University of Minnesota, Northwest School and Station, Crookston, Minn.—An elementary course in forestry is offered dealing with the planting of windbreaks and wood lots, the characteristics and adaptability of the more common trees, and the methods of propagation and conservation of planted and natural forests.
Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College, Miss.—Courses in farm forestry and dendrology of one term each are offered for students in agriculture.
University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.—A summer school of forestry for lumbermen, timberland owners, and rangers is given on the university forest of 50,000 acres in the Ozark Mountains, in connection with the summer course for regular forestry students.
University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.—Special courses in surveying, scaling and cruising, lumbering, forest appraisal, and logging engineering are offered in connection with the short course for rangers.
Mount Hermon School, Mount Hermon, Mass.—An elementary course in the care of lawns, shrubbery, and forests is given during one term.
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.—A course in farm forestry covering one semester is elective for all students of the university and is designed primarily for agricultural students. It is an elementary course designed to familiarize students with the best trees that will grow in the State of Nebraska, as well as the methods of handling the farm wood lot.
New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H.—Courses in forestry are required of all four-year and two-year agricultural students, and are elective for all students of the college. Beginning with junior year, four-year students in agriculture may elect forestry as a principal subject and are then given advanced forestry work together with other agricultural and associated subjects. Every encouragement and assistance is given a student desiring to make forestry his profession, with the understanding that he will complete his training at some school offering a complete course in forestry.
North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh, N. C.—A course in forestry is offered as one of the senior horticultural electives.
North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural College, N. Dak.—An elementary course in forestry covering six weeks is offered in the third term of junior year in the four-year agricultural course.
North Dakota State School of Forestry, Bottineau, N. Dak.—Instruction similar to that in the agricultural high schools is offered with special attention to horticulture and forestry. The forestry work consists of a study of the plains and prairie regions and has to do particularly with windbreaks, shelter belts, etc. A special three-year course is also offered for the preparation of landscape gardeners, landscape engineers, and city foresters.
Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.—A course in elementary forestry is required of all horticulture students during the first term of junior year.
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.—The work in forestry consists of a line of electives within the school of science. The subjects covered are forest botany and dendrology, elements of silviculture, forest mensuration, forest management, forest protection, forest utilization, forest pathology, and technical forestry. The latter includes a study of structural timbers with demonstrations in the testing laboratories and also work in surveying and making forest maps.
Rhode Island State College, Kingston, R. I.—A course in forestry dealing with the management of New England wood lots is required in the second term, junior year, in the agricultural course.
South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Brookings, S. Dak.—A course in forestry is required in the second semester of the sophomore year in the horticultural group and in the third-year of the three-year school of agriculture. It is elective in the second semester, junior year, in the animal husbandry and dairy husbandry groups of the four-year collegiate agricultural course.
Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.—Courses are offered in the study of trees, forest pathology, and other matters basal to the study of forestry.
Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y.—A field course in elementary forestry, forest ecology, and botany, soils, geology, and woodcraft, open to any man over 15, is given by the New York State College of Forestry during August at Cranberry Lake in the western Adirondacks. Courses in forestry are also given for students in the university outside of the College of Forestry, and especially for those desiring to teach.
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.—An elective course in forestry covering one term is offered in the senior year of the four-year agricultural course. The work deals chiefly with the management of farm wood lots and small holdings of hardwood timber.
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Tex.—Courses in the principles of forestry, dendrology, silviculture (with special reference to planting), and wood technology and utilization, each covering one semester and elective for juniors and seniors in agriculture and science, offered in the college year 1916-17. No attempt will be made to equip students for the profession of forestry. From time to time, however, additional courses will be offered to meet the needs of students along farm forestry, planting, timber preservation, and other lines.
University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.—Students in agriculture are required to take one course in forestry during their sophomore year. The aim of this course is to give all agricultural students a working knowledge of forestry, which can be applied to their own farms or in the teaching of agriculture. The more advanced courses are open to those who wish to pursue the subject further.
State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash.—A one-year practical course is offered in the elementary science department, planned to equip young men to become logging engineers.
University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.—Two courses of 12 weeks each are offered—one in lumber and its uses for men engaged in offices at the mills, lumber salesmen, engineers, contractors, and builders; the other in logging for the training of logging foremen or others engaged in work at logging camps.
Winona College of Agriculture, Winona Lake, Ind.—A course of one-half semester in the principles of forestry is offered in the two-year agricultural course. The growing of trees for fences and the preservative treatment of fence posts are taken up in a practical way, and some work is also offered on lumber and its use on the farm.
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.—Nine elective courses, each running through one semester, as well as a number of special lectures in various departments of the university, are given by members of the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, where opportunity for research work is also offered. The object of the work, which is open to both undergraduates and graduates, is to enable men to acquire a thorough scientific and practical training in organic chemistry and wood technology and to apply this knowledge in scientific and commercial operations and investigations in the wood-using industries and in teaching.
Wyman’s School of Woods, Manising, Mich.—A 24-months’ course in forestry, logging, and woodcraft is offered, on the satisfactory completion of which students are granted a certificate of efficiency in logging and engineering. A 10-weeks’ out-of-door summer course is also offered to afford those students who are contemplating forestry as a profession an opportunity to become familiar with the character of the work.
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.—An elementary course of eight weeks is offered during the summer at Milford, Pike County, Pa., for those who desire a general knowledge of the subject.
Davey Institute of Tree Surgery, Kent, Ohio.—A 20-months’ course for the training of tree surgeons is offered, including instruction in botany, plant pathology, dendrology, entomology, fruit growing, spraying, and the theory and practice of tree surgery.
University of California, College of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Berkeley, Cal.—Beginning in January, a 12 weeks’ course designed especially for rangers and loggers is offered.
Georgia State College of Agriculture at University of Georgia, Georgia State Forest School, Athens, Ga.—A ranger course of eight weeks, open to men in the Government service and to lumbermen, is offered during the summer.
