As already stated, in addition to men employed in the regular yard, shop, and office trades, navy yards employ men in a number of other trades, such as those of stone and brick masons, house plumbers, stone cutters, switchmen, pavers, and upholsterers. Under ordinary conditions the demand for men in such occupations is small. Glassworkers, lens grinders, instrument makers, and other special classes of workers would only be called for in a yard where instruments were made and repaired, such as the Washington Navy Yard or the naval torpedo station at Newport, R. I.
If you are interested in securing employment in a navy yard or in taking training for a navy-yard trade, you may want to consider the condition under which you would work. You may feel that you would wish to work entirely under cover, or you may prefer to work more or less in the open air. Different navy-yard occupations vary greatly as to whether they are carried on entirely in shops, partly in shops and partly in the open air, or entirely in the open air. In some trades and occupations a man’s work is located at one definite place, and in others it may be anywhere in the yard. The following statement will give you an idea as to ordinary working conditions in a number of the more important navy-yard trades:
Inside, under the best conditions.—Such occupations as all sorts of office work, stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, clerical work, work in the drafting room.
Inside, under good conditions.—Such occupations as machine shop, pattern shop, jointer shop, rigging loft, mold loft, power plant work, and inside jointing and finishing.
Inside, under some protection.—Such occupations as blacksmith shop, foundry work, plate-shop work, galvanizing, and frame bending.
Occupations requiring both inside and outside work.—Such occupations as boiler shop, general outside painting, outside machinist, carpenter shop, electrical work, outside rigger, pipe shop, sheet-metal shop, copper shop, and ship fitting.
Occupations carried on entirely outside.—Such operations as reaming, riveting, bolting up, chipping, and calking, ship carpentry, stone masonry, and bricklaying.
In the regular trades such as jointer work, sheet-metal work, coppersmithing, boiler making, pattern making, etc., the tools and machines used are practically the same as would be used in these trades anywhere. A man who had earned these trades in any good shop would have no particular trouble in working in a navy yard shop so far as tools and machines go.
In the machine shop the tools and machines are about the same as in any large shop, but since a navy yard machine shop often has to handle large parts, there are usually a number of very heavy machines included in the equipment. Much of the work must be got out with great accuracy. In a general way it may be said that a navy yard machine shop does more work in brass, bronze, aluminum, etc., than is common in the ordinary run of machine shops.
In the trades carried on outside the shop, especially those connected with hull construction and repair, a number of special tools are used. These tools are in general easily moved about. Many are operated by compressed air, but some of them are sometimes operated by electricity. For this purpose most yards have a compressed-air system through that part of the yard where work of this kind is carried on, so arranged that the different machines can be readily connected up by hose lines. A few examples of the sort of tools used in these trades may be given:
Riveting gangs use compressed-air tools for heading up the rivet (air guns), and often for holding it while it is driven (air jambs).
Reaming and drilling machines are usually operated by compressed air, chipping and calking tools work in the same way. In all these machines the operators hold the machine so as to guide the tool, but the compressed air furnishes the actual power.
For such jobs as acetylene welding and cutting, a special outfit is required.
In mold loft work and ship fitting, only the simplest woodworking tools are used, such as hammers, saws, prick punches, and light air or electrically driven drills.
In punching, shearing, and bending plates, special heavy power-driven machines are used which the operators control.
In office work the equipment does not vary from that of any office. According to the sort of work called for, there are typewriters, adding machines, filing cabinets, etc.
The work of a navy yard is carried on by a civilian force under the general direction of naval officers. Excluding office and clerical occupations, this force is graded into the following classes: Foremen, quartermen, leading men, artisansof different grades, helpers, apprentices, laborers. A brief description of each of these classes follows:
Foreman.—A foreman is usually the head of a division or of a shop. He usually has under his jurisdiction groups of men generally working in different occupations.
Quarterman.—A quarterman usually has under his supervision more than one group in the same occupation. He is in line for promotion to foreman.
Leading man.—A leading man usually has under his supervision only a few men in the same occupation. He is in line for promotion to quarterman.
Artisans.—These are skilled workmen in the various trades. They are graded according to their knowledge and skill in several classes, such as first, second, and third class.
Helpers.—Men who work with artisans to assist them in their work are classed as helpers. Their work is such as may give some training in the trade with which they are associated.
Apprentices.—Young persons are employed as apprentices to learn trades. After sufficient training they may become artisans.
