is recorded that Attila, the fierce conqueror, ravaged the town with fire.
The Consul, Jovinus of Rheims, was an early convert to Christianity, which was preached here by two missionaries from Rome in the fourth century. The marble cenotaph of the Christian consul is to be seen in the city. Then came the Vandals, who seized the town, and murdered the bishop at the door of the first cathedral.
When King Clovis conquered the fair territory of Champagne, St Rémi was made bishop of Rheims, and henceforward the kings of France were crowned here. Many famous prelates lived in the city during the succeeding centuries; one, the most celebrated, Gerbert, became pope.
Joan of Arc is an important figure in the drama of Rheims during the great war with England. The peasant’s daughter, born on the borders of Champagne, at Domremy, a hamlet which is now a shrine, reached the height of her triumph in 1429, when she led a vast army to the gates of Rheims. “O gentle king, the pleasure of God is done,” cried the white maid, as she knelt before Charles VII. after his coronation in the gorgeous cathedral.
A yearning for home and the old tranquil life was in the heart of Joan; she wished to leave the tented field, and to return to her sheep-folds and pastures. But, at the battle of Compiegne, she fell into the hands of the treacherous Bastard of Vendôme, and about a year later Joan la Pucelle was burned to death.
The focus of interest in Rheims is the cathedral. Notre Dame was built on the situation of a Roman basilica. Parts of the presentbuilding were first constructed in 1231, but the façade is of the fourteenth century. This magnificent front has a gorgeous portal, with pointed arches of great grace, rising to a large and handsome rose window. There are two towers over two hundred and fifty feet high, very finely decorated. A number of statues adorn this façade, on the portals and in the arch of the rose window. The figure of the Virgin is over the principal doorway, bending to receive the crown from the hands of Christ.
“The three great doorways,” writes Mr Henry James, in “Portraits of Places,” “are in themselves a museum of imagery, disposed in each case in five close tiers, the statues in each of the tiers packed perpendicularly against their comrades. The effect of these great hollowed and chiselled recesses is extremely striking; they are a proper vestibule to the dusky richness of the interior. The cathedral of Rheims, more fortunate than many of its companions, appears not to have suffered from the iconoclasts of the Revolution; I noticed no absent heads nor broken noses.”
The rose windows of the transepts are exceedingly lovely, and attention should be paid to the design of the buttresses, and the veryremarkable gargoyles. One of the towers contains an enormous bell. In the exterior of the south transept are several good statues.
An immense nave stretches for nearly five hundred feet. This part of the edifice was repeatedly extended to make space for the great crowds that attended the imposing coronation ceremonies. Around the choir are several chapels. In numerous niches and corners are statues of interest. “The long sweep of the nave, from the threshold to the point where the coloured light-shafts of the choir lose themselves in the grey distance, is a triumph of perpendicular perspective,” writes Mr Henry James.
Perhaps the greatest treasures preserved in Notre Dame are the tapestries. There are pieces representing the life of the Virgin, while several depict scenes in the life of Christ. The Canticles form the subject of other examples. Two pieces of Gobelins, after designs by Raphael, represent the life of St Paul. These tapestries are exceptionally fine specimens of this art.
During the coronation celebrations, the sovereigns occupied the archbishop’s palace, which is close to the cathedral. The buildingwas begun about 1499. In the museum of the palace is the famous cenotaph of Jovinius, adorned with sculpture. A large hall contains portraits of kings.
Among the churches of importance in Rheims are St Jacques, St André, and St Thomas. The Church of St Rémi, named after the great bishop, dates from the eleventh century. During the Revolution this church was terribly damaged; many of the splendid relics and statues were destroyed, and but a few images were spared.
The tomb of St Rémi is modern, except the images that decorate it. There are some rich tapestries in the church. The doorway of the south transept is handsome, and there are beautiful windows of an early date. The cloister of the abbey is now enclosed by a hotel. In the seventeenth century the present Town Hall was erected. It contains a gallery of paintings and a museum.
The chief Roman monument in the town is the great arch of triumph, the Porte de Mars. This structure was probably erected by Agrippa on the occasion of the opening of the highways leading to the city. Near to the arch stood a temple of Mars. The Gate of Mars is overa hundred feet long, and over forty feet high. There are several figures under the archways. Parts of a Roman pavement are near the triumphal arch. These are the only memorials of Roman times, but it may be noted that the gates of the city still retain their original names.
Rheims was fortified after the Franco-Prussian War; and in recent years many of the streets have been widened and modernised. Henry James notes “a prosperous, modern, mercantile air” in the Rheims of to-day. Considerable business is transacted in the city. It is a centre of the woollen industry, and there are several weaving and spinning works, and a large trade in flannel and blankets.
The chief ancient charm of Rheims is in the great cathedral, with its highly interesting architecture, the old church of St Rémi, and the Roman arch. The streets are clean and bright, and the town has its tramcars among other tokens of modernity. There are not many statues of importance. The monument to Louis XV. stands in the Place Royale.