University of Idaho, School of Forestry, Moscow, Idaho.—A three-year ranger course, extending from November 1 to April 1 of each school year, is offered. The course is so arranged that a single year’s work may also be taken.
University of Missouri, College of Agriculture, Department of Forestry, Columbia, Mo.—A course for lumbermen, timberland owners, and rangers is offered on the university forest of 50,000 acres in the Ozark Mountains, in connection with the summer course for regular forestry students.
University of Montana, Forest School, Missoula, Mont.—A three months’ ranger course is offered during the winter, with opportunity for specializationand the election of advanced work. The course is designed primarily for men who have already had considerable experience in woods work.
New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.—A one-year course of practical training is offered at the State Ranger School located on the college forest of 2,000 acres at Wanakena, in the western Adirondacks. The course is designed to fit men for such positions as guards, rangers, forest-estate managers, tree-planting experts, and nursery foremen.
Oregon Agricultural College, School of Forestry, Corvallis, Oreg.—A five months’ course is offered for those desiring to prepare for the position of ranger in the United States Forest Service or for work in the State protective associations.
State College of Washington, Department of Forestry, Pullman, Wash.—A six weeks’ course is offered in the Winter School for the preparation of forest rangers.
University of Washington, College of Forestry, Seattle, Wash.—Two courses of 12 weeks each are offered, one in forestry for the training of forest rangers, guards, or woodland owners; the other in logging for the training of logging foremen or others engaged in work at logging camps.
This monograph was prepared by Charles W. Sylvester, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
In no other industry, perhaps has progress been so rapid and marvelous as in the manufacture and maintenance of automobiles, which to-day employs hundreds of thousands of men and women in a great variety of occupations, and represents investment of many millions of dollars.
Two great divisions of the industry may be made, one including the manufacturing plants which produce new cars, and the other, the maintenance and service shops and departments which operate and keep cars in repair and good running order. This monograph deals with occupations in “Automobile maintenance and service.”
In automobile maintenance and service, specialization is rapidly creating six principal groups of workers. It is true that in small garages one man may “tinker” with all parts of an automobile, but it is, in fact, just as essential to employ, for example, a battery specialist for a machine as it is to employ an eye specialist for a person.
The six groups include: (1) Repair-shop men, who deal primarily with the mechanical treatment of the car when it has been disabled; (2) starting and lighting experts, who repair and adjust electrical equipment, including wiring, lights, motors, and generators; (3) ignition experts, who look after the testing, adjustment and maintenance of current supply, short circuits, contact breakers, vibrators, spark plugs, coils, condensers, connections, distributors, and magnetos; (4) storage-battery men in stations where batteries are charged, repaired, rebuilt, tested, and kept in good working condition; (5) tire-repair men, who take care of the splicing, patching, retreading, building up, inside repair, and vulcanizing of casings and tubes that have been disabled by punctures, blisters, blow-outs, rim cuts, and general wear; and (6) automobile and truck drivers, who are responsiblefor operation of cars on the road. The work of these groups embraces a greatly diversified field of employment and offers a wide range of occupational choice.
Plan No. 1150. Auto Repair
Plan No. 1150. Auto Repair
Men are employed in the maintenance and service of automobiles and trucks in every community. In every village, town, and city shops and service stations are to be found.
Private garages commonly have some equipment for making minor adjustments and small repairs, and chauffeurs are expected to keep their automobiles in good running order. Public garages, which in many cases are maintained in connection with automobile sales agencies, often employ several general repair men, and sometimes employ starting, lighting, and ignition specialists.
The repair shops are established principally for the purpose of repairing and rebuilding all types of cars with their parts and accessories. They offer a large field of employment for repairmen and experts.
Service stations, often referred to as oil and gasoline filling stations, include shops where special types of work are done. They may be classified as battery, speedometer, ignition, starting and lighting, and tire-service stations. Many men, if they have been trained, find employment in these places.
Chauffeurs and truck drivers find employment in both private and public service—chauffeurs in driving taxicabs and private pleasure automobiles; anddrivers in the operation of light and heavy delivery trucks for retail and wholesale houses, and also in hauling materials for road and building construction, farm produce, and manufactured products.
Automobile plants and garages employ men as testers in the working out of new cars, and for the purpose of locating and determining trouble when a car is not working properly.
Finally, men with a knowledge of automobiles, parts, accessories, and equipment can find employment as salesmen in garages, sales agencies, and retail and wholesale stores.
Repair-shop work consists in overhauling, adjusting, and repairing all types of motor cars and their parts. In the small garages where only a few men, often only one, are employed the mechanic must handle all kinds of work. Some large garages, as has been noted, employ specialists, and in many localities there are service and repair shops maintained especially for this work.
Oxy-acetylene welding, a trade separate and apart from repair work, which is used to a very large extent in the repairing and building up of broken castings and forgings in automobile repair shops, is taken up in another monograph.
In some shops there are enginemen, axlemen, transmission men, and other mechanical experts. All of these may be classified as mechanics. Other men found in repair shops are known as trouble-finders or inspectors, helpers, foremen, and carburetor specialists.
The mechanic should be able to do skilled work on all mechanical parts of any car. His work consists in adjustment, care, overhauling, and repairing. Adjustment and care include valve, carburetor, clutch-spring, brake, and steering-mechanism adjustment, and cleaning and lubrication of parts. Much of this work can, however, be done by the automobile driver or helper in a garage. Overhauling includes repairing, but refers generally to the tearing down of the whole machine for cleaning, inspection, adjustment, and testing, together with replacement of worn and broken parts. Work on the engine requires in many cases its removal from the chassis, and disconnection of all attached parts. Some of the jobs to be done on automobile engines are removal of carbon from pistons, refitting of pistons, regrinding valves, replacing and scraping bearings, adjustment of fans and valve rods, setting timing gears, correcting the firing order of cylinders, repairing and replacing broken parts.