Laborers.—This class of workers are not supposed to possess any special skill or trade knowledge, and except under certain special conditions they are not eligible for promotion.
On the whole, higher wages are paid on the west coast than elsewhere. Foremen are paid according to the character and amount of work that they supervise. According to the present regulations a quarterman draws $2.88 per day more than the maximum pay of his occupation or trade. A leading man draws $1.44 per day extra pay over the highest pay of his trade. The wages of a man in the artisan group will vary according to his class and his particular trade or occupation. One of the highest paid trades is heavy forging at $11.84 per day. One of the lowest paid trades is that of glass workers, who receive $3.04 per day. On an average, a first-class artisan’s pay will run from $5 to $7 per day.
Helpers get from $4.32 to $5.12 per day. Apprentices in trade from $2.88 to $4.32, according to their class. Mechanics detailed for certain special work, such as inspecting or planning, get certain additional allowances.
In the unskilled occupations (laborers, stevedores, janitors, etc.), wages range from about $3 to $5.50 per day.
When a man starts in the head of his department causes such tests to be made as he deems necessary to determine his status in his trade or occupation, and rates him provisionally as to pay. The final rating as to pay is made within two weeks from the date of appointment. All mechanics who are rated as first-class are carried at the maximum rate of pay.
The following list gives the more important trades and occupations for which men are employed in navy yards (except office occupations), and also gives the maximum rates of pay according to the latest information:
Schedules of daily wages for navy yards and naval stations effective first pay period practicable after receipt.
Navy yards are located as follows: The Portsmouth Navy Yard, at Portsmouth, N. H.; the Brooklyn Navy Yard, at Brooklyn, N. Y.; the Boston Navy Yard, at Charlestown (a part of the city of Boston, Mass.); the League Island Navy Yard, at Philadelphia, Pa.; the Washington Navy Yard or Naval Gun Factory, at Washington, D. C.; the Portsmouth Navy Yard, at Portsmouth, Va. (close to Norfolk); the Mare Island Navy Yard, at Vallejo, Cal. (on San Francisco Bay); the Charleston Navy Yard, at Charleston, S. C.; the Bremerton Navy Yard, on Puget Sound, Wash. (near Seattle), and the Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla. (aeronautic station at present).
Naval stations are located at Newport, R. I.; Key West, Fla.; and New Orleans, La.
Other naval establishments are: Naval proving grounds, at Indian Head, Md.; naval training station, at North Chicago, Ill.; the Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Md.; the naval magazines at Iona Island, N. Y., and Lake Denmark, N. Y.; and the depot of supplies, United States Marine Corps, Philadelphia, Pa.
Naval stations are also maintained at the Philippine Islands, Cuba, Guam, and Samoa, but no attempt has been made to give any information about them in this monograph.
This monograph was prepared by Clarence E. Bonnett, Special Agent of the Federal Board. Much of the material used herein was obtained from Bulletin No. 232 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: 1907 to 1916.” Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
Modern shoemaking is practically a machine process. There are machines for cutting the various parts of the shoe, for sewing together the upper and the lining, for lasting the upper, for channeling the insole and the outsole, for sewing together the insole upper and welt, and for sewing the outsole to the welt. There are also machines for leveling the sole, for placing a smooth edge on the sole and heel, and for burnishing the sole, its edges and the heel.
Many of these machines are leased out to shoe manufacturers on a royalty basis. Patterns, lasts, and similar equipment may be made in the factory or purchased from factories that make a special business of producing these articles. A few hand tools are used in the factory, such as knives for cutting leather and threads, pinchers for pulling nails, and brushes for pasting certain parts. Ordinarily the workers who use these tools are not highly skilled, the only noted exception being that of the cutter who cuts by hand the vamps or other upper parts of the shoe.
In the shoemaking industry, there is great division of labor, and accordingly, the amount of skill or technical knowledge required of the workers in many of the shoemaking operations is so little that it may be acquired in a few days or weeks at the most.
However, a few of the occupations require both manipulative skill and technical knowledge, and call for the quick exercise of sound judgment. These are the occupations that pay well. Training for them is necessary. The period of training, of course, depends in any case, partly upon the person taking it. But in general, there are two groups in which the skilled occupations fall, namely, those requiring less than a year’s training and experience to make a thoroughly competent operator, and those necessitating a year or over. Roughly, those who receive less than 50 cents and more than 40 cents an hour fall in the first group, while those receiving 50 cents or more an hour come in the second group.