The mechanic is required to remedy clutch troubles, by adjustment or replacing of worn leather on the cone. Transmission repairs include replacement of gears, fitting keys, taking up the wear in the main bearings, or complete replacement and repair of shifting-rod connections to overcome looseness. The universal joints in driving mechanisms often require disassembling and rebushing, while the mesh of the drive pinion and bevel gear of the differential will need adjusting. Work on the differential and rear axle may involve tearing down the rear construction. Such work requires skilled mechanics, especially to determine the trouble and make the proper reassembly. The play in wheels needs careful attention and exact adjustment, although it requires no particular skill or knowledge. Trouble found in the front wheels is ordinarily due to lack of alignment, and must be remedied to relieve not only a tremendous wear on tires but to prevent uncertain and difficult steering. A sagging in the frame, often caused by a fracture, can best be repaired by welding. Brakes require attention to eliminate noisesand dragging, which causes a noticeable lack of power, and worn brake linings must be replaced.
The cooling system, made up of pump, fan, radiator, and connections, will require adjustment and repair, including replacing the rubber hose, mending broken parts of the pump, putting on new fan belts, and soldering leaks in the radiator. Cleaning the radiator and taking cold-weather precautions against freezing also are necessary tasks.
An inspector or trouble finder in a repair shop or garage service department is the foreman or mechanic, but in large shops men are employed solely for the purpose of diagnosing trouble. Such a man must be highly skilled. His work is to locate trouble and determine and report its nature and extent. Trouble is located by inspection and examination of the car standing still, by testing at the start and at various speeds, and by coasting. The trouble-finder expert makes a list of all worn and broken parts, indicates necessary repairs and adjustments, and then turns the job over to the men who are to do the work.
Usually the foreman is in charge of all repair-shop work. He should be a man of clean personal habits, should have a thorough knowledge of automatic construction, and be able to direct work and handle men with courtesy and tact, to compute jobs, estimate cost of time and materials, keep time and stock records, and route work through on repair-order forms specifying work, parts, and costs for each job. A manager or superintendent often is in charge of the business end of the work, in which case the foreman gives his time to seeing that jobs are correctly done.
Helpers are usually assigned to heavy lifting and pulling, to cleaning parts, and to general shop sweeping. They run errands, help pull down and assemble motors, transmissions, and rear axles, and do other work requiring little skill.
A variety of hand tools are used in repair work, including adjustable and fixed jaw wrenches, hammers, snips, breast and hand drills, screw drivers, hack saws, center punches, cold and cape chisels, soldering coppers, pliers, files, brushes, blow torches, vises, and other small tools. The machine equipment includes lathes, drill presses, grinders, and forges equipped with motor power and having full sets of tools for use with each. The shop must be further provided with benches, chain hoists, motor and rear-axle stands, creepers, and special tools and devices for special work. An oxy-acetylene welding and cutting outfit of the portable type is one of the greatest conveniences in any repair shop.
Most of the parts, supplies, and materials come to the shop prepared and ready for use. For some jobs, however, it may be convenient and more satisfactory to construct the necessary parts, such as shims, gaskets, and small metal pieces, from stock material. It is inadvisable, however, to make anything that can be secured already prepared.
Automobile repair-shop work is varied and interesting. Jobs frequently change, with intervals of rest.
Hard and fast rules as to availability for this work of men with certain disabilities can not be laid down. With perseverance, skill, and inventiveness some men will succeed in lines of work which might seem entirely unsuited to their disability. For example, a man who has lost his right arm near the shoulder has been for 30 years doing successfully all of the repair work and making all of the adjustments necessary on a thrashing machine, a traction engine, 12 self-binding and 12 mowing machines on a farm in England. An all-round mechanicmust usually be able to move about easily. He needs at least one good eye, and must be able to hear well for trouble testing. A man with abdominal, kidney, or alimentary canal trouble, which prohibits him from stooping, bending, or squatting, can not do the work. Gas vapors, fumes, and dust in a garage may affect men with lung diseases. It is very necessary for the worker to have reasonably good command of neck and head movements.
Many devices and prosthetic appliances are in use in all countries by men with arm amputations, and where previous experience, desire, and conditions place a man in a position requiring the use of an artificial appliance for gripping and holding tools one of strong and simple construction should be selected.
While general education will help a man in shop repair work, as in anything else, it is more essential that he shall have had some technical training acquired either in a school or in a shop. Previous experience in automobile repair or construction work will, of course, give the best foundation for re-education. A man who has worked as a helper in a garage long enough to become familiar with automobile construction and operation may through a short course of instruction easily qualify as a mechanic. Experience in other mechanical work such as machine-shop work, blacksmithing, and boiler making will be also helpful. Business experience will be a valuable asset for a repair-shop foreman or manager.
Full-time classes may be given in the shop of a high school, vocational or trade school, college or university, where the equipment is sufficient to provide for real instruction of a practical nature.
Re-education classes will be trained also in commercial garages under actual shop conditions. Part-time classes providing alternate weeks or months in the school and in the shop may be best in some cases, or the first or last part of the training period may be spent in the shop and the other part in school. For example, in an eight months’ course four months may be spent in a commercial repair shop and the remaining four months in a school shop.
Evening classes offer a splendid opportunity for the workman who is employed during the day. These, of course, will be for those men only who are able to return without re-education or for men who have finished their re-education course and desire additional instruction. Correspondence courses may be used in some instances.
Although theory and demonstration work will accompany the shop practice, each man will be required to actually do the work. To say the least, the course of instruction will be such as will enable the disabled man to qualify on the job beside his able-bodied neighbor and to command the prevailing wage after completing his course. His work will include the overhauling, repairing, and adjusting of various makes and models of automobiles and parts.
The time required to complete the course of instruction will depend to a certain extent on the man’s previous education, training, and experience, but may occupy from six to nine months. It will not be the policy of the Government to give just enough training to enable the man to secure a job under good but abnormal conditions or by sympathetic favor. Sufficient time will be given to prepare each man adequately for his work.
Skilled auto mechanics are in great demand, and since repair work is so diversified and widely distributed over the entire country, it is comparatively easy for a trained man to find permanent employment. Auto mechanics as a rule are poorly trained. The trade therefore presents excellent opportunities for the disabled man with expert training. The field is also wide open for capable foremen and inspectors in every community.
Hours of employment for the mechanic depend largely upon location and amount of work to be done. Shops in large cities have an 8 to 10 hour day, the total number of hours per week being 45 to 60. In small towns and communities shops are irregular as to hours, mechanics being required often to work 9 to 12 hours per day.
First-class mechanics in large shops are paid a prevailing wage of 60 cents per hour. Small shops pay from 30 to 60 cents. A mechanic who owns his shop may earn more or less. Foremen employed by the hour usually receive a little more than the mechanic, while in a position as shop manager he may be paid $125 to $175 per month.
Automobile repair shops doing general work are located in all parts of the country and usually in many different parts of a city. Work will therefore probably be available for the trained man near his home or at least in his home town.
An automobile mechanic may expect to secure a position as foreman or inspector, which is often more suitable for a disabled man than that of mechanic. Or he may be able to open up a garage and repair shop for himself. Because of the increased use of automobiles and the lack of first-class trained mechanics future prospects in the service are good.
Teachers for automobile work are in great demand at the present time in both day and evening vocational schools. A man with a fair general education, considerable experience in the trade, and ability to impart knowledge to others, will have a good foundation for vocational teaching.
The principal parts of an electric starting and lighting system are the electric starting motor, the electric generator, and the storage battery. The work of the expert in this division consists of the repair, adjustment, care, operation, and installation of these systems and auxiliary parts, but usually not including the storage battery which requires the individual attention of another specialist.
To keep the starting motor in good running condition the expert must be able to remedy grounds, short circuits, and commutator and brush troubles. The generator and all connecting parts must be kept clean in order to insure reliable action. There are many types and varying features in generators, motors, auxiliary devices, and wiring circuits, with which the mechanic must be familiar. Automobile manufacturers in altering the characteristics of their motors from year to year and manufacturers of electrical apparatus in introducing various improvements may entirely change their systems.
In addition to being able to locate trouble by tracing and testing systems for grounds, shorts, and breaks in wiring, it is necessary for the mechanic to install systems including all the wiring. He must be able to repair and keep inshape electric horns and gear shifts which are closely related to the starting and lighting systems. The wiring for starting, generating, and lighting systems involves the installation of all necessary wires, many of which must be run in conduit. It also includes the use of proper sized wire and their connection to the lights, starter, horn, fuse boxes, switches, generator, and battery. The repair and adjustment of the lighting system require considerable expert attention, as does also equipment of cars with lamp reflectors, measuring instruments, and other devices.
All tools used in the maintenance and service of automobile starting and lighting systems are small and light. They will include screw drivers, wrenches, hammers, files, pliers, and various drilling tools. Some machines may be required to make or fit metal parts, but as a rule they will be found in the repair shop.
The work in this occupation is highly skilled but light. In working around the car it is necessary to bend, stoop, reach, and climb, which might be detrimental to a man suffering from abdominal trouble. The work ordinarily requires two good hands, although a man with one hand with the proper training and experience would be able to make repairs and adjustments. Good eyesight is necessary in testing for trouble, but a slight deafness will not be a serious handicap for this work. A man with hernia or lung wounds and diseases would not necessarily be debarred from this occupation.
Practical experience and a technical knowledge of electricity will be very helpful in electric starting and lighting work. Some of the best men in the field have had considerable electrical experience in some other field, many of them having been with telephone companies. A man who thoroughly understands electricity will soon adapt himself to this new field of work. A general education is always an aid, and particularly so here where it will be necessary to do considerable reading to keep pace with new improvements and developments in these appliances.
The re-education classes for training starting and lighting specialists will be given in about the same type of schools as for repair-shop men. It may also be advisable to train men in service or manufacturing shops.
The content of the course will cover the field of both theory and practice in studying and working on motors, generators, and lighting systems. That a man is fully qualified to go into a permanent position will necessarily be shown by his ability to do the work. The time required to finish the course will depend upon his previous experience and training, but it will probably be from four to six months.
The demand for skilled specialists is increasing in all parts of the country. This is true of any specialist in automobile maintenance and service. Permanent positions will be available in all large establishments and men employed in the smaller shops will be prepared to handle other automobile work. The hours of employment will vary from 9 hours in large city shops to 10 or 12 hours in a shop owned by the mechanic. The prevailing wage for this work will be about 60 cents per hour.
Employment will no doubt be very stable both for the present and the future. There is a lack of skilled specialists now, and with the increased use of trucks and automobiles the demand will grow. The work can be done in a good, light, dry shop, which will not be detrimental to health. Because of the character of the work safety appliances are not necessary, and danger from accidents of any kind is very small. The same opportunity is open to these men for advancement and success as to the repair-shop mechanic. They can become foremen, managers, or owners of service and maintenance shops.
The ignition system is usually made up of certain electrical devices which probably give more trouble to the auto man and require more expert attention than all the other parts on the automobile. To be able to diagnose a case and submit a remedy for ignition troubles, it is necessary to be thoroughly familiar with the principles of ignition and to understand how these ignition systems are operated and maintained. Ignition primarily means igniting the gas in the cylinders of an engine by means of an electric spark as the gas mixture is compressed. An ignition expert should first of all have a practical knowledge of electricity, know the meaning of electrical terms and the method of generation and transmission of electric current. Of the two systems of ignition, high and low tension, the high-tension system is now in use in nearly all makes of motor cars. The low-tension system was formerly used to a great extent on boat engines, and is used now to some extent on stationary engines.