In 1918, according to unpublished figures of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for the highly skilled operators the hourly wage ranged from 43 to 62 cents. In this range, the following occupations were covered—Goodyear welters receiving the highest, channelers the lowest, and the others in a descending scale intermediate wages: Goodyear welters, rough rounders, edge trimmers, heel trimmers, Goodyear stitchers, edge setters, machine pullers-over, heelers, turn sewers, bed-machine operators, hand vamp cutters, hand-method-lasting-machine operators, hand pullers-over, machine side lasters, hand turn lasters, McKay sewers, machine vamp cutters, vampers, hand side lasters, heel scourers, channelers.
The hours of labor are somewhat dependent upon the occupation, with the general average for the whole country about 55 hours per week, which usually means a 10-hour day with a Saturday half holiday. For some factories, hours in a few occupations are nine per day for six days in the week, which makes a 54-hour week.
For the highly skilled operator, the shoe industry is a desirable occupation in peace times and will continue to be so in the future. With the growth of population and the higher standards of living comes an increased demand for shoes of the better sort, which means that greater skill must be employed in theirproduction than in those of the coarser sort. While the work in the shoe factory is somewhat seasonal, the slack season comes in the summer time, when other occupations are open, and when the worker may frequently engage in gardening during the time he is not busy in the factory. The busy season comes in the fall and winter. The work is all performed indoors.
The shoe industry can not use all classes of disabled men, but those it can use, if well trained, will find in it a desirable occupation. In general the disabilities that will bar a man from engaging in this occupation are the loss of eyesight, the loss of both legs, or of both arms, nervous afflictions, and weaknesses that prevent a man from standing at his work or from doing it rapidly. For some of the work, the use of both hands is highly desirable, and the loss of certain fingers from a hand would tend to be a handicap. Good eyesight, steady nerves and dexterity of motion are essentials in shoe workers. Good hearing is not highly important to the well trained. For the man who has lost a hand, there are devices, such as certain forms of hooks that could be used, for instance, by the machine cutter to operate the arm to the machine. Pincer-like devices may be used for other work. An artificial leg of a certain type may be obtained for a man who has lost a leg, and this will enable him to stand without undue fatigue.
There are two ways in which advancement in these occupations may be secured. A worker who learns rapidly may advance from a less skilled to a more highly skilled occupation. For instance, he may advance from a position as a turn sewer to one as a Goodyear welter, and thus receive approximately a 25 per cent advance in wages. Or a workman with the ability to direct others may become a foreman and thus obtain higher wages. With this ability and a general knowledge of the industry, or high skill at some of the occupations, he might become an instructor, or, with sufficient ability and education, he might go into the office.
A knowledge of the processes in the shoe factory is a highly desirable qualification for the office force, and even for the clerical force of a factory. In the offices are found about 15 to 20 per cent of all the employees of the entire factory. A disabled soldier or sailor who has previously worked in a shoe factory, could, by taking the training offered by the Federal Board, qualify for a position in the business offices. Or he could take a course in salesmanship, and go “out on the road” to sell the shoes. Thus he could turn his past experience in the former occupation to profit, and make of his disability the means of promotion instead of a handicap.
If a disabled soldier has had some experience in the shoe factory, he will find this of value. He might, for example, take training to become a designer. The change in fashions in shoes necessitates new lasts and patterns, and every new style means work for the designer. The work requires training, but does not call for much physical exertion. To do this work, one must have some facility in mechanical drawing, and so must understand the principles of geometry. Such work is stimulating. Not all factories do their own designing and pattern making, but in such cases designs and patterns must be obtained from concerns that specialize in such work. This profession, however, can absorb only a limited number of additional men.
There are now well-established schools for teaching the shoemaking operations. Until recently the schools were private, but there are now schools in Massachusetts maintained at the public expense. Some factories, especially the nonunion ones, train the workers in the factories at the work, or in factory schools. In some cases, the workers in a factory “pick up” the knowledge and training required for the better-paying positions. For such workers the unskilled occupations serve as an apprenticeship to the skilled ones. This method, however, is not the most desirable one, since it does not always present opportunities to get the best and quickest training.
There are two general classes of workers in shoe factories—one made up of machine workers, who must use judgment and skill in their work, and are therefore the better paid; and the other made up of machine tenders whose main requirement is speed in doing some routine task. Since we are concerned only with the occupations that require training and which pay more than the wages of unskilled workmen, we shall discuss only the skilled occupations. Workers in these occupations may be grouped into three general classes: First, those who sew together difficult parts of the shoe; second, those who cut the leather to form; and, third, those who last the shoe.