The ignition mechanic deals with the testing, adjustment, and maintenance of current supply, vibrators, coils, commutators and timers, contact breakers, spark plugs, condensers, distributors, magnetos, and connectors. He must be thoroughly familiar with wiring systems and their connections. Spark plugs will have to be cleaned, adjusted and repaired, as will the vibrators when they are used. Ignition timing to insure ignition at the right time requires special attention. The care, installation, and maintenance of magnetos, which brings in the proper firing order of the engine, care of the distributor, and attention to connections, is one part of the ignition expert’s task. The field of ignition trouble may be covered under three heads: (1) Failure of current supply, (2) short circuits or grounds, (3) failure of ignition devices. To keep the ignition system in good working order it is necessary to locate trouble and make repairs as indicated.
Because of the many small and complex parts ignition systems require delicate attention. This involves the use of small hand tools only, such as will be used by the electric starting and lighting experts. Although it will be necessary to make certain repairs to broken and worn parts, it is customary to replace with new parts.
The work of the ignition expert is very much like the work of the electric starting and lighting expert. Bench repairs to magnetos and other devices can be made by a man whose disability requires him to sit. The work is not strenuous and consequently could be done by men with lung disease, hernia, and abdominal troubles, except where it is necessary to stoop or bend over the job, as would be necessary in testing for trouble and making connections in the installed system.
Because of the delicate work, a mechanic’s eyesight must be good, but poor hearing would not debar a man from this occupation. It is quite necessary for the workman to have good use of his hands and fingers.
The same training and experience helpful to the electric starting and lighting expert would aid the man in training for ignition work. A man who has been employed previous to army service in any electric work, such as telephone and telegraph installation and maintenance, or the making of electric motors and devices, would have acquired electrical experience which would be of great help to him in this work.
The classes for ignition mechanics will be carried on in both schools and shops. The time will probably be divided between theory and shop practice. The proper equipment and practical jobs will be available for teaching the man to do the work.
The course will be from four to six months in length for about seven hours per day for five days in the week. Instruction will include all problems requiring attention of the commercial ignition shop.
The demand for the ignition expert is equally as great as for any other automobile specialist. His services are required in garages and service stations, as well as in assembly plants, and in the driving and operation of motor cars and trucks. The hours of employment are the same as in other auto repair shops, usually eight hours per day for union shops, and longer in small unorganized shops and where the mechanic owns his business.
The prevailing wage is 60 cents per hour, although this may vary from 30 cents to 75 cents per hour, depending upon labor conditions and methods of employment. It is probable that ignition experts will be employed only in the larger places, but it is necessary to have expert ignition service in any shop. This is in small shops usually taken care of by the repair-shop mechanic who has a general knowledge of the automobile maintenance and service. Employment for the trained man will be stable. Ordinarily only the better class of mechanics, those with special training are retained during the winter season, when the overhauling of cars is done. The rush season from spring to fall gives employment to a number of “roustabouts” or helpers, but these “floaters” require no special training.
Promotion and success will depend largely upon the ability of the mechanic, but it is possible for him to advance to positions of responsibility, carrying increase of wages. The field is large and skilled mechanics are scarce, thus making it possible for the trained man to find suitable employment and to make changes for promotion.
The sources of electricity for ignition, starting, lighting, warmers, horn, shifting gears, and application of brakes in some instances are the generators and battery. They must furnish the power. The generator produces electricity only while the engine is running, and the demands on it are comparatively light and simple. The battery must furnish power to crank the engine, to light thecar, operate the horn and other electrical devices when the generator is not in motion. It is without doubt one of the most essential and necessary parts of the automobile. To be a thorough master of battery problems a knowledge of both electricity and chemistry is necessary.
A general knowledge of batteries includes the method of construction and the materials used in the manufacture of batteries. Chemistry deals with the actions producing electricity and aids in determining the reasons and remedy for trouble. The expert must know what happens in a battery standing idle, just what takes place in the charging and discharging, and what determines the capacity of batteries. A knowledge of battery diseases will help a man very materially in the proper diagnosis of battery trouble.
The shop work of the battery man includes caring for, charging, lead burning, and rebuilding batteries. Caring for batteries includes keeping the plates covered with distilled water, brushing dirt and dust from the top, keeping cables and connections tight, cleaning battery terminals and connections and carefully inspecting and testing it frequently. Charging consists, figuratively, in feeding it electricity, which when digested gives it energy. It is necessary for the battery man to be thoroughly familiar with the charging apparatus and able to operate it successfully. Lead burning is a process of melting together the plates and straps or posts and top connectors and terminals with a special lead-burning outfit. In rebuilding a battery, it is first charged, then opened and torn down, after which the plates are repaired or replaced, assembled with the proper separators, replaced in the jars, and then carried through the charging process. The covers are next put on and sealed.
The room for battery work should have a floor such as tile or brick, not easily affected by acid. The equipment ordinarily includes work benches, vises, a lead burning outfit, water supply, charging benches and equipment, shelves, and stoves. Proper tools, including brushes, scrapers, pliers, nippers, files, hydrometers, putty knife, wrenches, brace and bit, stock drills, center punches, hack saws, kettles, ladles, jars, screw drivers, materials and other hand tools are provided. The work is practically all hand work and consequently requires hand tools.
Battery work requires the use of two hands. The loss of three fingers from one hand would not seriously impair efficiency if some grip with the remaining finger and thumb is retained. In the use of pliers, screw drivers, brace and bits, and other tools it is necessary to hold them firmly. Hearing is not particularly essential, but good eyesight is necessary. Stooping, bending, and lifting the weight of a battery would not affect men with slight hernia and abdominal trouble. A man with artificial legs should be able to do the work if he can get around without great difficulty.
Danger from lead poisoning and acid burns and fumes is prevalent in battery work, but occurs only through carelessness. A man with any skin or lung diseases or wounds probably should not undertake this work. Gloves are worn in handling lead, but they will not protect against skin wounds. The eyes may be injured by lead and acid, but by wearing goggles this can be avoided. A man with any open wounds should not enter battery service work.
No special appliances can be arranged satisfactorily to handle the tools and equipment, although stools can be provided for the man who is required to sit.
A knowledge of chemistry and work in a chemical laboratory will help a man to become a battery expert. Experience in battery construction and in the care of starting and lighting batteries will also be an excellent start, as would experience as a helper in a battery-service station.
To a large extent the instruction in battery work will be carried on in a service station where equipment is available. A school shop properly equipped will also be made use of.
The course will contain the elements and fundamentals of battery maintenance and service. The length of the course will be from 4 to 6 months.
Permanent positions as battery experts will be open in battery-service stations. The knowledge will also be necessary for the man who proposes to set up a shop of his own. It is a general condition that battery work be done in an independent and separate shop rather than in a general repair shop. The hours of employment will not vary from those already given for other types of maintenance and service work, and the wage will also be about the same.
In cities and towns of 5,000 or over there will be found work enough for one or more battery stations employing two or more men. Employment will invariably be stable for the highly skilled battery expert. Opportunity for promotion and success will depend upon the man, but there is great demand for expert service, and there is a good field in many places for the establishment of service stations. Future prospects are exceedingly good due to the large increase in the use of storage batteries. It is also true that the average automobile driver and owner is waking up to the fact that the battery must have special care and repair to keep it in good working shape.
The repair of automobile tires, including casings and tubes, is almost invariably assigned to a specialist, although many of the minor repairs, such as patching tubes, are done by owners or amateur repairers. Tires are probably the most delicate and the most misunderstood part of the car, as well as being the part receiving the hardest use. To secure the greatest mileage and the least trouble from tires they must receive proper treatment and have the attention of a specialist when trouble develops.
The tire repairman should have a knowledge of tire construction and be well versed in tire troubles and their causes in order to make proper diagnoses of the cases. This knowledge is necessary also in making adjustments on tire mileage, which is, in connection with the tire sales agency, a business very often established as an adjunct to the repair business.
The shop work of the repair man deals with casing troubles from punctures, blow-outs, rim cuts, blisters, stone bruises, and with the preparation of the tire for repairing, relining, retreading, and vulcanizing. Tubes have to be patched, spliced, and vulcanized. Valves in the tube stem will often cause trouble by leaking, but can be remedied by replacing with new valves. Sand blisters can be cured by opening the blister with a sharp knife, cleaning out the dirt and filling the hole with a self-curing rubber filler. A blow-out caused by a weak place inthe casing usually due to a sand blister or stone bruise can be remedied by the inside method or a combination inside and outside method. Both methods consist in removing layers of fabric and applying fabric patches. When the outside has been properly built up with fabric and the chafing strips applied the cushion gum unit can be applied and the whole casing then placed in a sectional mold, where heat applied to both the inside and out will cure the job. Rim cuts are repaired in a similar way. Retreading is done by first cleaning down to the carcase and applying coats of vulcanizing cement upon which the tread can be built up and vulcanized. Reliners are vulcanized to the inside of a casing to take care of inside fabric breaks.
The work on the inner tube consists in patching to cover small holes, cuts, pinched tubes, and minor injuries.
Vulcanizing, which should be done on large patches, is also the best remedy for any repair. It is done by first cleaning the hole, preparing the patch, and placing and vulcanizing. Inserting new sections or splicing tubes is done by removing the damaged section, inserting a new one, and vulcanizing, one splice being made at a time.
The equipment of a tire repair shop contains vulcanizers of many sizes which apply the heat through the use of gasoline, steam, or electricity. Vulcanizing moulds which are made to fit the tire are necessary for applying casing patches. Vulcanizing kettles, sidewall and retreading vulcanizers, benches, vises and holding forms are also to be found. The small tools required include flat and concave rollers, awls, stickers, rubber knives, large shears, wire brushes, tread gauges, fabric knives, pliers, scrapers, tread chisels and cement brushes. Splicing mandrels, try squares, tweezers, rules, spreaders and other devices and tools may be found in the equipment.
The work in a repair shop is not very strenuous, although it requires careful attention and speed. It is necessary that the man have the use of both hands and be able to see his work clearly. Deafness will not interfere to any great extent with his success. Lifting, stooping, or bending, while necessary to a small degree, is not common. The weight of a tire is the heaviest weight to handle around the shop.
There is little danger from poisoning or injury to skin, except as infection may be brought in with dirt on the tires. A man with leg disabilities will certainly not be debarred from this occupation if he can get around without great difficulty. It is possible to do some of the work while seated. A man having lost the use of certain neck movements would be able to handle tire repair work.
A general education will be of much help in handling the business end of the shop, while technical knowledge of automobile tires will be a good basis for repairing. Experience in a tire manufacturing plant or rubber industry, and in a repair shop as a helper will be very valuable to a man entering this field.
Classes for tire repairmen will be carried on in schools where equipment is available, but probably to a large extent in the commercial repair shop where actual working conditions exist. Both full-time and part-time schemes may be used.
The course will include practical work on all kinds of repair jobs. Tires will be studied to help a man to determine the cause and remedy of tire troubleand to make adjustments. The time necessary to qualify as an expert tire repairman will be from 4 to 6 months.
Employment in tire repair shops for a skilled man will be easily found. The field is large and shops are required in nearly every village, town and city. With the increased use of cars the year round will come increased demand for tire repair service and hence year round employment for the tire specialist. The daily hours of work will be from 8 to 10 depending upon local conditions.
The wage of the skilled workman will be about 60 cents per hour, but a man owning his business can make it more profitable. Opportunity for promotion will come through increase of the man’s own business, or through advancement to the position of foreman or manager in a large shop.
Chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers are employed to drive cars and keep them in good running condition. It is very essential that anyone operating a car shall know its construction and the function that each part performs. He should know how to care for the machine and how to make minor adjustments. Lubrication of all parts properly at regular intervals is an important task of the driver. The location of trouble and the detection of its cause and remedy is even more important than driving upon the highway.