The Goodyear welter receives the shoe on the last; the upper has been tacked temporarily to the insole and trimmed smoothly, and the insole has been channeled or lipped for the stitches. He takes a long narrow strip of leather—the welt—and places the shoe in the welting machine so that the insole, upper, and welt are sewed through at one operation by means of a curved needle. The stitch is made almost horizontal to the bottom of the shoe, and the welt lies closely to the upper nearly all around the shoe in front of the heel seat. The welt is also somewhat irregular, but the welt beater straightens out the welt so that is stands out properly for the outsole.
The work of the welter is not so simple as it may seem. He works with a very complicated machine, and he must be able to make readily all the necessary adjustments. He must know almost by intuition that the thread is working properly. He must be able to tell at a glance that the shoe has been lasted correctly. He must know at once whether the welt furnished is suitable for the type of shoe he is to place it on. He must guide the welt on accurately. If he does otherwise, not only is time lost, but a leather part or parts are ruined. He must be so skilled that he can place the welts on a pair of shoes at the rate of a pair a minute.[27]
[27]Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp. 166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
[27]Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp. 166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The Goodyear stitcher receives the shoe with the outsole cemented on the shoe, the channel cut, and the lip of the channel turned back. He places the shoe to his machine so that the welt and outsole are sewed together all around the shoe in front of the heel. The seams are made in the channel of the outsole, so they may later be covered by the lip. The stitcher must be able to stitch about 37 pairs of shoes, on the average, per hour for the working day. At this speed, considerable skill is required to hold the shoe so that the curved parts are sewed around properly.[28]
[28]Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp. 166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
[28]Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp. 166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The turn sewer performs a task somewhat similar to that of the Goodyear welter, but he does not attach a welt. He receives the shoe lasted, wrong side out. The outsole is, of course, now in the position of the insole on the Goodyear shoe. As in the Goodyear shoe, the channeling for the stitch is the same, but in addition, the outsole has been grooved, or a recess cut, so that a shoulder is formed around the outer edge of the sole in which the lower edge of the upper rests. The turn sewer sews through the lower edge of the upper and the shoulder on the outsole. The seam is buried in the inside channel. The process of sewing is performed on a machine that sews with a curved needle and nearly horizontal to the sole. Historically, the Goodyear welting process was a modification of the turn-shoe process of sewing the sole and upper together.
The McKay sewer receives a McKay shoe with the sole cemented on and channeled and the last withdrawn from the shoe. He sews through the sole, the lower edge of the upper, and through the insole. The seams thus appear on the inside of the shoe. This is clearly a simpler operation than that of the Goodyear welter.
The vamper sews the vamp to the quarters, or upper part of the upper. Since the vamp is curved and must be fitted to a rounding form, this operation is not so simple as flat sewing and so is paid for at a higher rate per piece.
The rough rounder receives the shoe with the outsole cemented or tacked on to the upper part. He places the edge of the sole to the machine so that the edge of the outside and welt is cut to a uniform distance from the upper all round the outsole. In the same process his machine cuts an oblique channel in the outsole for the seam which is to bind the welt and outsole together. The work of the rough rounder requires strength and steady nerves, since he must hold the edge of the shoe against the cutting parts. He must know how to adjust his machine quickly for the various sorts of shoes, and must be able to place a uniform edge on over 900 pairs of shoes in a ten hour day.
The edge trimmer receives the shoe in the rough finished form. He holds the sole against a set of revolving cutters which trim the sole smoothly to the desired shape all around the sole. He must do this work carefully and not cut the upper or the stitches and at the rate of thirty-five pairs an hour.[29]
[29]Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp. 166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
[29]Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp. 166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
The heel trimmer receives the shoe with the heel nailed on firmly and the top lift in place. First, he holds the heel against a set of rapidly revolving cutters, which cut away the heel so that is has a smooth even contour from the sole to the top lift and all around the outside. Then he holds the sole part of the heel against another set of revolving cutters which trim the sole part off to conform in outline with the upper. He must exercise great care in this operation so as not to cut the upper. He must handle shoes at an average rate per minute of nearly three pairs, or 1,500 pairs or more in a nine hour day.
The heel scourer receives the shoe after the heel has been trimmed to shape. He holds the heel against a rapidly revolving wheel covered with sandpaper. This process gives the heel a smooth finish. A heel scourer must be able to smooth the heels of nearly 1,500 pairs of shoes in a ten hour day.[30]