The operation of the car includes starting and stopping the engine, starting and stopping the car, and driving. One of the first things to know is how to stop the car. The use of the emergency and service brakes, as well as braking with the engine, requires considerable skill and experience. Cranking and starting apparatus must be understood if it is to be used with ease and without injury. Skill in shifting gears and in controlling the car is attained by experience.
A good driver must have a knowledge of road regulations and precautions, and must also be familiar with city ordinances in regard to the driving and parking of automobiles. He must be cautious, able to see danger, and to avoid it.
An automobile should always be equipped with a complete set of tools for making repairs and adjustments. A tire repair outfit is a valuable addition to the driver’s equipment. The tools and equipment are of the portable type, easy to manipulate, and convenient to carry around.
A chauffeur or truck driver should have good eyesight and be able to hear distinctly. It is necessary to locate trouble and remedy it by seeing or hearing. Danger is averted by carefully watching the road and things likely to interfere with travel, and also by listening for approaching trains and cars.
A man in this employment should have two hands, although he might have lost some of his fingers. It is also well for him to have the free use of his arms and legs. A man with leg amputation below the knee would be able to operate the brakes, clutch, and accelerator without difficulty. Lung diseases and wounds, hernia, and abdominal trouble would not debar a man from work of this kind. It is necessary that he be able to have the full use of his neck and head. A man suffering from shell shock, who is subject to nervousness, loss of memory, or inability to control his actions should not be employed as a chauffeur.
A man so disabled that he must have special devices or appliances to operate an automobile should not enter the occupation. Artificial legs which can be properly controlled would not, however, debar him.
A man who has had experience in operating or repairing automobiles, motor boats, motorcycles, or gas engines will have some knowledge necessary for chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers. A man with ability along mechanical lines and training, also, enabling him to learn the principles of motor-car operation and care readily will have a good foundation for this occupation.
Classes for motor-car care and operation will be conducted very largely in schools having the necessary space and facilities for work. Instruction will include class-room instruction and study, shop-repair work, and driving. Operation instruction will be conducted on the road.
The course will be arranged to prepare a man adequately for successful motor-car care and operation. He will have an opportunity to come in contact with all problems usually confronted by the automobile and truck driver. It will require from two to four months to complete the course, depending upon the man’s previous experience and ability.
Good automobile and truck drivers are in demand. It has been predicted that many of the truck drivers now in Government service will take positions of that type after the war. This condition would probably cause an excess of men for this work, and it is well to say that the men who have the best training and qualifications will ordinarily secure the positions.
The hours of employment will depend upon the man’s position but usually the time is 8 to 12 hours per day. Drivers of pleasure cars are employed for a greater number of hours usually, but much of the time while on duty they are idle. Men in these jobs are paid at the rate of $10 to $35 per week.
Work as driver of light or heavy trucks and pleasure cars is available in nearly all towns and cities. Employment is stable, except for the fact that the cars may be out of use during the season of snow. The work is healthful, inasmuch as the men are out in the air most of the time. Severe weather may cause inconvenience and hardship to some people. There is very little opportunity for promotion, except that gained through changing jobs.
This monograph was prepared by A. J. R. Curtis, of the Portland Cement Association, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.
Development in the field of concrete construction during the past two decades has been little short of marvelous. This increase may be accredited to the wide variety of uses to which concrete may be put and to the demand on the part of the American public for construction that is permanent, reasonable in cost, and fireproof. The concrete industry has brought in to the field of labor a new type ofskilled workmen and its varied phases each call for men with distinct, definite training. Indications point to a greatly increased demand for men in this line of industrial activity. If the increase in the production of Portland cement during the last few years is reviewed one can easily see the constantly increasing importance with which concrete construction is being regarded. The shipments of cement leaped from 8,000,000 barrels in 1900 to 92,000,000 in 1917. A vivid imagination will not be needed to picture a still greater and wider field for its use in the future.
With the cessation of hostilities new construction work of many kinds is being planned in every section of the country. Millions of dollars will be spent for new buildings, highways, bridges, and various other types of public and private improvements. There will be a demand for trained workmen which will probably tax every effort to supply. A large percentage of the occupations in this line of work can be filled efficiently by men who have suffered some disability in the service of their country. The handicap in the loss of a leg or an arm on the battlefields of France can be overcome with the aid of a “Made in America” leg or arm, fitting the wearer to fill efficiently many occupations in the concrete industry.
A careful study has been made of the limitations imposed by various injuries. There are many cases on record where injured men have overcome all handicaps and have made good in positions which from the survey of the re-educationist appeared quite impossible. Many instances have come to light which show that the statement, “A handicap is merely a state of mind,” holds true for a great variety of cases.
The wage question is no doubt one of the first which arises in your mind. It is natural that one should ask, “What wages or salary does this job pay?” and, “What are the chances for advancement?” In a review of the wages of men engaged in concrete construction as compared with the men engaged in other lines of construction work this fact was noted, that although in 1913 the average wage for the concrete worker was somewhat lower, during the year 1916 wages for concrete workers advanced 60 per cent while for workers in the other line the advance was only 20 per cent. For the man with training in this work the salary will average near $150 per month. As regards opportunities for advancement, few other lines of activity seem to hold forth comparable opportunities, when it is considered that a large proportion of competent workers eventually become partners or managing owners in contracting concerns, while the demand for construction superintendents is usually greater than the supply.
For convenience, concrete-work employments may be classified in three distinct groups, namely: (1) Structural group, including the building of reinforced concrete structures, ships, bridges, dams, retaining walls, and a multitude of small structures; (2) roads and highway group, including the construction of concrete roads and highways, pavements, and alleys; (3) products plant group, including the making of blocks, brick, tile, sewer and pressure pipe, and ornamental trim work.
In large structural work the man in charge is usually a civil engineer or an architect, who has specialized during his course of training in structural or reinforced concrete engineering. He is the designer or the creator of the proposed structure. Before any work is done he must picture in his mind the finished product in every detail of its construction; he must be able to design and lay out the plans for the work in its entirety; he must be familiar with the cost of labor and materials, in order that he may know when the contractor is placing a fair price upon the construction. He must know the building laws and codesin any part of the country in which he may be working. He should have business training and experience, as practically all his associations will be with business men, and he must be able to talk intelligently and in business terms to them.
A large percentage of his time will be spent in the office or designing room.
His training is received in one of two ways, namely: By full-time course of training in the civil engineering department of a university or college, or by part-time study in a technical school. Many schools of this last-named type are now giving evening work, which enables young men to attain the degree of a civil engineer or architectural engineer while working. Thus, a man who is working during the day, may increase his efficiency and attain the same end as his brother, who has been more fortunate in that he has received a full four years’ training.
To reach the position of engineer architect, the training described above is an absolute necessity. As a usual thing a civil engineer who has just completed his course starts work in the capacity of draftsman, foreman, inspector, or assistant superintendent, and as he gains in experience is given more responsible positions. His wages range from approximately $100 at the start to $400 or $500 per month as he gains in efficiency and experience.
Often, after gaining experience an engineer will establish a clientage, and gradually work up a business of his own. This is a goal toward which to strive, as it means greater independence and a larger income. His services are in demand in every part of the country the year round.
After designing a structure the engineer lets the job of constructing to a contracting firm. He places as his representative on the job an inspector whose duty it is to see that the engineer’s plans and specifications are properly carried out. The duties of an inspector are not difficult, but it takes a man with diplomacy and consideration, yet one who is sufficiently firm to safeguard his employer’s interests and make sure that every part of the work is performed in a thoroughly acceptable manner. It goes without saying that he must be acquainted with every feature of the construction work as planned by the engineer.
His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or architect. However, it is possible for a man who can not complete his entire training at one time to accept a position as inspector, and gain some very valuable experience in this way. There are also men who work up from the ranks to this position. The demand for his services is greatest in connection with large industrial and public projects and in the general construction work in cities. His wages range from $100 to $200 per month.
The contractor or firm of contractors are equipped to handle the construction work. At such a time as the engineer or architect has his plans completed he advertises among the contractors for bids on the construction according to his plans. As a rule the responsible firm making the lowest bid gets the job.
The first thing the contractor does after accepting the job is to select a superintendent of construction. Superintendents are usually engineers who have grown up in the service of the firm. The successful superintendent must have resourcefulness, technical knowledge, tact, energy, honesty, and judgment. He must have a personality which drives to activity several hundred originally unorganizedmen who are without special interest in the company they work for or in the results accomplished, and with tact and judgment he must weld them into a unified working organization, cheerful and self-respecting, with a high morale and finally with enthusiasm for the work at hand. He must be able to build in full size, with permanent materials, a structure the design of which troubled the engineer or architect to show clearly on paper; he must be honest, since his company must leave their reputation in his hands and trust him with funds; he must, through attention and experience, be so trained that dangerous operations are carried on as a matter of routine without worry either to himself or his company; he must have ability to foresee and provide for the problems which are perhaps to come up months later; he should have his temper continually under control, even under the most provoking circumstances; he should have as much pride in the structure he is erecting as the engineer who designed it; he must be able to handle labor and cope with the various labor problems that may arise.
His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or inspector, but he has been fitted by experience for the position of superintendent. He may have served in various capacities with the same contracting firm or with other firms. In some cases men with extraordinary ability have worked up from the ranks by hard work and home study or night-school training. The salary of the superintendent varies in different localities and upon different jobs. It usually ranges from $150 per month upward.
On the larger jobs the superintendent has an assistant. His duties are dependent largely upon the man under whose direction he may be working. From a study of the duties and qualifications of the superintendent an idea may be gained of the nature of the assistant’s work. The educational requirements are the same as those for the superintendent, but his responsibility is less and therefore as great and varied experience is not required. The opportunity for his services depends upon the number of large jobs under construction. His salary usually ranges from $100 to $200 per month.
On all large jobs a timekeeper has a position of responsibility. His duties are clerical in nature; in fact he might be called the superintendent’s clerical assistant. As his name implies he is keeper of the time of the men, and each day checks up the men on the job in order that no mistakes may be made in figuring their time. He handles a large amount of clerical work in connection with the pay roll, and may also be called upon to do other work in connection with construction. He must be a man who is absolutely honest and trustworthy. He has a wonderful opportunity for observation and study of construction operations, and can by application and study advance to a position of greater responsibility and trust. His wage varies somewhat, and is dependent on the amount of responsibility placed upon him and of work required of him. Experience is of secondary importance.
On a large job there will be several foremen, usually a general foreman, a concrete foreman, foreman of reinforcing placing, and a carpenter-foreman.
First and most important a foreman must be able tohandle men. His duties are more than just to hire and fire. He must be acquainted with the problems of hismen and spend some time studying their viewpoint of all questions in which they may be interested. As he is ofttimes a man who has advanced from the ranks by hard work, study, and superior ability, he will be acquainted with the men’s side of the various labor questions. However, he must be fair minded and not see the viewpoint of the men alone, but must regard that also of his employer. He must be able to weigh carefully any situation, and to make a fair and just decision.
He must be able to read designs and put them into operation. He may not be called upon to perform actual mechanical operations, but he must be able to tell and to show his men how the work is done. He is, in fact, the superintendent’s right-hand man on the particular portion of the work which has been assigned to him. All of his time will be spent out in the open upon the job. Wherever there are concreting operations in progress, there you will find him.
The general foreman has active charge of all operations. The other foremen, as a rule, come directly under his jurisdiction.
The concrete foreman has charge of all concreting operations; the reinforcing foreman has charge of the placing all reinforcing; and the carpenter foreman has charge of the building of the forms and erecting of all staging and hoist towers necessary for carrying on the concreting operations.